Qualitative methods instruments

1. Observation in
Research
Elmira
Nargiz
Kamila

2. Field work/Field study
Interview
Document
Analysis
Observation
Observati
on

3. Observations
Observation is routine:
• “largely unconscious and unsystematic”
(p. 138)
Observation is a research tool
• Systematic
• addresses a specific research question
• subject to the checks and balances • Highly subjective
• Unreliable nature
Human perception is very selective.
Critics of participant
observation

4. Marshal&Rossman
(1989) (as cited
in Kawulich,
systematic description of events,
behaviors, and artifacts in the social
setting chosen for study
Schensul (1999)
(as cited in
Kawulich,
the process of learning through
exposure to or involvement in the day-
to-day or routine activities of
participants in the researcher setting
Patton (2015) (as
cited in
Merriam&Tisdell,
2015)
Importance of trained observations
Wolcott (1992)
(as cited in
Merriam&Tisdell,
Selective attention to a few things

5. To be a systematic observer
• Know how to pay attention
• Know how to write descriptive notes
• Know how to identify necessary details
• Know how to validate and triangulate
Why to
observe?
• “To notice things that have become routine to the participants themselves” (p. 139)
• To triangulate
• Reference points for subsequent interviews - “Anchored interviewing”
• To minimize uncomfortable topics for participants

6. What to observe (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016).
• What to observe is determined
by several factors.
• The most important is the
researcher’s purpose in
conducting the study in the
first place.
The theoretical
framework,
the problem, and the
questions of interest
determine what is to be
observed.

7. • A researcher must have the time,
money, and energy to devote to
observation.
• Must be allowed to observe by those in
the situation of interest.
• Observers need to be open to early
impressions and feelings about what is
going on in a setting.
Certain behavior is difficult to observe
Everyone &
Everything
is new
Try to observe
everything

8. Structured & Less structured Observation
However: Where to focus or stop action cannot be determined ahead of time
• Observations can be compared to a television
camera scanning the area.
• The researcher can decide ahead
of time to concentrate on
observing certain events,
behaviors, or persons
The researcher can or / cannot decide ahead of
time to concentrate on observing certain events,
behaviors, or persons.

9. • The physical setting (the physical environment, content, space
allocation, objects, resources, technologies in the setting…).
• The participants (who is in the scene, how many people, and
their roles. What brings these people together? What are the
relevant).
• Activities and interactions (related to activity of people and
their interactions; how did the activity begin, how long does it last)
Several writers present lists of things to
observe, at least to get started in the activity.

10. • Conversation (the content of conversation, who listens, who
speaks…).
• Subtle factors (nonverbal communication…).
• Your own behavior (observer‘s role, participation, activity in
the setting).
Several writers present lists of things to observe,
at least to get started in the activity.

11. The process of collecting data through
observations can be broken into the three
stages: entry, data collection, and exit.
Gaining entry into a site begins with gaining
the confidence and permission of those
who can approve the activity.
. This step is more
easily accomplished
through a mutual
contact who can recom-
mend the researcher to
the “gatekeepers”
involved.
Most writers do recommend that when learning
to do field work, sessions of an hour or less are
recommended.
Required time

12. Bogdan and Biklen (2011)
• What are you actually going to do?
• Will you be disruptive?
• What are you going to do with your findings?
• Why us? Why have “they or their organizations” been “singled out for
study”? (p. 88)
• What will we get out of this? (pp. 87-88)
To increase the chances of gaining entry it is importat to
prepare to answer these questions

13. Bogdan and Biklen (2011)
• “Do not take what happens in the field personally” (p. 91).
• Have someone on site introduce you.
• Keep the first observations fairly short to avoid becoming overwhelmed with the novelty
of the situation.
• Be relatively passive and unobtrusive, put people at ease, learn how to act and dress in
the setting.
• Be friendly and honest but not overly technical or detailed in explaining what you are
doing.
Once the researcher have gained entry…

14. Gold’s (1958) classic typology offers a spec-
trum of four possible stances.
• Complete participant
- The researcher fully integrating into a study
group while hiding their observer status to avoid altering
the group's behavior.
- This method offers valuable insider insights but risks
ethical issues, loss of objectivity, and potential mistrust if
the researcher's true role is discovered.

15. Gold’s (1958) classic typology offers a spec-
trum of four possible stances.
• Participant as observer
- The researcher being actively involved in
the group while their role in data collection is
acknowledged by the group members.
- This approach balances participation with
observation to gather detailed data,
negotiating the depth of information with the
confidentiality granted to the participants.

16. Gold’s (1958) classic typology offers a spec-
trum of four possible stances.
• Observer as participant
- The researcher being recognized by the group as primarily
an observer rather than an active member. This position
allows for a broad scope of information from many people,
but the depth of information is limited by what the group
chooses to reveal.
- Researchers maintain some interaction without engaging
in key group activities, establishing a insider's perspective
without full participation.

17. Gold’s (1958) classic typology offers a spec-
trum of four possible stances.
• Complete observer
The researcher is either hidden from the
group (for example, behind a one-way
mirror) or in a completely public setting
such as an airport or library.

18. Recording observations
• Field notes = transcripts
• 3 types- continuous notetaking- taking sketchy notes- not recording at all
• Rely on memory & notes but tape-recording is also useful.
• It is recommended to write full detailed
notes after observation

19. Suggestions for recalling data
by Taylor and Bogdan (1984)
• Pay attention to shift from a “wide angle” to a “narrow-angle” lens
• Look for keywords in people’s remarks that will stand out later
• Concentrate on the first and last remarks in each conversation
• Mentally playback remarks and scenes during breaks in the
talking or observing

20. Notes format
• Time, place, and purpose of the observation
• List of the participants, profession, etc
• Demographic characteristics (age and gender)
• A diagram of the setting’s physical aspects
• Wide margin on one side of the page for later notes
• Double space between segments of activity
• Page numbering

21. Content of field notes
• Verbal descriptions of the setting, the people, the activities
• Direct quotations or at least the substance of what people said
• Observer’s comments(reflection, feelings, impressions, reactions,
initial interpretations)
• Field notes should be highly descriptive

22. Digital, online observation
• Online discussions, blogs
• Participant observer or “lurker” (If no password is required)
• Include descriptions, direct quotations, and observer comments

23. Examples in Empirical studies
Topic Creativity in virtual spaces: Communication modes employed
during collaborative online music composition
Authors Biasutti (2015)
Research questions 1. What communication modes do participants employ during the
online activities?
2. What are the differences between face-to-face and online
composition?
Methods • video recording observation of the participants’
interactions
• individual semi-structured interviews
Aim: to focus on the natural process in which a composition
is collectively formed rather than to impose on the musicians
a lab situation in which several conditions and a pre-
constructed scheme affect their performance.
Results The video recording analysis revealed that participants
engaged in verbal and nonverbal communication modes during
the virtual composing experience.
Verbal instruction was used to give a command, verbal
cooperation was used to solve organizational or technical

24. Topic Teaching for creativity: Examining the beliefs of early
childhood teachers and their influence on teaching practices
Authors Cheung (2012)
Research questions 1. What do early childhood teachers believe are
the best ways to facilitate creativity in
the classroom according to the domains; namely,
the characteristics of creative teachers, the appropriate
environment for developing creativity, the strategies of
creative practice, and the creative product?
2. To what extent do teachers’ classroom practices
reflect their beliefs?
Methods • Semi-structured interviews
• Classroom observations were used to collect data.
Results This study has shown a relatively weak relationship
between the teachers’ beliefs and their actual classroom
practices. The results indicate that, while most teachers
held similar beliefs about good creative practices, their
teaching practices appeared not to be based on their

25. Conclus
ion
Observations
are valuable
due to its it
is a firsthand
account.
Observation
can provide a
holistic
interpretation
in combination
with interview
and document
analysis
Observers can
be insiders
and outsiders.
Observations
are half the
process.