The document outlines key methods in qualitative research including observation, interviews, and fieldnotes. Observation involves scoping the field, taking descriptive notes, and focused observation. Interviews can be unstructured, semi-structured, or structured. Fieldnotes include descriptive, methodological, and reflective notes. The qualitative researcher takes on roles of observer, learner, and reflects through journaling to understand participants' perspectives. These methods allow for triangulation to develop a rich understanding of the social phenomenon under study.

1. TheThe ‘‘QualitativeQualitative’’ ResearchResearch
Process:Process:
Techniques for ResearchTechniques for Research
Dr Fiona M Beals

2. Lecture AimsLecture Aims
Review key research methods brought to
qualitative research by ethnographic
designs
Outline the role of the qualitative researcher
Introduce and look at methods of:
– Observation
– Interviews
– Fieldnotes
– Reflective Journaling

3. ObservationObservation

4. Why Observe?Why Observe?
To develop a theory
To prove/disprove a theory
Making use of an “opportunity” (Wolcott,
1995)
Provide a thick description to analyse
Provide an instrument of triangulation
(alongside interviewing and fieldnotes)

5. What to observeWhat to observe
 Interactions
– Between people
– Between people and settings
– Between people and yourself
 Behaviours
– Reactions
– Routines
– Interactions
 The Context/Setting
 The overt and the covert

6. How?How?
Traditional
– Eyes, pen, and paper
Technological
– Cameras/Video/ICT
Combination
– Trad+Post
– Even the post involves
a level of the traditional

7. To what degree/levelTo what degree/level
 Four phases of observation
1. Scoping
2. Descriptive
3. Focused
4. Selective
 Each involves a different
focus/depth

8. Phase One: ScopingPhase One: Scoping
Familisation with the setting
– Setting mapping
– Apparent rules/structures
– General impressions
– Your own reactions
– Any thoughts/hypotheses
A reflexive tool
Jottings and diagrams

9. Phase Two: DescriptivePhase Two: Descriptive
Detailed descriptions of settings,
interactions, and behaviours
Focuses on questions that can be addressed
through observation
- the inquisitive eye
Uses delimiters and descriptors for current
details and future reference

10. Phase Two: DescriptivePhase Two: Descriptive
Includes
– Setting description
– Recorded descriptions of events, interactions,
and individuals
– Time intervals
 Points of reference
 Points of description
– Researcher Reflection

12. Phase Three: FocusedPhase Three: Focused
ObservationObservation
Descriptive observation focusing on
specific descriptive questions:
– Space
– Objects
– Time
– Behaviours
– Individuals

13. Descriptive QuestionsDescriptive Questions
Space Object Act Activity Event Time Actor Goal Feeling
Space
Object
Act
Activity
Event
Time
Actor
Goal
Feeling From Spradley (1980)

14. Descriptive QuestionsDescriptive Questions
Space Object Act Activity Event Time Actor Goal Feeling
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Object
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Event
Time
Actor
Goal
Feeling

15. Descriptive QuestionsDescriptive Questions
Space Object Act Activity Event Time Actor Goal Feeling
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Goal
Feeling

16. Descriptive QuestionsDescriptive Questions
Space Object Act Activity Event Time Actor Goal Feeling
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Goal
Feeling

17. Descriptive QuestionsDescriptive Questions
Space Object Act Activity Event Time Actor Goal Feeling
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Feeling

18. Descriptive QuestionsDescriptive Questions
Space Object Act Activity Event Time Actor Goal Feeling
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Goal
Feeling

19. Descriptive QuestionsDescriptive Questions
Space Object Act Activity Event Time Actor Goal Feeling
Space
Object
Act
Activity
Event
Time
Actor
Goal
Feeling

20. Phase Four: SelectivePhase Four: Selective
ObservationObservation
 The focusing down of ‘focus observations’
 Looks at filling in the gaps
 Providing other dimensions to focused
observations and the phenomenon in question
 Focuses on the specifics
– Individual
– Event
– Behaviour
– Context

21. Observation and TechnologyObservation and Technology
What are the strengths of involving
technology as an observation tool?
What ‘new’ dilemmas arise from using
technology as an observation tool?
Do paper and pen still have a role to play
alongside technology?
What is this role?

22. InterviewsInterviews

23. Research InterviewingResearch Interviewing
 Unstructured
– Conversation
– Central to ethnography
 Semi-structured
– Broad open questions with prompting
– Fits within most qualitative paradigms
 Structured
– Tight questions with limited or already given responses
– Quantitative/positivist research
– Mixed paradigm research
– Technology-based methodologies (phone interviewing,
ICT research)

24. Unstructured InterviewingUnstructured Interviewing
Conversations in the field
Ideally recorded on tape or after the
research
Requires the researcher to be skilled:
– In holding conversations
– In listening
– In focusing/re-focusing conversations
Requires time

25. Semi-Structured InterviewingSemi-Structured Interviewing
Guided conversations
Uses broad opening questions which can be
redirected by interviewee or interviewer
Uses verbal prompting
Allows for the development of
conversation/research skills
Generally piloted beforehand
Recorded on tape and on paper

26. Structured InterviewingStructured Interviewing
Focused conversations
Uses tight questions which require set
responses (sometimes given)
Reflects survey research
Allows for collection of theme-driven data
Requires piloting with similar sample
Recorded on Paper

27. Interviewing and ParadigmsInterviewing and Paradigms
 Different interviews suit different paradigms of
research
– Where do you think??
 Structured is used most
 Unstructured is used most
 Semi-structured is used most
 Unless theory building most qualitative research
uses semi-structured interviews
 Mixed design uses a mixture of structured and
semi-structured questions

28. What leads to a goodWhat leads to a good
interviewinterview
 Rapport
– Before the interview
– The first question/opening comments
 Reciprocity
– You shouldn’t be the only one gaining from the interview
 Acceptance of the unexpected
– Unanswered questions
 Self-Confidence
– Practice and faith in oneself

29. Ann Oakley (1981): TheAnn Oakley (1981): The
Central DilemmaCentral Dilemma
Who holds power in the interview process?
Who gains from research?
What is false about ‘rapport’
in qualitative research
interviewing?
When does the
relationship finish?

30. FieldnotesFieldnotes

31. FieldnotesFieldnotes
Sit alongside observations and interviews
Detailed notes and reflections of the field
Three types
– Descriptive
– Methodological
– Reflexive
Occur after/before – rather than during

32. Descriptive FieldnotesDescriptive Fieldnotes
 Include observations
(scoping, descriptive,
focused, and selective)
 Describe the field –
including maps,
setting descriptions,
and individual
description

33. Methodological FieldnotesMethodological Fieldnotes
 Reflections on
methodological
approaches being used
 Notes on any changes
to any approach being
used

34. Reflexive FieldnotesReflexive Fieldnotes
 Journaling of own
learning/experiences/
thoughts throughout the
process
 May sit within or
alongside descriptive and
methodological notes
 Technically seen as
journaling of experience

35. Leading to the Role of theLeading to the Role of the
Qualitative ResearcherQualitative Researcher

36. The ReseacherThe Reseacher’’s Roles Role
“Being There”, “Getting Nosy” and “Looking
Over Others’ Shoulders” (Wolcott, 1995)

37. The ReseacherThe Reseacher’’s Roles Role
Being a learner
– ‘Sucking in’ the atmosphere of the field
– Reflecting on your own experiences

38. DilemmasDilemmas
What dilemmas and issues to research does
the practice of observation bring?
How can fieldnotes counter these issues and
dilemmas?
What else can the researcher do to ensure
that the story makes sense intrinsically (on
an emic level) and extrinsically (on an etic
level)?

39. Outside of EthnographyOutside of Ethnography
 Scoping observations are central to making sure
that the research makes sense in itself
 Fieldnotes ensures that researchers are observing
the field and themselves throughout the research
 Fieldnotes allow for the subjective nature of
qualitative research to be acknowledged and, if
necessary, discussed
 Interviews work as a tool of triangulation ensuring
that the story ‘fits’ and makes sense in itself

40. SummarySummary
The three key methods in qualitative
research are
– Observations
– Interviews
– Fieldnotes
It is important to use more than one (across
or within) to allow for triangulation