This document summarizes a three-year study on the response of four chickpea cultivars (Bulgarit, WIR-32, Jordan, ICC 11293) to irrigation with treated wastewater versus freshwater. The results showed that the Bulgarit and ICC 11293 cultivars maintained yield when irrigated with treated wastewater, and even saw some biological growth improvements. However, the WIR-32 and Jordan cultivars showed significant yield reductions when irrigated with treated wastewater compared to freshwater. Soil analysis found no significant difference between the two irrigation water types.
Determination of the Optimum Sulphur Fertilizer Rate for Groundnut Production...AI Publications
Laboratory studies and pot Experiments were carried out to determine the optimum sulphur (S)fertilizer rate for groundnut production in selected soils of Benue state using sorption indices. Surface soil samples (0-20 cm) were collected for sorption studies and pot experiments. The sorption study was carried out by shaking known concentrations of S (0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 and 120 mgkg-1) with 5g soil sample. The suspension was filtered and the amount of S in solution determined. The amount of sulphatesorbed was estimated as the difference between equilibrium sulphate concentration and initial sulphate added. Data from the sorption study was fitted into the Langmuir and Freundlich sorption equations. Thereafter a pot experiment was carried out with six levels of solution sulphate concentration to determine the optimum S concentration for yield of groundnut and the amount of sulphur fertilizer required to achieve this concentration in the soil under study. Result show that both soils have the capacity to sorb sulphur. The sorption maxima, buffering capacity and binding energy of the soils under study are 70.66 mgkg-1, 15.81mg kg-1, 0.22 dm3 mg-1 and 117.84 mgkg1, 9.83 mg kg-1,0.08 dm3 kg-1 for Aliade and Daudu soils respectively.The highest yield in Aliade soil was obtained with 6 mg kg-1 S while 12 mg kg-1 S gave the highest yield in Daudu soil. Aliadeand Daudu soils would require 57.41 and 23.69 kg ha-1S respectively to maintain 12 mg/kg and 9mg/kg of S in the soil solution. Hence for groundnut production in Aliade soil, 57.41 kg S ha-1 is recommended while for the Daudu soil, 23.69 kg S ha-1 is recommended.
Sustainable rice production in african inland valleysPatrickTanz
This document summarizes a research paper about sustainable rice production in African inland valleys. It discusses how inland valleys have high agricultural potential due to relatively reliable water availability and soil fertility. The paper estimates that improved water and weed management on less than 10% of inland valley areas could meet current rice demand in Africa, allowing most areas to retain other ecosystem functions. It proposes a participatory, holistic, and localized approach to develop inland valleys for food security and poverty alleviation while safeguarding other ecosystem services. This includes selecting suitable valleys, participatory land use planning, development, and identifying local constraints to adopt appropriate practices and technologies through integrated management.
Integrated Effect of Mulching Materials and Furrow Irrigation Methods on Yiel...Premier Publishers
A field experiment was conducted at Werer, Middle Awash Valley during the dry season of the 2016-17, 2017-18 and 2018-19 to investigate the effects of mulching materials and furrow irrigation methods on onion yield and water productivity under semi-arid conditions. Split plot design with three replications, in which the irrigation methods (Conventional, Fixed and Alternate Furrow) were assigned to the main plot and the three mulching materials (no mulch, wheat straw and white plastic mulch), were to the sub-plot. Results indicate that marketable onion bulb yield and water use efficiency were affected by the main effect of furrow irrigation methods and mulching materials (p< 0.05). But the interaction of irrigation methods and mulch had no significant effect on marketable onion bulb yield and water use efficiency. The conventional furrow irrigation (10081.52kg ha-1) and wheat straw mulch (12121.63 kg ha-1) resulted in the maximum marketable bulb yield. The highest water use efficiency (3.27 kg/m3) was obtained from alternate furrow irrigation method with straw mulch. This suggests that under limited irrigation water, alternate furrow irrigation along with wheat straw mulch minimize evaporation loss; maximize water productivity and sustain onion production at Amibara and similar agro-ecology and soil type.
Lowland rice water stress management in GhanaPatrickTanz
This study investigated the effects of different water saving management methods on the growth, yield, and water productivity of lowland rice. The treatments included continuous flooding (control), flooding until 10 or 20 days after heading, and alternate wetting and drying until booting followed by flooding until 10 or 20 days after heading. Results showed that withholding water 20 days after heading (treatment 5) saved 24.3% and 25.2% of water in 2016 and 2017, respectively, while producing similar grain yields as the continuously flooded control. Treatment 5 was the most water efficient method with no reduction in yield.
Effect of regulated deficit irrigation on growth and yield of sorghumAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the effects of regulated deficit irrigation on the growth and yield of sorghum. The study consisted of different irrigation regimes (100%, 75%, 50%, 25% of full irrigation) applied to two soil types and measured various growth parameters. The results showed that irrigation regimes of 100% and 75% performed better in terms of growth, water use efficiency, and economic returns compared to 50% and 25% deficit irrigation. Additionally, there were some interaction effects observed between deficit irrigation and soil type. Overall, the study recommends the use of 75% regulated deficit irrigation for optimizing sorghum growth in this agricultural zone.
This document summarizes a study that determined the water requirements, crop coefficients, and effects of deficit irrigation on hot pepper growth. The study found that:
1) Hot pepper requires about 587mm of water over the growing season under full irrigation.
2) The crop coefficients at different growth stages under full irrigation were 0.47, 0.86, 1.42, and 0.91.
3) Deficit irrigation of up to 20% (80% water requirement) had no significant effects on pepper growth, development, or fruiting.
Assessment of the Relative Suitability of Three Different Soils for Dry Seaso...IJEAB
The research was conducted at the project site of the University of Educatoion, Winneba - Mampong campus between mid - November 2007 and Mid-April 2008. The main objective of the study was to compare the relative suitability of three soils in supporting lettuce production in the dry season. The treatments were Calcic Vertisol (Akuse scries), Rodic Nitisol (Ejura sesries) and Chromic Luvisol (Bediest series). The randomized complete block design was used in a pot experience with the three treatments and each replicated three times. Plant height, fresh leaf mass, leaf dry matter yield, fresh root mass, gravimetric moisture content, total porosity, drainability and bulk density were the parameters considered. From the result Bediesi Series recorded the highest growth rate as measured by plant height (266.5mm), fresh leaf weight (30.6g), leaf dry matter weight (4.9g) at 7 weeks after transplanting as well as been the most succulent with 84% succulent. Fresh root weight however, was highest with Akuse Series followed by Bediesi Series and Ejura Series in that decreasing order. Ejura Series recorded the least value for all growth and yield parameters measured. For soil parameters, Akuse Series recorded the highest value for porosity (43.0%) and gravimetric moisture of 6.43 throughout the period of field drying for 8weeks. Ejura Series Bediesi Series also recorded the highest value for drainability after 25 minutes of drainage, followed by Bediesi Series and then Akuse Series. The result of this work indicated that the Bediesi Series is the best soil type among the soils evaluated for lettuce production in the dry season in Ghana.
2 ijhaf dec-2017-3-effect of biochar issued fromAI Publications
Cassava is an important food crop cultivated (75%) by smallholder farmers. However, yields are very low and rarely exceed 17tons/ha-1. A study was carried out at Nkolbisson in the humid forest zone (HFZ) of Cameroon to assess the effect of three types of biochar issued from Cassava (CSb), Ricehusk (RHb), and Corncob (CCb) on the root yield of variety 8034 cassava cultivated along a soil fertility gradient. The biochars were produced using an Elsa pyrolysis technology with carbonisation time of 50-58mins and temperature ranging from 400-6500C. Twelve 8m2 plots were constructed in three sites from the higher elevated, moderately elevated and flat fields.The biochars were applied at 20t.ha-1in three replicationsin a completely randomized design.Results showed that the biochars were high in nutrients containing 4.17-18.15g.kg-1 N, 22.26-42.51 mg.kg-1 P, 2.48-4.18 cmol.kg-1 K and pH (H2O: 7.78-10.81) and were significantly higher than the no-input soil containing 0.79g.kg-1 N, 7.41mg.kg-1 P, 1.42 cmol.kg-1 K and pH (5.68). Cassava root yield was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in RHb plots (23.22 t.ha-1) than CCb (20.53 t.ha-1), CSb (18.67 t.ha-1) and the no-input soil (16.13 t.ha-1). The addition of biochar particularly RHb, increasednutrient uptake in cassava leaves and roots compared with theno-input soil. The study concludes that biochars with higher N, Pand K content tend to increase cassava root yield and suggestsincreasing the quantity of biochar to 40t/ha-1or continuous application in combination with other farming options such as poultry manure, compost or mineral fertilizer tomaximize cassava productivity given the benefits of biochar.
Determination of the Optimum Sulphur Fertilizer Rate for Groundnut Production...AI Publications
Laboratory studies and pot Experiments were carried out to determine the optimum sulphur (S)fertilizer rate for groundnut production in selected soils of Benue state using sorption indices. Surface soil samples (0-20 cm) were collected for sorption studies and pot experiments. The sorption study was carried out by shaking known concentrations of S (0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 and 120 mgkg-1) with 5g soil sample. The suspension was filtered and the amount of S in solution determined. The amount of sulphatesorbed was estimated as the difference between equilibrium sulphate concentration and initial sulphate added. Data from the sorption study was fitted into the Langmuir and Freundlich sorption equations. Thereafter a pot experiment was carried out with six levels of solution sulphate concentration to determine the optimum S concentration for yield of groundnut and the amount of sulphur fertilizer required to achieve this concentration in the soil under study. Result show that both soils have the capacity to sorb sulphur. The sorption maxima, buffering capacity and binding energy of the soils under study are 70.66 mgkg-1, 15.81mg kg-1, 0.22 dm3 mg-1 and 117.84 mgkg1, 9.83 mg kg-1,0.08 dm3 kg-1 for Aliade and Daudu soils respectively.The highest yield in Aliade soil was obtained with 6 mg kg-1 S while 12 mg kg-1 S gave the highest yield in Daudu soil. Aliadeand Daudu soils would require 57.41 and 23.69 kg ha-1S respectively to maintain 12 mg/kg and 9mg/kg of S in the soil solution. Hence for groundnut production in Aliade soil, 57.41 kg S ha-1 is recommended while for the Daudu soil, 23.69 kg S ha-1 is recommended.
Sustainable rice production in african inland valleysPatrickTanz
This document summarizes a research paper about sustainable rice production in African inland valleys. It discusses how inland valleys have high agricultural potential due to relatively reliable water availability and soil fertility. The paper estimates that improved water and weed management on less than 10% of inland valley areas could meet current rice demand in Africa, allowing most areas to retain other ecosystem functions. It proposes a participatory, holistic, and localized approach to develop inland valleys for food security and poverty alleviation while safeguarding other ecosystem services. This includes selecting suitable valleys, participatory land use planning, development, and identifying local constraints to adopt appropriate practices and technologies through integrated management.
Integrated Effect of Mulching Materials and Furrow Irrigation Methods on Yiel...Premier Publishers
A field experiment was conducted at Werer, Middle Awash Valley during the dry season of the 2016-17, 2017-18 and 2018-19 to investigate the effects of mulching materials and furrow irrigation methods on onion yield and water productivity under semi-arid conditions. Split plot design with three replications, in which the irrigation methods (Conventional, Fixed and Alternate Furrow) were assigned to the main plot and the three mulching materials (no mulch, wheat straw and white plastic mulch), were to the sub-plot. Results indicate that marketable onion bulb yield and water use efficiency were affected by the main effect of furrow irrigation methods and mulching materials (p< 0.05). But the interaction of irrigation methods and mulch had no significant effect on marketable onion bulb yield and water use efficiency. The conventional furrow irrigation (10081.52kg ha-1) and wheat straw mulch (12121.63 kg ha-1) resulted in the maximum marketable bulb yield. The highest water use efficiency (3.27 kg/m3) was obtained from alternate furrow irrigation method with straw mulch. This suggests that under limited irrigation water, alternate furrow irrigation along with wheat straw mulch minimize evaporation loss; maximize water productivity and sustain onion production at Amibara and similar agro-ecology and soil type.
Lowland rice water stress management in GhanaPatrickTanz
This study investigated the effects of different water saving management methods on the growth, yield, and water productivity of lowland rice. The treatments included continuous flooding (control), flooding until 10 or 20 days after heading, and alternate wetting and drying until booting followed by flooding until 10 or 20 days after heading. Results showed that withholding water 20 days after heading (treatment 5) saved 24.3% and 25.2% of water in 2016 and 2017, respectively, while producing similar grain yields as the continuously flooded control. Treatment 5 was the most water efficient method with no reduction in yield.
Effect of regulated deficit irrigation on growth and yield of sorghumAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the effects of regulated deficit irrigation on the growth and yield of sorghum. The study consisted of different irrigation regimes (100%, 75%, 50%, 25% of full irrigation) applied to two soil types and measured various growth parameters. The results showed that irrigation regimes of 100% and 75% performed better in terms of growth, water use efficiency, and economic returns compared to 50% and 25% deficit irrigation. Additionally, there were some interaction effects observed between deficit irrigation and soil type. Overall, the study recommends the use of 75% regulated deficit irrigation for optimizing sorghum growth in this agricultural zone.
This document summarizes a study that determined the water requirements, crop coefficients, and effects of deficit irrigation on hot pepper growth. The study found that:
1) Hot pepper requires about 587mm of water over the growing season under full irrigation.
2) The crop coefficients at different growth stages under full irrigation were 0.47, 0.86, 1.42, and 0.91.
3) Deficit irrigation of up to 20% (80% water requirement) had no significant effects on pepper growth, development, or fruiting.
Assessment of the Relative Suitability of Three Different Soils for Dry Seaso...IJEAB
The research was conducted at the project site of the University of Educatoion, Winneba - Mampong campus between mid - November 2007 and Mid-April 2008. The main objective of the study was to compare the relative suitability of three soils in supporting lettuce production in the dry season. The treatments were Calcic Vertisol (Akuse scries), Rodic Nitisol (Ejura sesries) and Chromic Luvisol (Bediest series). The randomized complete block design was used in a pot experience with the three treatments and each replicated three times. Plant height, fresh leaf mass, leaf dry matter yield, fresh root mass, gravimetric moisture content, total porosity, drainability and bulk density were the parameters considered. From the result Bediesi Series recorded the highest growth rate as measured by plant height (266.5mm), fresh leaf weight (30.6g), leaf dry matter weight (4.9g) at 7 weeks after transplanting as well as been the most succulent with 84% succulent. Fresh root weight however, was highest with Akuse Series followed by Bediesi Series and Ejura Series in that decreasing order. Ejura Series recorded the least value for all growth and yield parameters measured. For soil parameters, Akuse Series recorded the highest value for porosity (43.0%) and gravimetric moisture of 6.43 throughout the period of field drying for 8weeks. Ejura Series Bediesi Series also recorded the highest value for drainability after 25 minutes of drainage, followed by Bediesi Series and then Akuse Series. The result of this work indicated that the Bediesi Series is the best soil type among the soils evaluated for lettuce production in the dry season in Ghana.
2 ijhaf dec-2017-3-effect of biochar issued fromAI Publications
Cassava is an important food crop cultivated (75%) by smallholder farmers. However, yields are very low and rarely exceed 17tons/ha-1. A study was carried out at Nkolbisson in the humid forest zone (HFZ) of Cameroon to assess the effect of three types of biochar issued from Cassava (CSb), Ricehusk (RHb), and Corncob (CCb) on the root yield of variety 8034 cassava cultivated along a soil fertility gradient. The biochars were produced using an Elsa pyrolysis technology with carbonisation time of 50-58mins and temperature ranging from 400-6500C. Twelve 8m2 plots were constructed in three sites from the higher elevated, moderately elevated and flat fields.The biochars were applied at 20t.ha-1in three replicationsin a completely randomized design.Results showed that the biochars were high in nutrients containing 4.17-18.15g.kg-1 N, 22.26-42.51 mg.kg-1 P, 2.48-4.18 cmol.kg-1 K and pH (H2O: 7.78-10.81) and were significantly higher than the no-input soil containing 0.79g.kg-1 N, 7.41mg.kg-1 P, 1.42 cmol.kg-1 K and pH (5.68). Cassava root yield was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in RHb plots (23.22 t.ha-1) than CCb (20.53 t.ha-1), CSb (18.67 t.ha-1) and the no-input soil (16.13 t.ha-1). The addition of biochar particularly RHb, increasednutrient uptake in cassava leaves and roots compared with theno-input soil. The study concludes that biochars with higher N, Pand K content tend to increase cassava root yield and suggestsincreasing the quantity of biochar to 40t/ha-1or continuous application in combination with other farming options such as poultry manure, compost or mineral fertilizer tomaximize cassava productivity given the benefits of biochar.
Yield response of intercropped maize (zea mays l.) and okra (abelmoschus escu...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the yield response of intercropped maize and okra under different seasonal conditions in Makurdi, Nigeria. The study found that:
1) Okra yield was higher in the wet season than the dry season, and monocropped okra yielded more than intercropped okra. Intercropping reduced okra yield more in the dry season.
2) Maize yield was unaffected by intercropping and was higher in the wet season for both sole and intercropped maize.
3) Total intercrop yield and land equivalent ratio were higher in the wet season, indicating intercropping was more productive in the wet season.
An Agronomic field study was conducted at University of Limpopo Experimental farm, Syferkuil, over two summer growing seasons to determine the optimum phosphorus (P) rate and also assess the productivity of pigeonpea under intercrop with maize. Five P rates (0, 15, 30, 45, and 60 kg P ha-1) were evaluated under sole and intercropped pigeonpea. Treatments were laid out in a randomized complete block design with four replicates. Results revealed that variable P fertilizer rates exerted significant effect on pigeonpea grain yield in both seasons. Highest grain yields of 922 and 1141.7 kg ha-1 under sole and intercrop plots, respectively, were achieved at 45 kg P ha-1 during first and second seasons, respectively. However, the predicted optimum grain yield of 734 and 1034 kg ha-1 based on the response model was achieved at 52.67 kg P ha-1 and 42.84 kg P ha-1, in the respective seasons. Intercropping achieved a significantly higher pigeonpea grain yield (+37%) during second year than sole cropping following P addition; with over 21% mean grain yield advantage across the two planting seasons. Hence, depending on the inherent soil-P level, application of 42-53 kg P ha-1 under pigeonpea/maize intercrop represents the range at which P is optimum for maximum pigeonpea grain yield and better returns for farmers.
Effect of partial rootzone drying technique on yield and yield components of ...Alexander Decker
This study evaluated the effects of partial rootzone drying (PRD) irrigation techniques on yield and yield components of sorghum grown on two soil types. PRD consisted of four irrigation regimes with varying levels of irrigation (100%, 75%, 50%, 25%). The study found that sorghum grown under 100% and 75% irrigation regimes had higher yields and yield components compared to the 50% and 25% regimes. Water use efficiency was also highest under the 100% regime. There were no significant differences between the soil types. Economically, the 100% and 75% irrigation regimes were more profitable due to higher yields. Therefore, the study concluded that PRD irrigation can optimize sorghum production in semi-arid regions
Selection of Drought Tolerant Mutant of Amaranthus Cruentus L. in Green HousePremier Publishers
Water deficit is one of the significant environmental factors limiting plant production. This stress occurs during drought period. The aim of this study was to select gamma irradiation-induced drought tolerant mutant drought lines during vegetative stage. Seeds of the reference cultivar were gamma irradiated using the gamma irradiated facility at the IAEA to induce genetic variation. Four selected lines based on their high biomass (L2, L17, L18 and L23) and the reference cultivar (L0) were grown under four irrigation frequencies: 2, 4, 8 and 12 days with 200 ml as standard water regime for 24 days after transplanting. Completely randomized block design with 3 repetitions was applied. Data related to Relative Plant Height Growth, Relative Leaf Number Growth, Relative Shoot Fresh Mass Growth and Relative Root Length Growth were determined. The results indicated a significant effect of water deficit on all considered parameters by limiting the growth. Reduction observed were less accentuated in lines L2. Line L2 showed a significant difference for root growth indicating the adaptability of drought. Based on drought tolerant index, L2 was the most tolerant. At this stage, lines L2 appeared to be the most promising for the creation of new drought-tolerant amaranth varieties.
Selection of Drought Tolerant Mutant of Amaranthus Cruentus L. in Green HousePremier Publishers
Water deficit is one of the significant environmental factors limiting plant production. This stress occurs during drought period. The aim of this study was to select gamma irradiation-induced drought tolerant mutant drought lines during vegetative stage. Seeds of the reference cultivar were gamma irradiated using the gamma irradiated facility at the IAEA to induce genetic variation. Four selected lines based on their high biomass (L2, L17, L18 and L23) and the reference cultivar (L0) were grown under four irrigation frequencies: 2, 4, 8 and 12 days with 200 ml as standard water regime for 24 days after transplanting. Completely randomized block design with 3 repetitions was applied. Data related to Relative Plant Height Growth, Relative Leaf Number Growth, Relative Shoot Fresh Mass Growth and Relative Root Length Growth were determined. The results indicated a significant effect of water deficit on all considered parameters by limiting the growth. Reduction observed were less accentuated in lines L2. Line L2 showed a significant difference for root growth indicating the adaptability of drought. Based on drought tolerant index, L2 was the most tolerant. At this stage, lines L2 appeared to be the most promising for the creation of new drought-tolerant amaranth varieties.
Screening and Selection of Drought-Tolerant Groundnut Varieties Based on Yiel...Premier Publishers
Drought is the most important abiotic limitation to groundnut production in Northern Ghana. Drought, during the pod-filling stages is even more devastating. The current study was conducted to screen groundnut varieties, for drought-tolerance based on yield and other traits. Evaluation of groundnut genotypes was under two environments/water regimes; well-watered and water-stressed. ANOVA was run for Quantitative data. Means were separated by l.s.d. at 95% confidence level. Correlation analyses were performed using SPSS. Combined analysis of variance was computed for the groundnuts across water regimes. Dendrograms were generated using yield data and based on Euclidean distance. Scoring and ranking was used to assess disease incidence on a scale of 1-5. Results indicate that end-of-season drought caused pod yield reduction that varied across genotypes. The Drought Tolerance Index ranged from 0.53 (Kpanieli) to 2.40 (Agric-Manipinta). The highest yielding genotypes under water-stressed condition were Sinkara (582g/plot), Nkatie-sari (512g/plot), Ndogba (470g/plot), Chaco-pag (400g/plot) and Oboshie (381g/plot) and Chinese (local) (340g/plot). Farmers’ selected Sinkara, Ndogba, Chinese, Nkatie-sari, Agric-Manipinta and Chaco-pag based on pod yield and biomass production. Sinkara (0.8798), Sokan-donworor (0.8739), Kpach-Isah (0.8318) and Kpanieli (0.8016) recorded very high mean pod harvest index values, while Ndogba recorded the lowest (0.2252). Combined analysis of variance for pod yield among all the genotypes indicate that the groundnuts performed differently in both water regimes due to the significant interaction effect observed between water regimes and genotypes. Information generated from this study can be used to develop new groundnut varieties that combine higher yield and drought tolerant traits.
I. MINED LANDS RECLAMATION USING LEGUME-BASED CROPPING SYSTEMS IN THE TALENSI...QUESTJOURNAL
ABSTRACT : This study investigated the use of leguminous plants in the reclamation of mined and degraded lands in some small scale mining areas in the Talensi and Nabdam Districts in the Upper East Region of Ghana. The treatments tested in the field experiments were: sole cropped groundnut (A), sole cropped soybean (B), sole cropped Bambara groundnut (C), groundnut intercropped with soybean (D) and groundnut intercropped with Bambara groundnut (E). Generally the experimental treatments performed poorly on the degraded lands when compared with control plots (undisturbed fields) in two seasons. However, during the second year the performance of the various treatments on the degraded land was better than that in the first year. Groundnut plus soybean was considered the best treatment because it resulted in the best improvement in soil organic carbon and total soil nitrogen. It also gave the best land equivalent ratio (LER).
Influence of water hyacinth based vermicompost and cassava –groundnut inter...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that examined the effects of water hyacinth-based vermicompost and cassava-groundnut intercropping on the physical properties of soil, specifically bulk density and total porosity. The study involved applying different nutrient sources - including no fertilizer, mineral fertilizer, and two types of vermicompost made from water hyacinth and animal manure - to soils planted with sole cassava or an intercrop of cassava and groundnut. Results showed that the organic nutrient sources significantly reduced bulk density compared to mineral fertilizer. Intercropping cassava with groundnut also reduced bulk density relative to sole cassava. A non-significant increase in total porosity was observed
Resources and their Development ( Class X Geography)Krishna Kumar
The document discusses different types of natural resources like biotic, abiotic, renewable, and non-renewable resources. It describes different soils found in India like alluvial soil, black soil, red soil, laterite soil, and forest soils. Factors influencing soil formation and causes of land degradation like deforestation, industrial waste, and soil erosion are explained. Conservation methods for soil and land like contour ploughing, terraced farming, and afforestation are also mentioned.
Spearmint (Mentha spicata L.) Response to Deficit Irrigationpaperpublications3
Abstract: An experiment was conducted with the objective to identify the level of deficit irrigation which allows achieving optimal yield and investigate the effect of deficit irrigation practice on spearmint (Mentha Spicata L.) yield and yield components. The experiment was conducted at Koka research station of Wondo Genet Agricultural Research Center, Ethiopia latitude 8O26’, longitude 39O2’ and altitude 1602masl for two years (2011/2012 and 2012/2013 dry season). Nine treatments three level of irrigation water amount percentage based on evapo-transpiration of the crop (ETc) (100%ETc, 75%ETc and 50%ETc) and three types of furrow irrigation water application method (alternate furrow, fixed furrow and conventional furrow) were used in randomized completely block design (RCBD) with three replications. The pooled mean of two year data showed different level of deficit irrigation had a significant effect (p<0.05)><0.01) variation among treatments due to deficit irrigation on dry biomass yield per hectare, dry leaf yield per hectare, essential oil yield per hectare and water use efficiency. However, different deficit irrigation level had no significant influence on wet harvesting index. The highest fresh biomass, dry biomass, fresh leaf, dry leaf and essential oil yield per harvesting cycle of 12093kg/ha, 3746kg/ha, 8133kg/ha, 2441.1kg/ha and 37.0kg/ha respectively was obtained due to 100%ETc with conventional furrow application method. Moreover, the highest water use efficiency of 16.3x10-3kg/m3 was achieved due to deficit irrigation to 50%ETc with alternate furrow irrigation water application method. The study showed that the best treatment is deficit irrigation to 50%ETc with conventional furrow application method which had no significant variation with treatments that showed higher yields of spearmint including water use efficiency.
Keywords: Alternate furrow, conventional furrow, deficit irrigation, fixed furrow, spearmint.
Agronomy: Precision water management in different rice ecosystemsJagadish.M Gayakwad
This document discusses various methods of water management in rice production. It begins with an introduction to rice cultivation and its high water requirements. It then discusses the importance of precision water management to produce more crop per drop of water. The document provides details on various rice production systems including transplanted rice, direct seeded rice, aerobic rice, and their water requirements and yields under different irrigation schedules. It concludes that precision water management through appropriate irrigation methods and schedules is necessary to address the challenges of decreasing water availability.
This document summarizes a study that examined the effects of water hyacinth-based vermicompost and cassava-groundnut intercropping on the physical properties of soil, specifically bulk density and total porosity. The study consisted of four nutrient treatments (no fertilizer, mineral fertilizer, water hyacinth/poultry manure vermicompost, water hyacinth/cow dung vermicompost), three cassava planting densities, and sole cassava versus cassava-groundnut intercropping. Results showed that the organic nutrient sources significantly reduced bulk density more than mineral fertilizer. Cassava-groundnut intercropping also reduced bulk density compared to sole cassava. While total
India has a large and growing population, and will soon need over 250 million tons of grains per year to feed everyone. Currently, crop yields can be increased through improving crop varieties, production methods, and management practices. Some key strategies for improving crop yields discussed in the document include crop variety improvement through selective breeding; improving nutrient, water, and pest management; and utilizing different cropping patterns like mixed cropping, intercropping, and crop rotation to maximize land use and reduce risks.
This document summarizes a study on the impacts of agricultural activities on water quality in the Dufuya wetlands in Zimbabwe. Samples of groundwater, surface runoff water, and fertilizers were collected and analyzed for pH, conductivity, calcium, nitrates, and phosphates. The results showed that pH, conductivity, calcium, nitrates and phosphates levels in water samples were within WHO guidelines. Nitrate and phosphate concentrations were low and not significantly different between water sources. While fertilizer application rates were high at 30-60 tons/hectare per year, the study found fertilizer use had no negative effects on water quality in the wetlands.
Water Requirement and Crop Coefficient of Onion (Red Bombay) in the Central R...paperpublications3
This document discusses a study on determining the crop coefficient (Kc) of Red Bombay onion in central Ethiopia. Researchers grew Red Bombay onion in lysimeters to directly measure crop evapotranspiration (ETc) over four years. They also calculated reference evapotranspiration (ETo) from weather data. The Kc was then determined as the ratio of ETc to ETo. Results showed Kc values of 0.34, 0.70, 1.01 and 0.68 for the initial, development, mid-season and late stages respectively. These locally determined Kc values can be used for irrigation planning and management in similar agroclimatic conditions.
Maize Phenology and Crop Stand in Response to Mulching and Furrow Irrigation ...Premier Publishers
The field experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of mulching materials and furrow irrigation methods on phenology and crop stand of maize at Werer, Middle Awash Valley of Ethiopia during 2017/18 cool cropping season. Split plot design with three replications, in which the irrigation methods (Conventional, Fixed and Alternate Furrow) were assigned to main plot and the three mulching materials (plastic, straw and no mulch), were to the sub-plot. Result showed that maize phenology and crop stand was affected by different furrow irrigation methods and mulching materials. But interaction of irrigation methods and mulch had no significant effect on maize phenology and crop stand except days to phenological maturity. Conventional furrow irrigation took less days to emergence (8.4 days) and tasseling (66.67 days). Plastic mulch took less day to emergence (6.9 days), tasseling (62.67 days) and silking (69 days) respectively. Physiological maturity (114.3 days) arrived earlier in fixed furrow with plastic mulch. The conventional furrow irrigation (29600ha-1) and white plastic mulch (29956ha-1) resulted in the maximum maize stand. In conclusion, conventional furrow irrigation and plastic mulching had improved phenological stages and maize crop stand at Werer and other similar agro ecology.
Water is essential for plant growth and crop production. When water supply is limited, crop yields are reduced based on the relationship between actual and potential evapotranspiration. Computer models like CROPWAT and AquaCrop use daily water balances and yield response factors to calculate how water deficits impact crop yields over different growth stages. They provide tools to estimate irrigation requirements and schedule irrigation to minimize yield losses from water stress.
This document discusses heavy metal pollution in wastewater streams in the West Bank. It defines heavy metals and trace metals, and notes that some heavy metals are essential for humans in small amounts while others are toxic. It then analyzes samples from 6 wastewater streams in the West Bank, finding concentrations of heavy metals like zinc, manganese, cobalt, chromium, iron, aluminum, nickel, cadmium, molybdenum, and copper. All 6 streams showed heavy metal levels exceeding Palestinian wastewater quality standards for irrigation reuse, suggesting treatment is needed before the water can be safely reused.
water Law and Cooperation in the Euphratws Tigris Region.PDFMarwan Haddad
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive function. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against mental illness and improve symptoms.
Yield response of intercropped maize (zea mays l.) and okra (abelmoschus escu...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the yield response of intercropped maize and okra under different seasonal conditions in Makurdi, Nigeria. The study found that:
1) Okra yield was higher in the wet season than the dry season, and monocropped okra yielded more than intercropped okra. Intercropping reduced okra yield more in the dry season.
2) Maize yield was unaffected by intercropping and was higher in the wet season for both sole and intercropped maize.
3) Total intercrop yield and land equivalent ratio were higher in the wet season, indicating intercropping was more productive in the wet season.
An Agronomic field study was conducted at University of Limpopo Experimental farm, Syferkuil, over two summer growing seasons to determine the optimum phosphorus (P) rate and also assess the productivity of pigeonpea under intercrop with maize. Five P rates (0, 15, 30, 45, and 60 kg P ha-1) were evaluated under sole and intercropped pigeonpea. Treatments were laid out in a randomized complete block design with four replicates. Results revealed that variable P fertilizer rates exerted significant effect on pigeonpea grain yield in both seasons. Highest grain yields of 922 and 1141.7 kg ha-1 under sole and intercrop plots, respectively, were achieved at 45 kg P ha-1 during first and second seasons, respectively. However, the predicted optimum grain yield of 734 and 1034 kg ha-1 based on the response model was achieved at 52.67 kg P ha-1 and 42.84 kg P ha-1, in the respective seasons. Intercropping achieved a significantly higher pigeonpea grain yield (+37%) during second year than sole cropping following P addition; with over 21% mean grain yield advantage across the two planting seasons. Hence, depending on the inherent soil-P level, application of 42-53 kg P ha-1 under pigeonpea/maize intercrop represents the range at which P is optimum for maximum pigeonpea grain yield and better returns for farmers.
Effect of partial rootzone drying technique on yield and yield components of ...Alexander Decker
This study evaluated the effects of partial rootzone drying (PRD) irrigation techniques on yield and yield components of sorghum grown on two soil types. PRD consisted of four irrigation regimes with varying levels of irrigation (100%, 75%, 50%, 25%). The study found that sorghum grown under 100% and 75% irrigation regimes had higher yields and yield components compared to the 50% and 25% regimes. Water use efficiency was also highest under the 100% regime. There were no significant differences between the soil types. Economically, the 100% and 75% irrigation regimes were more profitable due to higher yields. Therefore, the study concluded that PRD irrigation can optimize sorghum production in semi-arid regions
Selection of Drought Tolerant Mutant of Amaranthus Cruentus L. in Green HousePremier Publishers
Water deficit is one of the significant environmental factors limiting plant production. This stress occurs during drought period. The aim of this study was to select gamma irradiation-induced drought tolerant mutant drought lines during vegetative stage. Seeds of the reference cultivar were gamma irradiated using the gamma irradiated facility at the IAEA to induce genetic variation. Four selected lines based on their high biomass (L2, L17, L18 and L23) and the reference cultivar (L0) were grown under four irrigation frequencies: 2, 4, 8 and 12 days with 200 ml as standard water regime for 24 days after transplanting. Completely randomized block design with 3 repetitions was applied. Data related to Relative Plant Height Growth, Relative Leaf Number Growth, Relative Shoot Fresh Mass Growth and Relative Root Length Growth were determined. The results indicated a significant effect of water deficit on all considered parameters by limiting the growth. Reduction observed were less accentuated in lines L2. Line L2 showed a significant difference for root growth indicating the adaptability of drought. Based on drought tolerant index, L2 was the most tolerant. At this stage, lines L2 appeared to be the most promising for the creation of new drought-tolerant amaranth varieties.
Selection of Drought Tolerant Mutant of Amaranthus Cruentus L. in Green HousePremier Publishers
Water deficit is one of the significant environmental factors limiting plant production. This stress occurs during drought period. The aim of this study was to select gamma irradiation-induced drought tolerant mutant drought lines during vegetative stage. Seeds of the reference cultivar were gamma irradiated using the gamma irradiated facility at the IAEA to induce genetic variation. Four selected lines based on their high biomass (L2, L17, L18 and L23) and the reference cultivar (L0) were grown under four irrigation frequencies: 2, 4, 8 and 12 days with 200 ml as standard water regime for 24 days after transplanting. Completely randomized block design with 3 repetitions was applied. Data related to Relative Plant Height Growth, Relative Leaf Number Growth, Relative Shoot Fresh Mass Growth and Relative Root Length Growth were determined. The results indicated a significant effect of water deficit on all considered parameters by limiting the growth. Reduction observed were less accentuated in lines L2. Line L2 showed a significant difference for root growth indicating the adaptability of drought. Based on drought tolerant index, L2 was the most tolerant. At this stage, lines L2 appeared to be the most promising for the creation of new drought-tolerant amaranth varieties.
Screening and Selection of Drought-Tolerant Groundnut Varieties Based on Yiel...Premier Publishers
Drought is the most important abiotic limitation to groundnut production in Northern Ghana. Drought, during the pod-filling stages is even more devastating. The current study was conducted to screen groundnut varieties, for drought-tolerance based on yield and other traits. Evaluation of groundnut genotypes was under two environments/water regimes; well-watered and water-stressed. ANOVA was run for Quantitative data. Means were separated by l.s.d. at 95% confidence level. Correlation analyses were performed using SPSS. Combined analysis of variance was computed for the groundnuts across water regimes. Dendrograms were generated using yield data and based on Euclidean distance. Scoring and ranking was used to assess disease incidence on a scale of 1-5. Results indicate that end-of-season drought caused pod yield reduction that varied across genotypes. The Drought Tolerance Index ranged from 0.53 (Kpanieli) to 2.40 (Agric-Manipinta). The highest yielding genotypes under water-stressed condition were Sinkara (582g/plot), Nkatie-sari (512g/plot), Ndogba (470g/plot), Chaco-pag (400g/plot) and Oboshie (381g/plot) and Chinese (local) (340g/plot). Farmers’ selected Sinkara, Ndogba, Chinese, Nkatie-sari, Agric-Manipinta and Chaco-pag based on pod yield and biomass production. Sinkara (0.8798), Sokan-donworor (0.8739), Kpach-Isah (0.8318) and Kpanieli (0.8016) recorded very high mean pod harvest index values, while Ndogba recorded the lowest (0.2252). Combined analysis of variance for pod yield among all the genotypes indicate that the groundnuts performed differently in both water regimes due to the significant interaction effect observed between water regimes and genotypes. Information generated from this study can be used to develop new groundnut varieties that combine higher yield and drought tolerant traits.
I. MINED LANDS RECLAMATION USING LEGUME-BASED CROPPING SYSTEMS IN THE TALENSI...QUESTJOURNAL
ABSTRACT : This study investigated the use of leguminous plants in the reclamation of mined and degraded lands in some small scale mining areas in the Talensi and Nabdam Districts in the Upper East Region of Ghana. The treatments tested in the field experiments were: sole cropped groundnut (A), sole cropped soybean (B), sole cropped Bambara groundnut (C), groundnut intercropped with soybean (D) and groundnut intercropped with Bambara groundnut (E). Generally the experimental treatments performed poorly on the degraded lands when compared with control plots (undisturbed fields) in two seasons. However, during the second year the performance of the various treatments on the degraded land was better than that in the first year. Groundnut plus soybean was considered the best treatment because it resulted in the best improvement in soil organic carbon and total soil nitrogen. It also gave the best land equivalent ratio (LER).
Influence of water hyacinth based vermicompost and cassava –groundnut inter...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that examined the effects of water hyacinth-based vermicompost and cassava-groundnut intercropping on the physical properties of soil, specifically bulk density and total porosity. The study involved applying different nutrient sources - including no fertilizer, mineral fertilizer, and two types of vermicompost made from water hyacinth and animal manure - to soils planted with sole cassava or an intercrop of cassava and groundnut. Results showed that the organic nutrient sources significantly reduced bulk density compared to mineral fertilizer. Intercropping cassava with groundnut also reduced bulk density relative to sole cassava. A non-significant increase in total porosity was observed
Resources and their Development ( Class X Geography)Krishna Kumar
The document discusses different types of natural resources like biotic, abiotic, renewable, and non-renewable resources. It describes different soils found in India like alluvial soil, black soil, red soil, laterite soil, and forest soils. Factors influencing soil formation and causes of land degradation like deforestation, industrial waste, and soil erosion are explained. Conservation methods for soil and land like contour ploughing, terraced farming, and afforestation are also mentioned.
Spearmint (Mentha spicata L.) Response to Deficit Irrigationpaperpublications3
Abstract: An experiment was conducted with the objective to identify the level of deficit irrigation which allows achieving optimal yield and investigate the effect of deficit irrigation practice on spearmint (Mentha Spicata L.) yield and yield components. The experiment was conducted at Koka research station of Wondo Genet Agricultural Research Center, Ethiopia latitude 8O26’, longitude 39O2’ and altitude 1602masl for two years (2011/2012 and 2012/2013 dry season). Nine treatments three level of irrigation water amount percentage based on evapo-transpiration of the crop (ETc) (100%ETc, 75%ETc and 50%ETc) and three types of furrow irrigation water application method (alternate furrow, fixed furrow and conventional furrow) were used in randomized completely block design (RCBD) with three replications. The pooled mean of two year data showed different level of deficit irrigation had a significant effect (p<0.05)><0.01) variation among treatments due to deficit irrigation on dry biomass yield per hectare, dry leaf yield per hectare, essential oil yield per hectare and water use efficiency. However, different deficit irrigation level had no significant influence on wet harvesting index. The highest fresh biomass, dry biomass, fresh leaf, dry leaf and essential oil yield per harvesting cycle of 12093kg/ha, 3746kg/ha, 8133kg/ha, 2441.1kg/ha and 37.0kg/ha respectively was obtained due to 100%ETc with conventional furrow application method. Moreover, the highest water use efficiency of 16.3x10-3kg/m3 was achieved due to deficit irrigation to 50%ETc with alternate furrow irrigation water application method. The study showed that the best treatment is deficit irrigation to 50%ETc with conventional furrow application method which had no significant variation with treatments that showed higher yields of spearmint including water use efficiency.
Keywords: Alternate furrow, conventional furrow, deficit irrigation, fixed furrow, spearmint.
Agronomy: Precision water management in different rice ecosystemsJagadish.M Gayakwad
This document discusses various methods of water management in rice production. It begins with an introduction to rice cultivation and its high water requirements. It then discusses the importance of precision water management to produce more crop per drop of water. The document provides details on various rice production systems including transplanted rice, direct seeded rice, aerobic rice, and their water requirements and yields under different irrigation schedules. It concludes that precision water management through appropriate irrigation methods and schedules is necessary to address the challenges of decreasing water availability.
This document summarizes a study that examined the effects of water hyacinth-based vermicompost and cassava-groundnut intercropping on the physical properties of soil, specifically bulk density and total porosity. The study consisted of four nutrient treatments (no fertilizer, mineral fertilizer, water hyacinth/poultry manure vermicompost, water hyacinth/cow dung vermicompost), three cassava planting densities, and sole cassava versus cassava-groundnut intercropping. Results showed that the organic nutrient sources significantly reduced bulk density more than mineral fertilizer. Cassava-groundnut intercropping also reduced bulk density compared to sole cassava. While total
India has a large and growing population, and will soon need over 250 million tons of grains per year to feed everyone. Currently, crop yields can be increased through improving crop varieties, production methods, and management practices. Some key strategies for improving crop yields discussed in the document include crop variety improvement through selective breeding; improving nutrient, water, and pest management; and utilizing different cropping patterns like mixed cropping, intercropping, and crop rotation to maximize land use and reduce risks.
This document summarizes a study on the impacts of agricultural activities on water quality in the Dufuya wetlands in Zimbabwe. Samples of groundwater, surface runoff water, and fertilizers were collected and analyzed for pH, conductivity, calcium, nitrates, and phosphates. The results showed that pH, conductivity, calcium, nitrates and phosphates levels in water samples were within WHO guidelines. Nitrate and phosphate concentrations were low and not significantly different between water sources. While fertilizer application rates were high at 30-60 tons/hectare per year, the study found fertilizer use had no negative effects on water quality in the wetlands.
Water Requirement and Crop Coefficient of Onion (Red Bombay) in the Central R...paperpublications3
This document discusses a study on determining the crop coefficient (Kc) of Red Bombay onion in central Ethiopia. Researchers grew Red Bombay onion in lysimeters to directly measure crop evapotranspiration (ETc) over four years. They also calculated reference evapotranspiration (ETo) from weather data. The Kc was then determined as the ratio of ETc to ETo. Results showed Kc values of 0.34, 0.70, 1.01 and 0.68 for the initial, development, mid-season and late stages respectively. These locally determined Kc values can be used for irrigation planning and management in similar agroclimatic conditions.
Maize Phenology and Crop Stand in Response to Mulching and Furrow Irrigation ...Premier Publishers
The field experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of mulching materials and furrow irrigation methods on phenology and crop stand of maize at Werer, Middle Awash Valley of Ethiopia during 2017/18 cool cropping season. Split plot design with three replications, in which the irrigation methods (Conventional, Fixed and Alternate Furrow) were assigned to main plot and the three mulching materials (plastic, straw and no mulch), were to the sub-plot. Result showed that maize phenology and crop stand was affected by different furrow irrigation methods and mulching materials. But interaction of irrigation methods and mulch had no significant effect on maize phenology and crop stand except days to phenological maturity. Conventional furrow irrigation took less days to emergence (8.4 days) and tasseling (66.67 days). Plastic mulch took less day to emergence (6.9 days), tasseling (62.67 days) and silking (69 days) respectively. Physiological maturity (114.3 days) arrived earlier in fixed furrow with plastic mulch. The conventional furrow irrigation (29600ha-1) and white plastic mulch (29956ha-1) resulted in the maximum maize stand. In conclusion, conventional furrow irrigation and plastic mulching had improved phenological stages and maize crop stand at Werer and other similar agro ecology.
Water is essential for plant growth and crop production. When water supply is limited, crop yields are reduced based on the relationship between actual and potential evapotranspiration. Computer models like CROPWAT and AquaCrop use daily water balances and yield response factors to calculate how water deficits impact crop yields over different growth stages. They provide tools to estimate irrigation requirements and schedule irrigation to minimize yield losses from water stress.
This document discusses heavy metal pollution in wastewater streams in the West Bank. It defines heavy metals and trace metals, and notes that some heavy metals are essential for humans in small amounts while others are toxic. It then analyzes samples from 6 wastewater streams in the West Bank, finding concentrations of heavy metals like zinc, manganese, cobalt, chromium, iron, aluminum, nickel, cadmium, molybdenum, and copper. All 6 streams showed heavy metal levels exceeding Palestinian wastewater quality standards for irrigation reuse, suggesting treatment is needed before the water can be safely reused.
water Law and Cooperation in the Euphratws Tigris Region.PDFMarwan Haddad
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive function. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against mental illness and improve symptoms.
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive functioning. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against mental illness and improve symptoms.
Fate and Mobility of Glyphosate Leachate in Palestinian Soil Using SoilMarwan Haddad
This document summarizes a study on the fate and mobility of glyphosate leachate in Palestinian soil using soil column experiments. The key findings are:
1) Using column studies, the amount of glyphosate in soil decreases with increasing soil depth, with the highest levels found in the 0-30cm layer.
2) Increasing the concentration of glyphosate applied also increases the amount of glyphosate found in leachate, with 25x concentration having the highest levels.
3) The behavior of glyphosate leachate fits first-order reaction kinetics and adsorption isotherm models, indicating glyphosate adsorbs well to soil.
The water of the Jordan Valley A.Flexer.PDFMarwan Haddad
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive function. Exercise stimulates the production of endorphins in the brain which elevate mood and reduce stress levels.
Irrigation Adaptation to Changing Water SupplyMarwan Haddad
1) Israel began constructing a separation barrier between the West Bank and Israel in 2002 without international consent. This barrier has negatively impacted Palestinians by confiscating farmland, destroying irrigation infrastructure, and limiting access to water resources.
2) The document analyzes how Palestinian farmers have adapted to cope with these impacts, such as increasing water storage capacity and documenting land/water resources. However, the barrier still undermines Palestinian livelihoods and violates international law.
3) Over a third of Palestinians will be separated from the West Bank by the barrier's completion. The International Court of Justice ruled Israel must dismantle the barrier and compensate Palestinians for losses due to its illegal construction.
Water Wisdom - Cooperative Water Management Strategies.PDFMarwan Haddad
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive function. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against developing mental illness and improve symptoms for those who already suffer from conditions like anxiety and depression.
Candian Journal of Enviroenmtal Education Vol.11.PDFMarwan Haddad
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive functioning. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against mental illness and improve symptoms.
Evaluation of Constructed Wetland as Secondary Wastewater TreatmentMarwan Haddad
This document summarizes a study that evaluated the performance and operational costs of a pilot UF/RO wastewater treatment and reuse plant near Nablus, Palestine over 2.5 years. The system consisted of a primary settling basin, vertical-flow constructed wetland (CW), secondary settling basin, and UF/RO pilot plant. The CW provided significant reductions in influent water quality parameters. However, the UF/RO membranes experienced rapid fouling that increased operational costs to an unacceptable $5.65/m3. While cactus and banana growth in the CW was good, orchard trees mostly died after two years. The CW was found to be a reliable and low-cost secondary treatment option, but
education for international cooperation 620_NIRP15 2003Marwan Haddad
This document summarizes a study on changing attitudes towards water cooperation between Israelis and Palestinians. It describes educational curricula developed in Israel and Palestine on water issues in the region. The study evaluated how the curricula impacted the knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes of students and teachers in both countries regarding water and peace. It provides background on water resources and population factors contributing to scarcity. While the 1995 Oslo agreement transferred some water authority to Palestine, Israelis maintain overall control. The study aimed to examine if education could influence public opinion to accept compromise on this conflict issue.
Persistence and Mobility of Imidacloprid and Abamectin ResiduesMarwan Haddad
This document summarizes a study on the persistence and mobility of the pesticides imidacloprid and abamectin in greenhouse soil in Palestine. The study found that:
1) The degradation of imidacloprid and abamectin in soil followed second-order reaction kinetics and their leachability/transport to groundwater was rated as moderate to slightly high.
2) Both pesticides showed increasing adsorption on soil surfaces at higher concentrations.
3) The observed half-lives for imidacloprid and abamectin in soil were 61 and 41 days, respectively.
4) Mobility constants for both pesticides in the tested soil were higher than literature
Irrigation Adaptation to Changing Water SupplyMarwan Haddad
The document discusses irrigation adaptation in Palestine given changing water supply. It notes that Palestine consists of the West Bank and Gaza Strip, which were occupied in 1967. The annual groundwater recharge is 698-708 million cubic meters, though Palestinians have been prohibited from accessing their share of Jordan River water since 1967. Israel decided to construct a separation wall in the West Bank in 2002, which has devastated Palestinian irrigation infrastructure, impeded access to water resources, and increased land aridity. The total length of the wall is estimated to be 788 km once completed.
This document summarizes a study on using limestone contactors to mitigate corrosion in small water supply systems that use acidic water. Laboratory and field experiments were conducted to evaluate limestone contactors. A mathematical model was developed relating limestone dissolution and the resulting water chemistry changes to contactor design parameters. The model was verified using laboratory column experiments. Field evaluations showed limestone contactors effectively reduced metals uptake from pipes. The document provides conclusions, recommendations, experimental methods and results on evaluating limestone contactors for treating corrosive water in small utilities.
The Response of Chickpea to Irrigation with Treated journal paperMarwan Haddad
This study assessed the effect of irrigation with treated wastewater (TW) versus freshwater (FW) on four chickpea cultivars over three years. Wastewater from a university campus was treated in a small-scale plant to reduce BOD, COD and EC to acceptable levels. Two cultivars, Bulgarit and ICC 11293, showed no reduction in yield or quality when irrigated with TW compared to FW. However, the WIR-32 and Jordan cultivars showed significant growth reductions with TW irrigation. Soil analysis found no significant differences between TW and FW irrigation.
Treatment Performance of Domestic Wastewater in a Tropical Constructed Wetlan...Oswar Mungkasa
prepared by Jonah S Butler* *Fulbright Scholar, DILG-GTZ Affiliate in Philippines: For Environmental Science Study on Wastewater Treatment. (Email: Jonahsbutler@gmail.com) for Urban Environments in Asia, 25-28 May 2011, Manila, Philippines. organized by International Water Association (IWA).
Influence of diluted seawater irrigation on the Physiological and biochemical...Premier Publishers
The document summarizes a study that investigated the effects of different dilutions of seawater irrigation on the physiological and biochemical characteristics of two common Egyptian turfgrasses: Seashore paspalum and Bermudagrass. The study found that low percentages of seawater dilution (10-30%) generally produced better results for most measured characteristics compared to higher dilutions or the control. Irrigation with 10-30% diluted seawater led to increased shoot growth, leaf area, plant succulence, and turf quality ratings, while decreasing leaf firing. Higher dilutions caused larger decreases in growth.
Nutritional Diagnosis of "Hass" Avocado (Persea Americana Mill.) Soil Fertili...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
This document analyzes the soil fertility, water quality, and nutritional state of avocado trees in two agrohabitats in Tepoztlán, Morelos, Mexico. Soil samples from eight-year-old avocado orchards in each agrohabitat were tested. The results showed differences in soil chemical properties between the agrohabitats that influenced nutrient levels in avocado leaves. Water samples were also tested. Nutrient levels in avocado leaves were interpreted using sufficiency ranges and the Deviation from Optimum Percentage method. This identified nutrient requirements in one agrohabitat and deficiencies in the other, which should be addressed in a fertilization program.
Effect of Soil Salinity on Growth of Millet in Lysimeter Experimentiosrjce
IOSR Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Science (IOSR-JAVS) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal edited by the International Organization of Scientific Research (IOSR). The journal provides a common forum where all aspects of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences are presented. The journal invites original papers, review articles, technical reports and short communications containing new insight into any aspect Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences that are not published or not being considered for publication elsewhere.
Effect of Untreated Brewery Wastewater on the Physicochemical Properties of A...ijtsrd
The increasing rate of environmental pollution especially of water bodies due to discharges from industries has become a serious challenge. Wastewater reuse is a useful tool in minimizing the amount of effluent discharge into the environment. This research was conducted to evaluate the effect of untreated brewery effluent on the physicochemical of soil and crop yield. The physicochemical properties of untreated effluent from a brewery and its effects on soil physiochemical properties and maize crop yield, were studied using standard analytical methods. The potential of brewery effluent as a nutrient source for crop production was assessed through pot culture experiments. The effluent was found to be slightly acidic in nature, and had high BOD and COD due to the presence of large amounts of solids. The effluent was rich in nitrate, phosphate and potassium, so that its application to the soil increased the values of available nutrients in the soil. The pH of the soil decreased gradually with increasing concentration of the effluent. The brewery effluent increased the moisture content and plant nutrients of the irrigated soil. In the pot culture studies, the growth parameters such as plant height, number of leaves, root length, fresh and dry weight, number of seeds per cob and the total chlorophyll content of the maize plants were measured. The growth of the maize plant was highest with 100 untreated effluent but low in productivity, while its productivity was highest with 50 effluent. The heavy metals content of the harvested maize analysed were all within permissible limit. This research revealed that brewery wastewater reuse in agriculture at 50 is an efficient tool for pollution control as well as improved soil properties and crop yield. Mbonu, C. F. | Onuorah, S. C. | Anaukwu, C. G. "Effect of Untreated Brewery Wastewater on the Physicochemical Properties of Agricultural Soil and Crop Yield" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-6 | Issue-4 , June 2022, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd50203.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/50203/effect-of-untreated-brewery-wastewater-on-the-physicochemical-properties-of-agricultural-soil-and-crop-yield/mbonu-c-f
Iran has achieved self-sufficiency in wheat production for the first time in 40 years due to adopting effective soil and crop management practices combined with improved wheat varieties. Key factors contributing to this success include selecting the right strategies through policy coordination, integrating agronomy, crop breeding, and policies, releasing high-yielding varieties, considering water use efficiency and productivity, developing pressurized irrigation systems, adopting conservation agriculture techniques, and guaranteeing market prices for wheat. However, drought, heat, cold, diseases, pests, and weeds remain challenges. Research priorities to further increase production include improving agronomic practices, applying physiology in breeding, developing durable rust resistance, and biotechnology tools like MAS.
Spearmint (Mentha spicata L.) Response to Deficit Irrigationpaperpublications3
Abstract: An experiment was conducted with the objective to identify the level of deficit irrigation which allows achieving optimal yield and investigate the effect of deficit irrigation practice on spearmint (Mentha Spicata L.) yield and yield components. The experiment was conducted at Koka research station of Wondo Genet Agricultural Research Center, Ethiopia latitude 8O26’, longitude 39O2’ and altitude 1602masl for two years (2011/2012 and 2012/2013 dry season). Nine treatments three level of irrigation water amount percentage based on evapo-transpiration of the crop (ETc) (100%ETc, 75%ETc and 50%ETc) and three types of furrow irrigation water application method (alternate furrow, fixed furrow and conventional furrow) were used in randomized completely block design (RCBD) with three replications. The pooled mean of two year data showed different level of deficit irrigation had a significant effect (p<0.05)><0.01) variation among treatments due to deficit irrigation on dry biomass yield per hectare, dry leaf yield per hectare, essential oil yield per hectare and water use efficiency. However, different deficit irrigation level had no significant influence on wet harvesting index. The highest fresh biomass, dry biomass, fresh leaf, dry leaf and essential oil yield per harvesting cycle of 12093kg/ha, 3746kg/ha, 8133kg/ha, 2441.1kg/ha and 37.0kg/ha respectively was obtained due to 100%ETc with conventional furrow application method. Moreover, the highest water use efficiency of 16.3x10-3kg/m3 was achieved due to deficit irrigation to 50%ETc with alternate furrow irrigation water application method. The study showed that the best treatment is deficit irrigation to 50%ETc with conventional furrow application method which had no significant variation with treatments that showed higher yields of spearmint including water use efficiency.
Agricultural potential of biosolids generated from dewatering of faecal sludg...Alexander Decker
The document summarizes a study that evaluated the agricultural potential of biosolids produced from dewatering faecal sludge on drying beds in Ghana. Various filter media and loading rates of faecal sludge were tested. Nutrients like carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium were within ranges that would support agricultural use. Heavy metal concentrations in the biosolids were very low and below limits for use in developing countries. The results indicate the biosolids have nutrient value and low risk of heavy metal contamination, suggesting potential for use as fertilizer in agriculture.
Determination of Arid and Temperature Resistant Sweet Corn (Zea mays sacchara...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
The objective of the present study is to identify aridity and temperature resistant sweet corn variety candidates and to provide resource material for development of new hybrid varieties. The research was designed as three-peat random blocks experimental design in Siirt and Sakarya locations in 2014, and irrigation application was conducted with drip irrigation method. Mean plant water consumption in control (I100) was 808 mm and 633 mm in Siirt and Sakarya, and the mean irrigation water amount was 684 mm and 138 mm, respectively. The statistical significances of differences among soil moisture content, chlorophyll-meter value, crop water stress index, fresh corncob, and grain yield were investigated. The arid and temperature resistant sweet corn line was determined according to soil moisture content, chlorophyll-meter value, and crop water stress index. The most arid and temperature resistant corn line, variety line #2, had the lowest moisture content and crop water stress index value but the highest chlorophyll-meter value. We found that to determine the arid and temperature resistant corn lines, soil moisture content values can also be used together with chlorophyll-meter values and crop water stress index.
The Effect of Mulching on Soil Moisture Retention and Yield of Lettuce (Lactu...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
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The Response of Chickpea Cultivars to Irrigation with Treated Wastewater
1. 1
Haddad, M, Khamis, M., Dakiky , A. Manassra and M.Qurie
(2006). "The Response of Chickpea Cultivars to Irrigation with
Treated Wastewater" Accepted for Oral Presentation and
Publication in Conference Proceedings of the Regional
EMWater Project Conference 2006 Conference on ‘’Efficient
Management of Wastewater Treatment and Reuse in the
Mediterranean Countries’’ to be held in Amman, Jordan from
30.10 to 01.11.2006.
2. 2
The Response of Chickpea Cultivars to Irrigation with Treated Wastewater
M. Haddad **
, M. Khamis* A
, M. Dakiky *, A. Manassra * and M. Qurie *
*Faculty of Science & Technology, Al-Quds University, P.O.B. 20002 East Jerusalem, Palestine
**
An Najah National University. Nablus, Palestine
A
To whom correspondence should be addressed: present e-mail:khamis@planet.edu
Abstract
A three years study was conducted to investigate the response of four cultivars of chickpea,
namely Bulgarit, WIR-32, Jordan and ICC 11293 to irrigation with treated wastewater (TW) and
freshwater (FW) using surface and subsurface drip irrigation systems. The results indicate that
two cultivars tested namely Bulgarit and ICC 11293 can be irrigated with effluent without any
loss in yield. An improvement in some biological growth parameters even was observed. WIR-32
and Jordan cultivars showed significant reduction in their biological growth parameters when
irrigated with TW as compared with FW. Surface and subsurface drip irrigation systems gave
similar results in most cases. The soil analysis showed no significant difference between
irrigation with TW and FW during the period of conducting this experiment.
Keywords: Chickpea, Surface Drip Irrigation, Sub-surface Drip Irrigation, Treated Effluent
3. 3
Introduction
Water in Palestine is a scarce resource where rural areas are suffering from shortage of water for
domestic and agricultural use. Many villages have just few hours feed of drinking water per
week. The low annual precipitation levels, inadequate water supply infrastructure, and increasing
water consumption and demand, all imply the contamination of springs that are the main supply
of drinking water in many rural areas and increase the vulnerability of the shallow aquifers in
these areas. It was found that many villagers including farmers are moving to nearby urban
centers seeking better economic and environmental conditions (Haddad1994).
Generated wastewater in rural areas of Palestine is disposed directly in open channels in the street
between houses or in the backyard for irrigation. These wet areas attract flies and mosquitoes
with the associated health risks, noxious odors and presents a considerable public health risk
(Haddad 1993). Wastewater in Palestine is not considered yet as an economic resource but as dirt
that needs not to be touched or used. Therefore, rural wastewater management including
treatment and reuse should be of great interest in Palestine. Treated wastewater is rich in
nutrients and can be used as a supplementary source of water for irrigation and non-drinking
domestic use. It may be utilized as a source for ground water artificial recharge. The treatment
process itself is an important pollution prevention action for soil, air, ground and surface water
resources. Hence the treatment and reuse process leads to an improvement of the socioeconomic
and public health conditions of people living in rural areas and consequently enhances their life
quality.
Chickpea, Cicer arietinum Linne, is an annual grain legume or pulse crop with multiple branch
and spreading growth habit annuals ranging from 8 to 40 in. tall. It is an ancient – self pollinated
crop cultivated on a large scale in arid and semiarid environments and is grown increasingly for
4. 4
the market. The choice of chickpea in this work is basically attributed to its characteristics as high
quality protein in the Palestinian Territory and the Middle East. It is eaten either baked or cooked,
and the demand and prices are increasing (Guler et. al 2001, Saxena et. al., 1996, Soltani et. al.,
2001, and Oplinger et. al., 1998). In most countries including Middle Eastern, chickpea is a rain
fed crop and water limitation has been shown to reduce chickpea yield (Silim and Saxena 1993
and Singh 1991, Hovav and Abbos 1999). Because of its deep tap root system, chickpea can
withstand drought conditions by extracting water from deeper in the soil profile (Oplinger et., al.,
1998). Late winter or early spring planting of chickpeas as currently practiced in the Palestinian
Territory further restricts the biological and grain yield of the crop. In order to support canopy
development in the autumn were water availability is minimum, it was indicated that chickpea
can be supplementary irrigated with treated wastewater (Bonfil and Pinthus 1995). Furthermore,
it was also found that when sown in winter, chickpea develops slowly, however once the
temperature rises and the daylight becomes longer, the plant develops more rapidly (Bussan et al.,
2001 and Netafim 2002).
The main goal of this study is to assess the effect of irrigation of different chickpea cultivars,
namely Bulgarit, Jordan, WIR 32 and ICC 11293 with treated wastewater as compared to
freshwater under identical experimental conditions. Furthermore, the response of soil to irrigation
with treated wastewater under field conditions is also investigated. A parallel goal of this study is
to develop agronomic information for the inclusion of chickpea in treated wastewater reuse in the
Palestinian Territory.
Methods and Materials
1. Experimental Site, Design and Details: The experimental site is situated at Al-Quds
University Campus in Abu-Dies, 5 km to the east of East Jerusalem. The number of students on
5. 5
this campus is approximately 5000 with kitchen, cafeteria, and dormitories for high school
students. The average wastewater production from this campus is 40 m3
/day.
2. Chickpea Cultivars Tested: The experiment was conducted on four chickpea cultivars. Two
of chickpeas cultivars were Disi type including Bulgarit and WIR-32. The other two were Kabuli
type including Jordan and ICC 11293. The Disi cultivars were found resistant to Ascochyta blight
while Jordan and ICC 11293 Kabuli type cultivars were less resistant. All cultivars were obtained
through local suppliers.
3. Climate: Table 1 includes monthly temperature, humidity, and rainfall variations for the
three growing seasons. Ambient temperatures were ranging from minimum of 4.5 o
C to a
maximum of 40.7 o
C. Humidity was ranging between 64% and 74%. The average rainfall for the
years 1999, 2000 and 2001 are 200, 273 and 315 mm, respectively.
4. Soil: Soil samples were collected before plantation and after harvest for the three cropping
seasons and taken to the laboratory for physical, chemical and biological analysis. For the
cropping season 2000-2001, soil samples were taken before plantation and after harvest from
three different depths (0-5, 5-30and 30-60 cm). The soil in the reuse site is a local characteristic
brown earth soil with mean particle size of 0.01 mm, physical texture (19% clay, 56% silt and
25% sand) and permeability of 7.1 x 10-6
cm/sec. Standard procedures were used for all soil
analysis (Ryan et. al., 1996).
6. 6
Table [1]: Monthly Temperature, Humidity, And Rainfall Variations For Three Growing
Seasons.
Parameter 1998/99 Total
Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr Mai Jun Jul Aug Sep
Temperature
o
C
Min 14.1 11.6 7.0 5.2 4.5 8.1 8.1 12.9 16.9 19.9 20.0 18.0
Ave 22.8 19.2 15.2 12.8 13.1 16.5 17.3 21.6 24.0 26.0 26.9 25.5
Max 39.3 28.3 30.6 21.8 28.0 29.4 29.7 40.7 31.2 31.8 33.0 33.2
Humidity % 64.8 73.8 63.6 71.3 71.6 66.2 69.3 66.7 73.4 74.2 72.0 69.4
Rain, mm 3.3 2.4 32.2 132.3 33.8 6.8 28.0 0 0 0 0 2.8 240.8
Parameter 1999/2000 Total
Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr Mai Jun Jul Aug Sep
Temperature
o
C
Min 14.6 5.9 4.9 2.1 3.6 6.5 9.4 11.2 16.7 19.5 19.6 16.5
Ave 22.5 18.8 14.5 11.4 11.9 13.2 18.7 20.6 24.2 26.9 26.5 25.0
Max 31.9 30.4 25.0 23.2 19.3 21.9 37.0 31.7 32.0 35.6 33.7 33.1
Humidity % 69.9 58.7 65.2 67.9 72.4 73.0 67.1 66.2 72.3 72.9 70.9 69.1
Rain, mm 18.6 9.9 27.1 201.9 70.2 45.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 372.7
Parameter 2000/2001 Total
Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr Mai Jun Jul Aug Sep
Temperature
o
C
Min 12.6 8.1 5.4 3.0 6.0 7.5 10.1 10.1 5.6 18.3 20.2 19.3
Ave 21.5 17.7 14.2 12.6 12.9 17.4 19.2 21.4 23.3 25.9 27.0 25.3
Max 36.4 29.0 24.9 23.4 24.8 37.0 37.2 38.4 32.9 32.0 32.4 32.2
Humidity % 68.5 55.4 72.2 69.2 68.3 72.6 64.8 64.2 65.9 73.5 71.3 68.7
Rain, mm 0 7.4 77.8 90.3 67.9 4.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 247.6
5. Fertilization: A fixed nitrogen level 80 kg/ha supplied as liquid (Deshanim, it has a ratio of
5:3:8 of N-P2O5-K2O) was provided for the field using computerized irrigation system (Netafim,
Israel).
6. Irrigation Water Quality: The study was performed using two types of irrigation water:
treated wastewater generated and collected from AL-Quds University campus and fresh water
received from municipal sources. Monthly grab Wastewater samples were taken from the raw
wastewater (influent) and the treated wastewater (effluent) during the experiment. Analysis of
pH, EC, BOD, solids and COD for wastewater samples were conducted using standard methods
for the examination of water and wastewater (APHA 1998).
a. Treatment System: A package wastewater treatment plant (produced by DOTAN ecology –
Israel) was installed at Al-Quds university main campus at Abu-Dies. It is based on the activated
sludge–extended aeration treatment process. The generated wastewater was collected from
7. 7
different places of Al-Quds University campus in a two-stage primary settling basin then pumped
to the treatment plant. The treated wastewater from the aeration compartment was tertiary treated
by flocculation, chlorination and sand filtration before collecting for reuse in a special pond.
Average values of influent and effluent wastewater quality parameters over three years of the
study are given in Table [2]. As shown in this table, treated wastewater quality conforms to
accepted irrigation water standards. The daily influent and effluent water quality values were
highly fluctuating due to the nature of water use within the campus and this explains the high
deviations from the average.
Table [2]: Chemical and biological analysis of wastewater before treatment (Influent) and after
treatment*
(Effluent).
Irrigation Water
Quality Standards**
EffluentInfluentParameters
6.5-8.47.5
s.d. 0.3
7.1
s.d. 0.2
pH
0.7-31.4
s.d. 0.3
1.65
s.d. 0.2
EC(ms/cm)
ـــــــ823
s.d 120
1120
s.d 200
TS (ppm)
450-2000747
s.d 104
876
s.d 200
TDS (ppm)
4530
s.d 20
244
s.d 50
TSS (ppm)
3015.5
s.d 10
12.4
s.d 10
NO3 (ppm)
350192
s.d 100
196
s.d 100
Cl-
(ppm)
6-91121SAR
3050
s.d 30
250
s.d 100
BOD (ppm)
130-160136
s.d 50
420
s.d 100
COD (ppm)
10000>1600Fecal Coliform
(count/100ml)
ـــــــ01.6 ± 105
Total Coliform
(count/100ml)
* Data are the average values obtained between 1999-2001.
** Ayers and Westcot 1985 and WHO 1989.
8. 8
b. Irrigation System: The drip irrigation system consists of distributing network pipes on the
surface and sub-surface. A tag filter (Arkal filtration system) is connected to the subsurface
network pipes after three weeks from plantation. A fertilizer pump, flow meter, pressure
regulator, pump filter, circuit valves are utilized in the network. The main pump is used to pump
the water from the water storage pond to the field experiment. The fertilizer pumps (Dostron
international, DI 16, and non-electric proportional liquid dispenser) are used to regulate and
control the fertilizer quantity that reaches the field automatically. The flow meter used to control
the quantity of water. The pressure regulator is used to control the pressure of water from the
main pump. The filter after the fertilizer pump (Arkal filtration system) is used to remove
impurities and large particles. Trickle lines were incorporated with pressure compensation
dripper (Netafim) that delivers 2 l/h. The irrigation system was fully computerized to control the
quantity of FW and TW.
c. Reuse experiments: The reuse experiment was conducted on the field of the campus near the
treatment plant. The field was divided into two main plots (125 m2
each). One plot was used for
surface drip irrigation, while the other was used for subsurface drip irrigation (the trickle lines
were installed 25-30 cm below surface). Each main plot was divided to two halves, one for
irrigation with fresh water (FW), and the other for irrigation with treated wastewater (TW). Both
plots were subjected to 4 mm of irrigation per day over 100 days of the growing season.
Three different cultivars of chickpea, namely: Jordan, WIR-32, and Bulgarit were sawn in the
field in March 1999 and 2000. The seeds were planted on both sides of the trickle line with 12
seeds/m in four replicates for each cultivar in a given treatment. Germination of the seeds was
achieved by applying sprinkler irrigation (30-mm field). 100% germination was obtained after 14
days of sawing. The same experiment was done in March 2001 using two cultivars: Bulgarit and
ICC 11293.
9. 9
Plant samples were collected after harvest time. Three plants from each replicate were collected,
dried at 70 C for three days and analyzed for minerals in the dry matter. Microbiology tests were
conducted on the fresh plants, soil and water samples using standard procedure (Ryan et. al.,
1996). The same standards procedures were also used for nutrient determination in both parts of
plant (the seeds and leaves).
For biological growth parameters (efficiency, biomass, grain yield, harvest index and day to 50%
flowering), four plants from each replicate were chosen randomly and monitored during the
season. The mean value of the indicator was calculated and the error bars were determined by
calculating the standard deviation for each set of experiment.
Results and Discussions
1. Effect of TW on Soil Parameters
Table [3] and Table [4] summarize the soil analysis from both parts of the main plot. There was
no significant difference for soil pH between irrigation with TW compared to FW. The EC of soil
before plantation in the season 1999 was higher than that of the season 2000 . The data also
indicated that the chloride, potassium and bicarbonate content in soil before plantation and after
harvesting, in season 1999 were also higher than that obtained in season 2000. This is due to the
high rainfall in year 2000, causing increase soil leaching and thus lowering the salt content of
soil. The results show that for the same year, no significant difference between soils EC irrigated
with TW and that with (FW) with both irrigation technologies. The after harvesting samples
showed the same trend.
11. 11
Soil sodium content before plantation was higher than that after harvesting, which is due to
leaching of the ions during the growing season. The results also show that no variation between
irrigation with TW as compared to FW in Na content in soil using surface and subsurface drip
irrigation. Similar findings were observed for the seasons 1999 and 2000. No leaf burning was
observed during the three cropping seasons indicating that soil sodium content is within
acceptable ranges. Data of soil analysis indicate that the organic nitrogen and phosphorus in soil
after harvesting was higher than that before plantation due to the use of external fertilizer in
which N and P are added with irrigation. The concentration of N and P did not suffer from heavy
rain as others ions. The increase of N and P contents in soil that was irrigated with TW is due to
the extra content of N and P in TW than FW. Data for the seasons 1999 and 2000 show similar
trend.
The total plate count (TPC) in soil for season 1999 indicate that irrigating with FW reduced the
microbial population in soil either with surface or sub-surface drip irrigation system. However,
the sub-surface drip irrigation with TW resulted in higher microbial activity than surface drip
one. This result indicates that environmental conditions on the surface reduce microbial
population. The results (season 2000 and 2001) of soil total coliform (TC) (count/100ml) before
plantation indicated differences between surface and sub-surface drip systems and between FW
and TW. High removal rates were observed of soil TC after harvest. The difference between
TPC and TC numbers after harvest indicate that the initial soil microbiology is not highly
affected while TW contribution to this population after harvest is low and acceptable. The same
conclusion was reached for the fecal coliforms test.
2. Effect of TW on Chickpea Growth
a. Efficiency: Table [5] displays the results for the efficiency of forming pods of the
different chickpea cultivars for the seasons 1999 and 2000. The efficiency is defined as the
12. 12
number of pods forming seeds divided by the total pods and nods in the growing window. The
data indicate that the efficiency in the year 2000 is higher than that in the year 1999. No
significant difference between irrigation with TW as compared to FW in both years. Also there is
no difference between surface and subsurface drip irrigation for all the three cultivars. Table [6]
shows the efficiency for the cultivar ICC11293 in the third year. It shows similar value between
irrigation with TW as compared to FW using both irrigation technologies.
14. 14
Table [6]: Biological growth parameter and phonology for the chickpea cultivar ICC 11293 irrigated with TW
and FW during 2001 season.
Parameters FW TW
Growth
parameter
Surface Subsurface Surface Subsurface
Biomass
(kg/m2
)
0.41
s.d 0.06
0.5
s.d 0.06
0.56
s.d 0.07
0.45
s.d 0.06
Grain yield
(g/m2
)
169
s.d 12
170
s.d 14
142
s.d 22
155
s.d 22
Harvest index 0.41
s.d 0.04
0.34
s.d 0.05
0.23
s.d 0.07
0.35
s.d 0.05
Efficiency 0.45
s.d 0.06
0.52
s.d 0.04
0.42
s.d 0.06
0.50
s.d 0.10
Days to 50%
flowering
60 60 58 60
b. Biomass Production: Table [5] displays the variation of the biomass in (kg/m2
) of the different chickpea
cultivars for the seasons 1999 and 2000. The biomass definition is the weight of plant cut over the root (from the
surface of field) after it is completely dried. The data indicate that the biomass of the three cultivars of chickpea
is higher for 2000 as compared to 1999. In 1999 Jordan and WIR-32 cultivars gave less biomass when irrigated
with TW, as compared to FW. On the other hand, the cultivar Bulgarit gave good results when irrigated with TW
as compared to FW. In the year 2000 the general note that the Bulgarit biomass increased when irrigated with
effluent as compared to FW using surface and subsurface drip irrigation is still valid. However, Jordan and WIR-
32 showed different performance, while WIR-32 maintained its decrease in biomass as a result of irrigation with
TW, the cultivars Jordan changed this trend and showed similar results when compared to irrigation with FW.
This can be explained by the increase in rainfall in the year 2000 (273mm) as compared to the year 1999
(200mm) which resulted in the observed tolerance of Jordan. Upon comparing the results of the two years, it is
obvious that in 1999 the cultivar Bulgarit gave higher biomass when using TW as compared to FW, while Jordan
and WIR-32 show a decrease in their biomass. In the second year Bulgarit and Jordan cultivars display a
pronounced performance in their biomass when irrigated with TW under lower salt stress as compared to FW in
15. 15
contrast to the year 1999 where only Bulgarit showed this behavior. The biomass of cultivar ICC 11293 (Table
[6]) when irrigated with effluent was 0.56 kg/m2
and 0.45 kg/m2
for surface and subsurface irrigation
respectively. On the other hand the FW gave biomass of 0.41 kg/m2
and 0.5 kg/m2
for surface and subsurface
irrigation respectively. These data indicate while TW gave no significant effect on the biomass of ICC 11293
cultivars as compared to FW using subsurface irrigation technology, an improvement with surface drip irrigation
using TW is observed.
c. Grain Yield : The variation of the grain yield for the different cultivars of chickpea is displayed in Table [5].
The grain yield definition is the weight of dried seeds of 1 m2
of plant in grams. In 1999 the grain yield of
Bulgarit when irrigated with TW was similar to that when irrigated with FW using surface and subsurface
technologies. Jordan and WIR-32 showed a decrease in their grain yield when irrigated with TW for both
technologies.
In year 2000 the cultivars Bulgarit and Jordan show improvement in the grain yield for TW and surface drip
irrigation. The cultivar WIR-32 shows a decrease in its grain yield in both surface and subsurface drip irrigation
using TW as compared to (FW). The data shown in Table [6] indicate that irrigation of the cultivar ICC11293 for
the season 2001 with treated effluent as compared to the results of FW gave similar results.. This means that no
significant effect of irrigation with TW using both irrigation technologies as compared to FW.
d. Harvest Index: The harvest index (the dry weight of seeds divided by the dry weight of the above the ground
biomass of the plant) was altered in the different seasons and by changing the irrigation technique. Tables [5] and
[6] display the variation of harvest index of different cultivars of chickpea for the seasons 1999 and 2000. The
harvest index in 1999 is higher than that in 2000 for all cultivars using the two different irrigation technologies.
In 1999 the harvest index for all cultivars using TW are less than that of FW. In 2000 the harvest index of
Bulgarit cultivar increased when using TW. Jordan and WIR-32 suffered from irrigation with TW although the
16. 16
cultivars Jordan shows some resistant to effluent in year 2000 compared to year 1999, due to the effects of
rainfall. The harvest index for the cultivars ICC 11293 decreased.
e. Phonology: The phonology of all cultivars used was classified by the irrigation with FW, TW and for surface
and subsurface system (Tables [5] and [6]).. The Days to 50% flowering definition is the time at which the plants
have at least one flowering for each. The data in the Tables indicate that no difference between the time for 50%
flowering upon irrigation with TW as compared to FW using both irrigation technologies.
3. Effect of Effluent on Chickpea Chemical Uptake
Sodium, potassium, phosphorous, organic nitrogen, and microbiological analysis of leafs and seeds were
necessary to control if the irrigation with TW may have affected the composition of the seeds or/and leafs of
plant. The data are presented in Tables [7], [8], [9] and [10]. Tables [7] and [8] show that the sodium content in
season 1999 was higher than that of the season 2000 in all three chickpea cultivars. This can be attributed to the
difference in rainfall between the two years, which resulted in leaching the soil. The sodium content for seeds and
leafs shows no significant difference between TW as compared to FW using both irrigation technologies. The
sodium content in leafs of the ICC 11293 in the season 2001 is higher than that in seeds (Table [9]). But both
seeds and leafs show no difference, in sodium content, between irrigation with TW as compared to FW using
surface and subsurface drip irrigation. On the other hand, Potassium content in season 2000 was higher than the
season 1999. However, similar to sodium, the potassium content for both seasons gave no significant difference
between irrigated with TW as compared to FW using the two irrigation technologies. Similar trend is also
observed for ICC 11293 (Table [9]). Phosphorous in season 1999 was higher than season 2000. The P content in
leafs is higher than that in seeds for both seasons. In the two seasons the P content in seeds and leafs indicated
that no different between irrigation with TW as compared to FW using surface and subsurface drip irrigation for
all the cultivars.
The phosphorus content in the seeds and leafs of the cultivar ICC 11293 9Table [9]) indicates that the leafs
phosphorus content is higher than the seed in surface drip irrigation and approximately the same in subsurface
17. 17
drip irrigation. Leafs and seeds show no difference between the irrigation with TW as compared to FW with two
different irrigation technologies. Organic nitrogen content in leafs and seeds of the different cultivars of chickpea
for the first two seasons indicated that seeds and leaves have approximately the same values for both season. In
both seeds and leafs, no significant difference between the organic nitrogen content upon irrigation with TW as
compared to FW for all cultivars.
The results of total coliform (TC) and fecal coliform (FC) (Table [10]) of the different type of plant indicate that
there is no clear trend between irrigation with TW as compared to FW. It can be concluded that there is no extra
risk is involved upon irrigation with TW that have similar quality as compared to FW. This is not surprising since
the TW is continuously chlorinated to kill all microorganisms.
Table [7]: Chemical analysis of leafs for Bolgarit, Jordan, and WIR 32 cultivars of chickpea that irrigated with
TW and F.W during 1999 and 2000 seasons.
Sample Na
mg/g
K
mg/g
NH4
-
mg/g
P
mg/g
1999 2000 1999 2000 1999 2000 1999 2000
Bolgarit
FW-Surface
5.74
s.d.1.7
4.88
s.d.0.7
11.57
s.d.1.8
12.9
s.d.1.4
1.16
s.d.0.20
2.16
s.d. 0.7
5.64
s.d.1.9
5.56
s.d.0.4
Jordan
FW-Surface
7.92
s.d. 2.8
4.25
s.d.1.7
10.83
s.d.1.1
11.8
s.d.1.7
1.23
s.d.0.2
2.5
s.d.0.5
7.63
s.d.2.3
4.7
s.d.0.8
WIR-32
FW-Surface
6.89
s.d.1.6
5.08
s.d.0.8
13.5
s.d.1.1
10.6
s.d.3.1
1.08
s.d.0.2
1.76
s.d.0.4
7.49
s.d.1.9
5.11
s.d.0.4
Bolgarit
FW-Subsurface
6.37
s.d.0.9
3.98
s.d.0.9
11.3
s.d.0.6
19.33
s.d.0.5
1.15
s.d.0.1
2.37
s.d.0.4
7.63
s.d.1.8
4.99
s.d.0.9
Jordan
FW-Subsurface
6.11
s.d.1.9
3.95
s.d.0.7
12.27
s.d.0.6
10.8
s.d.0.09
1.33
s.d.0.10
2.87
s.d.0.4
7.53
s.d.1.9
4.972
s.d.0.4
WIR-32
FW-Subsurface
6.14
s.d.1.1
5.81
s.d.0.3
12.89
s.d.1.4
6.95
s.d.1.2
1.26
s.d.0.1
1.90
s.d.0.3
7.22
s.d.1.9
6.03
s.d.0.4
Bolgarit
TW-Surface
7.45
s.d.1.6
2.88
s.d.0.2
11.91
s.d.1.0
11.3
s.d.0.9
1.89
s.d. 0.3
2.2
s.d.0.2
9.42
s.d.0.9
4.52
s.d. 0.5
Jordan
TW-Surface
9.04
±3.4
2.42
±0.8
12.44
±1.3
15.26
±0.9
3.23
±0.9
2.43
±0.4
10.13
± 2.40
3.32
±0.7
WIR-32
TW-Surface
5.33
s.d. 1.0
3.95
s.d. 0.2
14.29
s.d.0.1
16.7
s.d.1.0
2.82
s.d. 1.0
3.05
s.d. 1.3
7.45
s.d. 1.0
4.85
s.d. 0.2
19. 19
Table [9]: Chemical analysis of leafs and seeds of ICC 11293 cultivar irrigated with TW and F.W during 2001
season
Irrigation
technique
Leafs Seeds
K (mg/g) Na
(mg/g)
Organic
N (mg/g)
P (mg/g) K (mg/g) Na
(mg/g)
Organic
N (mg/g)
P (mg/g)
FW-Surface 1.40
s.d. 0.20
0.97
s.d. 0.20
3.48
s.d. 0.70
8.39
s.d. 0.10
1.81
s.d. 0.10
0.19
s.d. 0.10
9.98
s.d. 1.00
3.47
s.d. 0.10
TW-
Subsurface
2.02
s.d. 0.40
1.19
s.d. 0.10
4.46
s.d. 1.80
10.3
s.d. 0.20
2.0
s.d. 0.02
0.31
s.d. 0.10
11.2
s.d. 0.70
5.45
s.d. 0.10
FW-
Subsurface
1.45
s.d. 0.10
0.68
s.d. 0.40
2.99
s.d. 1.10
3.49±0.05 1.84
s.d. 0.05
0.23
s.d. 0.03
9.68
s.d. 1.50
3.80
s.d. 0.40
TW-
Subsurface
2.02
s.d. 0.05
0.91
s.d. 0.20
3.80
s.d. 0.50
4.94
s.d. 0.80
1.74
s.d. 0.09
0.21
s.d. 0.06
9.45
s.d. 0.70
4.82
s.d. 0.30
Table [10]: Fecal Coliform (FC) and total coliform (TC) (count/100ml) of plant irrigated with TW and FW for
1999, 2000 and 2001 seasons
Sample TC
(99)
TC
(2000)
TC
(2001)
FC
(99)
FC
(2000)
FC
(2001)
FW-Surface 170 170 500 <20 70 < 10
TW-Surface 210 220 600 <20 20 20
FW-
Subsurface
300 900 400 <20 200 < 10
TW-
Subsurface
450 330 900 <20 110 < 10
Conclusions
The response of four cultivars of chickpea, namely Bulgarit, WIR-32, Jordan and ICC11293 to irrigation using
TW and FW during three years revealed that irrigation TW is highly comparative with FW.
20. 21
Two cultivars tested namely Bulgarit and ICC 11293 can be irrigated with TW, using surface and subsurface
irrigation systems, without any loss in yield. Furthermore, irrigation with TW improved some biological growth
parameters of these cultivars. WIR-32 and Jordan cultivars showed significance reduction in their biological
growth parameters when irrigated with TW as compared with fresh water.
Surface and subsurface drip irrigation gave similar results for the four cultivars. However, the overall efficiency
in the growing season of year 2000 was higher than that in the year 1999 for both systems. Chemical composition
of seeds and leafs were also similar for the four cultivars. The soil analysis shows no significant difference
between irrigation with TW and FW during this period.
ACKNOWLEGEMENT
The authors wish to thank Professor Uzi Kafkafi and Professor Abbo Shahal for their support and cooperation
throughout the work. Our thanks are due to the Palestinian consultancy group (PCG), the Belgium government
for their collaboration and encouragement. The activities of this research were sponsored in part under EU INCO-
DC contract number ERB IC 18-CT 98-072
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