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Observation instrument in qualitative research
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- 3. Observations Observation is routine: •“largely unconscious and unsystematic” (p. 138) Observation is a research tool • Systematic • addresses a specific research question • subject to the checks and balances • Highly subjective • Unreliable nature Human perception is very selective. Critics of participant observation
- 4. Marshal&Rossman (1989) (as cited inKawulich, systematic description of events, behaviors, and artifacts in the social setting chosen for study Schensul (1999) (as cited in Kawulich, the process of learning through exposure to or involvement in the day- to-day or routine activities of participants in the researcher setting Patton (2015) (as cited in Merriam&Tisdell, 2015) Importance of trained observations Wolcott (1992) (as cited in Merriam&Tisdell, Selective attention to a few things
- 5. To be asystematic observer • Know how to pay attention • Know how to write descriptive notes • Know how to identify necessary details • Know how to validate and triangulate Why to observe? • “To notice things that have become routine to the participants themselves” (p. 139) • To triangulate • Reference points for subsequent interviews - “Anchored interviewing” • To minimize uncomfortable topics for participants
- 6. What to observe(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). • What to observe is determined by several factors. • The most important is the researcher’s purpose in conducting the study in the first place. The theoretical framework, the problem, and the questions of interest determine what is to be observed.
- 7. • A researchermust have the time, money, and energy to devote to observation. • Must be allowed to observe by those in the situation of interest. • Observers need to be open to early impressions and feelings about what is going on in a setting. Certain behavior is difficult to observe Everyone & Everything is new Try to observe everything
- 8. Structured & Lessstructured Observation However: Where to focus or stop action cannot be determined ahead of time • Observations can be compared to a television camera scanning the area. • The researcher can decide ahead of time to concentrate on observing certain events, behaviors, or persons The researcher can or / cannot decide ahead of time to concentrate on observing certain events, behaviors, or persons.
- 9. • The physicalsetting (the physical environment, content, space allocation, objects, resources, technologies in the setting…). • The participants (who is in the scene, how many people, and their roles. What brings these people together? What are the relevant). • Activities and interactions (related to activity of people and their interactions; how did the activity begin, how long does it last) Several writers present lists of things to observe, at least to get started in the activity.
- 10. • Conversation (thecontent of conversation, who listens, who speaks…). • Subtle factors (nonverbal communication…). • Your own behavior (observer‘s role, participation, activity in the setting). Several writers present lists of things to observe, at least to get started in the activity.
- 11. The process ofcollecting data through observations can be broken into the three stages: entry, data collection, and exit. Gaining entry into a site begins with gaining the confidence and permission of those who can approve the activity. . This step is more easily accomplished through a mutual contact who can recom- mend the researcher to the “gatekeepers” involved. Most writers do recommend that when learning to do field work, sessions of an hour or less are recommended. Required time
- 12. Bogdan and Biklen(2011) • What are you actually going to do? • Will you be disruptive? • What are you going to do with your findings? • Why us? Why have “they or their organizations” been “singled out for study”? (p. 88) • What will we get out of this? (pp. 87-88) To increase the chances of gaining entry it is importat to prepare to answer these questions
- 13. Bogdan and Biklen(2011) • “Do not take what happens in the field personally” (p. 91). • Have someone on site introduce you. • Keep the first observations fairly short to avoid becoming overwhelmed with the novelty of the situation. • Be relatively passive and unobtrusive, put people at ease, learn how to act and dress in the setting. • Be friendly and honest but not overly technical or detailed in explaining what you are doing. Once the researcher have gained entry…
- 14. Gold’s (1958) classictypology offers a spec- trum of four possible stances. • Complete participant - The researcher fully integrating into a study group while hiding their observer status to avoid altering the group's behavior. - This method offers valuable insider insights but risks ethical issues, loss of objectivity, and potential mistrust if the researcher's true role is discovered.
- 15. Gold’s (1958) classictypology offers a spec- trum of four possible stances. • Participant as observer - The researcher being actively involved in the group while their role in data collection is acknowledged by the group members. - This approach balances participation with observation to gather detailed data, negotiating the depth of information with the confidentiality granted to the participants.
- 16. Gold’s (1958) classictypology offers a spec- trum of four possible stances. • Observer as participant - The researcher being recognized by the group as primarily an observer rather than an active member. This position allows for a broad scope of information from many people, but the depth of information is limited by what the group chooses to reveal. - Researchers maintain some interaction without engaging in key group activities, establishing a insider's perspective without full participation.
- 17. Gold’s (1958) classictypology offers a spec- trum of four possible stances. • Complete observer The researcher is either hidden from the group (for example, behind a one-way mirror) or in a completely public setting such as an airport or library.
- 18. Recording observations • Fieldnotes = transcripts • 3 types- continuous notetaking- taking sketchy notes- not recording at all • Rely on memory & notes but tape-recording is also useful. • It is recommended to write full detailed notes after observation
- 19. Suggestions for recallingdata by Taylor and Bogdan (1984) • Pay attention to shift from a “wide angle” to a “narrow-angle” lens • Look for keywords in people’s remarks that will stand out later • Concentrate on the first and last remarks in each conversation • Mentally playback remarks and scenes during breaks in the talking or observing
- 20. Notes format • Time,place, and purpose of the observation • List of the participants, profession, etc • Demographic characteristics (age and gender) • A diagram of the setting’s physical aspects • Wide margin on one side of the page for later notes • Double space between segments of activity • Page numbering
- 21. Content of fieldnotes • Verbal descriptions of the setting, the people, the activities • Direct quotations or at least the substance of what people said • Observer’s comments(reflection, feelings, impressions, reactions, initial interpretations) • Field notes should be highly descriptive
- 22. Digital, online observation •Online discussions, blogs • Participant observer or “lurker” (If no password is required) • Include descriptions, direct quotations, and observer comments
- 23. Examples in Empiricalstudies Topic Creativity in virtual spaces: Communication modes employed during collaborative online music composition Authors Biasutti (2015) Research questions 1. What communication modes do participants employ during the online activities? 2. What are the differences between face-to-face and online composition? Methods • video recording observation of the participants’ interactions • individual semi-structured interviews Aim: to focus on the natural process in which a composition is collectively formed rather than to impose on the musicians a lab situation in which several conditions and a pre- constructed scheme affect their performance. Results The video recording analysis revealed that participants engaged in verbal and nonverbal communication modes during the virtual composing experience. Verbal instruction was used to give a command, verbal cooperation was used to solve organizational or technical
- 24. Topic Teaching forcreativity: Examining the beliefs of early childhood teachers and their influence on teaching practices Authors Cheung (2012) Research questions 1. What do early childhood teachers believe are the best ways to facilitate creativity in the classroom according to the domains; namely, the characteristics of creative teachers, the appropriate environment for developing creativity, the strategies of creative practice, and the creative product? 2. To what extent do teachers’ classroom practices reflect their beliefs? Methods • Semi-structured interviews • Classroom observations were used to collect data. Results This study has shown a relatively weak relationship between the teachers’ beliefs and their actual classroom practices. The results indicate that, while most teachers held similar beliefs about good creative practices, their teaching practices appeared not to be based on their
- 25. Conclus ion Observations are valuable due toits it is a firsthand account. Observation can provide a holistic interpretation in combination with interview and document analysis Observers can be insiders and outsiders. Observations are half the process.