The document discusses the history and evolution of DNA sequencing technologies from the first generation, characterized by Sanger's chain termination method, to second generation techniques like pyrosequencing, and finally third generation methods including single molecule and nanopore sequencing. Key milestones include the development of various sequencing methods and their impacts on biological research, highlighted by advances such as capillary electrophoresis and the Illumina platform. The paper concludes by noting the profound implications of DNA sequencing on understanding and differentiating living organisms.

1. THE SEQUENCE OF
SEQUENCERS:
THE HISTORY OF
SEQUENCING DNA
James M. Heather ,
Benjamin Chain
(Genomics)

2. Introduction-
• “Knowledge of sequences could contribute much to our
understanding of living matter” – Frederick Sanger
• This paper deals with how researchers throughout the years have
addressed the problem of how to sequence DNA and characteristics
that define each generation of methodologies for doing so.

3. First –generation DNA sequencing
• Watson and Crick solved 3D structure of DNA in 1953.
• It contributed to a conceptual framework for DNA replication and
encoding proteins in nucleic acids
• Ability to read or sequence DNA was difficult as unlike proteins DNA
molecules were longer and made of fewer units similar to one another
• Initially pure RNA which were shorter and single stranded were used for
sequencing . RNAse enzyme was already known and available by that
time.

4. • In 1965 Robert Holley’s lab was first to sequence whole nucleic acid sequence
of alanine tRNA from S. cerevisiae .
• Fred Sanger parallelly developed related techniques based on detection of
radiolabeled partial digestion fragments after 2D fractionation.
• Walter Fiers’ lab produced first protein coding gene sequence of the coat
protein of bacteriophage MS2 in 1972.
• Making use of observation that Enterobacteria phage lambda possessed 5’
overhanging ‘cohesive’ ends Ray Wu and Dale Kaiser used DNA polymerase to
fill ends with radioactive nucleotides each type one at a time and measuring
incorporation to deduce sequence.

5. • Later primer was used to incorporate radioactive nucleotides to infer the
order of nucleotides anywhere not just the end termini of phage.
• Next big change came when polyacrylamide gels replaced 2D
fractionation(electrophoresis and chromatography) which gave better
resolving power
• In mid 1970s Alan Coulson and Sanger came up with ‘plus and minus’
system-
This had a ‘plus’ reaction where single type radiolabeled nucleotide
present thus all extensions will end with that base.
‘minus’ reaction in which three are used which produced sequence upto
position before next missing nucleotide.
Running the products in polyacrylamide gel and comparing 8 lanes
One gets the position of nucleotides.(exception homopolymer)

6. • Sanger and colleagues sequenced 1st DNA genome of bacteriophage X174.
• Maxam Gilbert had significantly different approach- using chemicals to
break chains at specific bases.
• This technique was widely adopted and might be considered real birth of
“first generation” DNA sequencing.
• But the major breakthrough came in 1977 with Sangers chain termination
or dideoxy technique.

7. • ddNTPs lack 3’ OH group therefore cannot form bond with 5’ phosphate of
next dNTP.
• Radiolabelled ddNTPs randomly incorporated as strand extends halting
further progression.
• 4 parallel reaction with 4 different ddNTPs and running on 4 lanes of
polyacrylamide gel using autoradiograpy one could infer sequence in
original template.
• Accuracy , robustness and ease of use led to Sanger sequencing to become
the most common technology in DNA sequencing for years to come.

8. • In following years radiolabeling was replaced by fluorometric detection.
• This allowed reaction to occur in one vessel instead of four and improved
detection through capillary based electrophoresis.
• This techniques led to first generation DNA sequencing machines produce
reads less than 1kb.

9. • Development of PCR and RDT helped to generate high pure DNA required for
sequencing.
• Klenow fragment DNA polymerase lacking 5’ to 3’ exonuclease activity was
used to incorporate ddNTPs originally but better polymerase were genetically
modified
• ABI PRISM dideoxy sequencer developed by Leroy Hood (Applied Biosystems)
allowed simultaneous sequencing of hundreds of samples came to be used in
Human Genome Project.

11. Second-generation DNA sequencing
• This method markedly differ from dideoxy method as it did not infer
nucleotide identity using radio/fluorescently labelled dNTPs.
• Here scientists used luminescent method for measuring pyrophosphate
synthesis which is two enzyme process- ATP sulfurylase is used
pyrophosphate to ATP which is then used as substrate for luciferase,
producing light proportional to amount of pyrophosphate.
• Both Sanger and pyrosequencing method are sequence by synthesis
(SBS) techniques as both uses DNA polymerase.

12. • Pyrosequencing could be performed using natural dNTPs without
modification and observed in real time (no use of electrophoresis)
• Pyrosequencing was later licensed to 454 Life Sciences (purchased by
Roche) which provided mass parallelization of sequencing greatly
increasing the amount of DNA that can be sequenced in one run.
• Number of parallel sequencing techniques sprung up following success
of 454, most important being Solexa method of sequencing (acquired by
Illumina)
• Video demonstration

13. • SOLiD system from Applied Biosystems – did not use polymerase thus
sequenced not by synthesis method
• Though the above technology was cheaper in cost per base basis it was
not able to produce read length and depth of Illumina machine.
• Ion Torrent (Life Technologies product) a post light sequencing
technology as it uses neither fluorescence nor luminescence the
nucleotide incorporation is measured not by pyrophosphate release but
by pH difference caused by release of protons during polymerisation
using metal oxide semiconductor technology.

14. • Capabilities of DNA sequencers have grown at a rate even faster than
computing revolution described by Moore’s law; the complexity of
microchips doubles approximately every two years while sequencing
capabilities between 2004 and 2010 doubled every five months.
• Illumina sequencing platform has been the most successful to the point
near monopoly and thus can be considered to have made the greatest
contribution to second generation DNA sequencers.

16. Third-generation DNA sequencing
• We consider third generation technologies to be those capable of
sequencing single molecules, negating the requirement for DNA
amplification shared by all previous technologies.
• Single molecule technology(SMS) developed by Stephen
Quake(Helicoes BioSciences)
• Which later developed as single molecule real time (SMRT) platform
from Pacific Biosciences

17. • Perhaps the most anticipated area of third generation DNA sequencing is
the promise of nanopore sequencing.
• Oxford Nanopore Technologies was the first company offering nanopore
sequencer.
• Video demonstration
• Ebola virus in Guinea was sequenced in two days after sample collection
by Joshua Quick and Nicholas Loman using nanopore sequencers.

19. Conclusion-
• DNA sequencing has been compared to new microscope opening
avenues to biological research at the most fundamental level it is how
we measure one of the major properties by which terrestrial life
forms can be defined and differentiated from each other.
• Researchers moved from lab to computer from pouring over gels to
running code.
• Understanding of this history can provide appreciation of current
methodologies and provide insights for future ones.

20. THANK YOU…….