circuit breaker, conductors, distribution, electric power system, electrical, electromechanical, engineering, feeders, generators, insulators, lightning arresters, non-renewable energy, renewable energy, substation, substations, transformers
1. ABSTRACT
This Research Article speaks about electrical power systems which consist of three main phases: generation, transmission, and distribution. generators produce electricity from power sources at power plants. then power is delivered to customers through transmissions which stepping power up or down According to the distance that the energy travels. then power moves through distribution lines that carry electricity to homes and businesses.
2. INTRODUCTION
Typically, electricity is provided to homes and industries as AC. The electrons do not travel overhead along the power lines but vibrate in these lines 60 times per second. The electricity outlet plugs in your home does not produce electrons, but energy. If an appliance is attached, the outlet plugs provide the power for electrons to be moved around a closed circuit which is already in the wire. The energy is supplied as voltage to your home via a large, very complex distribution network. The energy is generated in a power plant and transmitted to the consumer via a network of power lines. In several steps, this is done. With a power voltage of several thousand volts, electricity leaves the power station at very high levels. The voltage is increased to several hundreds of thousand volts due to the loss of energy on high voltages at the overhead power lines. The voltage is decreased again to several thousand volts before power is distributed to industrial users. The voltage is decreased to 110 volts for home use. A transformer is used every time the voltage is down. Transformers are devices that only work with alternating current flows to either increase or decrease voltages.
Electric power systems (Figure 1) are real-time energy supply systems. Real-time means that power is generated, transported, transmitted, and distributed now of consumption. Electric power systems do not store electricity for the time of need as water and gas systems. Instead, generators produce the energy needed by demand It transforms other sources of energy (Such as wind, mechanical, solar, chemical, hydraulic, heat, geothermal, nuclear …etc.) into electrical power. Six main components of the power system are the power stations, transformer, transmission line, substations, distribution lines, distribution transformers. Also, there are many other devices connected to the network such as circuit breakers, conductors, etc. The system starts with a power plant generator where electrical energy is produced. Then power station transformers transformed to high-voltage electrical energy that is more suitable for efficient far distances transportation. High-voltage power lines in the electric power transmission system efficiently transport electricity over long distances to the
Human population of the world and its Electrical
power demand is increasing day by day. The available fossil
fuel energy resources are being depleted day by day. So it is a
wise decision to absorb the natural renewable energy
resources. Among the other natural resources, solar energy is
also a precious available energy source. In Pakistan abundance
solar energy can be easily extracted.
In this research work, impacts of solar generation system are
analyzed while integrated with 11kV radial distribution feeder.
PV system is integrated with feeder in three different ways by
using SINCAL software and its impacts in terms of the power
loss, voltage profile and short circuit level are analyzed. When
PV system is integrated with HT side it results negligible
increment in voltage, no change in LT losses, negligible
decrement in HT losses and no change in short circuit level.
When PV system is connected with LT bus-bar of each
transformer, there is significant increment in voltage, small
decrement in LT losses, significant decrement in HT losses and
smaller increment in short circuit level. When PV system is
connected with each load, there is significant increment in
voltage, large decrement in LT losses, significant decrement in
HT losses and smaller increment in short circuit level.
Human population of the world and its Electrical
power demand is increasing day by day. The available fossil
fuel energy resources are being depleted day by day. So it is a
wise decision to absorb the natural renewable energy
resources. Among the other natural resources, solar energy is
also a precious available energy source. In Pakistan abundance
solar energy can be easily extracted.
In this research work, impacts of solar generation system are
analyzed while integrated with 11kV radial distribution feeder.
PV system is integrated with feeder in three different ways by
using SINCAL software and its impacts in terms of the power
loss, voltage profile and short circuit level are analyzed. When
PV system is integrated with HT side it results negligible
increment in voltage, no change in LT losses, negligible
decrement in HT losses and no change in short circuit level.
When PV system is connected with LT bus-bar of each
transformer, there is significant increment in voltage, small
decrement in LT losses, significant decrement in HT losses and
smaller increment in short circuit level. When PV system is
connected with each load, there is significant increment in
voltage, large decrement in LT losses, significant decrement in
HT losses and smaller increment in short circuit level.
High voltage electricity refers to electrical potential large enough to cause injury or damage. In certain industries, high voltage refers to voltage above a certain threshold. Equipment and conductors that carry high voltage warrant special safety requirements and procedures.
Detail of the insulators (the vertical string of discs) and conductor vibration dampers (the weights attached directly to the cables) on a 275,000 volt suspension pylon near Thornbury, South Gloucestershire, England. In some countries, pylons for high and extra-high voltage are usually designed to carry two or more electric circuits. For double circuit lines in Germany, the “Danube” towers or more rarely, the “fir tree” towers, are usually used. If a line is constructed using pylons designed to carry several circuits, it is not necessary to install all the circuits at the time of construction. Medium voltage circuits are often erected on the same pylons as 110 kV lines. Paralleling circuits of 380 kV, 220 kV and 110 kV-lines on the same pylons is common. Sometimes, especially with 110 kV-circuits, a parallel circuit carries traction lines for railway electrification
Building services engineering, technical building services, architectural engineering, building engineering, or facilities and services planning engineering refers to the implementation of the engineering for the internal environment and environmental impact of a building.
What is wireless power?
How does this technology work?
What are its benefits?
Which existing industries will be affected?
Future of this technology explained with an example
The transformers are an integral part of the power system. In transformers, the main consequence of harmonic
currents is an increase in losses, mainly in windings, because of the deformation of the leakage fields. Higher losses mean that
more heat is generated in the transformer so that the operating temperature increases, leading to deterioration of the insulation
and a potential reduction in lifetime. Due to the non-linear loads, the transformers are much affected by the distorted currents
and supply voltages which largely reduce its efficiency due to overheating. Nonlinear loads cause harmonics to flow in the power
lines which can overload wiring and many desktops, personal computers present nonlinear loads to the AC supply because of
their power supplies design (capacitor input power supply). In power transformers, the main consequence of harmonic currents
is an increase in losses, mainly in windings, because of the deformation of the leakage fields. Higher losses mean that more heat
is generated in the transformer so that the operating temperature increases, leading to deterioration of the insulation and a
potential reduction in lifetime. As a result, it is necessary to reduce the maximum power load on the transformer, a practice
referred to as de-rating, or to take extra care in the design of the transformer to reduce these losses. To estimate the de-rating of
the transformer, the load’s K Factor may be used. Thus analysing this problem and reducing the losses of the transformer has
become a major area of research in today’s scenario. This report includes the effects of non-sinusoidal supply voltage on the
transformer excitation current and the core losses which includes eddy current and hysteresis losses.
Development of a Wireless Power Transfer Circuit Based on Inductive CouplingTELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
Wireless electrical energy transfer has many advantages over the same through conducting
cables. This research focusses on developing wireless power transfer circuitusing inductive coupling. The
experiment has been done by changing the number of turns and the diameter of the wire of a coil with the
aim of finding the maximum power and the longest distancethat the energy can be transferred through
wireless means. The power source is connected to a series of electronics components and a copper coil
which form the primary source for the transmitter the power receiver consists of a copper coil, a rectifier
and the load. In a system with the diameter of the wires of the two coils is0.5 mm, and the number of turns
is 26 at the frequency of 470KHz the efficiency of power transfer about 1.51% at a distance of 1 cm.
The transferred energy by wireless means could operate a 1 Watt LED at 1 cm.
This document contains the Report for a Synchronizing Panel that I made for Diploma main project. It carries the complete detail about parallel operation AC Generators aka Alternators.
MATLAB NOTES
To create a matrix that has multiple rows, separate the rows with
semicolons.
>> a = [1 2 3; 4 5 6; 7 8 10]
a =
1 2
4 5
3
6
7 8 10
Another way to create a matrix is to use a function, such as ones, zeros,
or rand. For example, create a 5-by-1 column vector of zeros.
>> z = zeros(5,1)
z =
0
0
0
0
0
>> z = ones(5,2)
z =
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
>> z = rand(5,3)
z =
0.8147 0.0975 0.1576
0.9058 0.2785 0.9706
0.1270 0.5469 0.9572
0.9134 0.9575 0.4854
0.6324 0.9649 0.8003
To transpose a matrix, use a single quote ('):
>> a'
ans =
1 4 7
2 5 8
3 6 10
>> a + 10
4
ans =
11 12 13
14 15 16
17 18 20
To perform element-wise multiplication rather than matrix
multiplication, use the .* operator:
>> p = a.*a
p =
1 4 9
16 25 36
49 64 100
To perform Natural Matrix multiplication, use the * operator:
>> a * a
ans =
30 36 45
66 81 102
109 134 169
MATLAB NOTES
Concatenation
>> A = [a,a]
A =
1 2 3 1 2 3
4 5 6 4 5 6
7 8 10 7 8 10
>> A = [a; a]
A =
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 10
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 10
When you want to access selected elements of an array, use indexing.
>> a(2,2)
ans =
5
5
MATLAB NOTES
use a single subscript that traverses down each column in order:
>> a(6)
ans =
8
The colon operator also allows you to create an equally spaced vector
of values using the form start:step:end.
>> b = 0:20:200
b =
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
sqrt(X) is the square root of the elements of X. Complex results are
produced if X is not positive.
>> sqrt((-2:2)')
Hydrographic Surveying : Safe Navigation Ahmed Nassar
SAFE NAVIGATION ON THE NILE RIVER TEAM (6) MEMBERS AHMED YASSER AHMED MOHAMED NASSAR HOSSAM HASSAN RAMADAN HASSAN AHMED FAYEZ MOHAMED AHMED AHMED MOHAMED MESBAH ELSAYED AHMED ABDEL-RAHMAN GALAL ABSTRACT Millions of tons of cargo is transported over the Nile River yearly. Hundreds of Nile Cruises (Floating Hotels)operating between Luxor and Aswan. the Egyptian government gives a high priority to the improvement of safety of navigation on the Nile River. Cargo Ship Nile Cruise INTRODUCTION Transport on Nile River is for: Goods and Materials Tourists and Passengers INTRODUCTION SAFE VISUAL NAVIGATION implementation of hydrographic survey. cost effective solar-powered visual aids to navigation. Together with further development of infrastructure works along the Nile River. vessel tracking system for Nile cruise ships for lock passage planning and emergency cases. PROBLEMS OF Long duration of transport due to daylight navigation only NAVIGATION LOW FLOW OF CARGO REASONS: Unreliability of the river; no technical means for safe navigation in the navigable channel. Poor quality of services Unreliable delivery times due to grounding or technical failures of the barges. Poor quality of barges. AIM Is to define and design the main steps that should be followed now and, in the future, to achieve safe visual navigation on the Nile River. Considering (IHO) standards for hydrographic survey. HYDROGRAPHIC DATA ACQUISITION Data ACQUISITION Water level records Data Collection Vertical Position Horizontal Position Data Logging Data Processing Shoreline Survey Ortho-photos-Coordinates of First Order Points DATA ACQUISITION WATER LEVEL RECORDS Ministry of Public Works and Water Resources maintains a series of Staff Gauges along the Nile River from Aswan to the Mediterranean Sea. . The MPWWR can provide the water level reading daily. Overall, station readings are sufficient for the need of hydrographic survey. DATA ACQUISITION WATER LEVEL RECORDS Tide Guage DATA ACQUISITION VERTICAL (DEPTH) POSITION The flow depth is recorded referring to the bed level. The output data in form of chart . The output depth in the form of digital data is logged into data logger. DATA ACQUISITION HORIZONTAL POSITION boats are equipped with GPS antenna and controller. A reference installed GPS station is over a defined controlling point. Momentarily, The corrected horizontal position is logged into data logger to be integrated with vertical position. DATA ACQUISITION DATA LOGGING Data from DGPS system and digital depths from Echo sounder are logged in an ISAH data logging system (Integrated System for Hydrography). Automated DATA PROCESSING Sounding and position data are saved then processed workstation. then depths and positions are plotted on the screen and erroneous data are rejected. To produce navigation charts, depths were set to the chart datum .
High voltage electricity refers to electrical potential large enough to cause injury or damage. In certain industries, high voltage refers to voltage above a certain threshold. Equipment and conductors that carry high voltage warrant special safety requirements and procedures.
Detail of the insulators (the vertical string of discs) and conductor vibration dampers (the weights attached directly to the cables) on a 275,000 volt suspension pylon near Thornbury, South Gloucestershire, England. In some countries, pylons for high and extra-high voltage are usually designed to carry two or more electric circuits. For double circuit lines in Germany, the “Danube” towers or more rarely, the “fir tree” towers, are usually used. If a line is constructed using pylons designed to carry several circuits, it is not necessary to install all the circuits at the time of construction. Medium voltage circuits are often erected on the same pylons as 110 kV lines. Paralleling circuits of 380 kV, 220 kV and 110 kV-lines on the same pylons is common. Sometimes, especially with 110 kV-circuits, a parallel circuit carries traction lines for railway electrification
Building services engineering, technical building services, architectural engineering, building engineering, or facilities and services planning engineering refers to the implementation of the engineering for the internal environment and environmental impact of a building.
What is wireless power?
How does this technology work?
What are its benefits?
Which existing industries will be affected?
Future of this technology explained with an example
The transformers are an integral part of the power system. In transformers, the main consequence of harmonic
currents is an increase in losses, mainly in windings, because of the deformation of the leakage fields. Higher losses mean that
more heat is generated in the transformer so that the operating temperature increases, leading to deterioration of the insulation
and a potential reduction in lifetime. Due to the non-linear loads, the transformers are much affected by the distorted currents
and supply voltages which largely reduce its efficiency due to overheating. Nonlinear loads cause harmonics to flow in the power
lines which can overload wiring and many desktops, personal computers present nonlinear loads to the AC supply because of
their power supplies design (capacitor input power supply). In power transformers, the main consequence of harmonic currents
is an increase in losses, mainly in windings, because of the deformation of the leakage fields. Higher losses mean that more heat
is generated in the transformer so that the operating temperature increases, leading to deterioration of the insulation and a
potential reduction in lifetime. As a result, it is necessary to reduce the maximum power load on the transformer, a practice
referred to as de-rating, or to take extra care in the design of the transformer to reduce these losses. To estimate the de-rating of
the transformer, the load’s K Factor may be used. Thus analysing this problem and reducing the losses of the transformer has
become a major area of research in today’s scenario. This report includes the effects of non-sinusoidal supply voltage on the
transformer excitation current and the core losses which includes eddy current and hysteresis losses.
Development of a Wireless Power Transfer Circuit Based on Inductive CouplingTELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
Wireless electrical energy transfer has many advantages over the same through conducting
cables. This research focusses on developing wireless power transfer circuitusing inductive coupling. The
experiment has been done by changing the number of turns and the diameter of the wire of a coil with the
aim of finding the maximum power and the longest distancethat the energy can be transferred through
wireless means. The power source is connected to a series of electronics components and a copper coil
which form the primary source for the transmitter the power receiver consists of a copper coil, a rectifier
and the load. In a system with the diameter of the wires of the two coils is0.5 mm, and the number of turns
is 26 at the frequency of 470KHz the efficiency of power transfer about 1.51% at a distance of 1 cm.
The transferred energy by wireless means could operate a 1 Watt LED at 1 cm.
This document contains the Report for a Synchronizing Panel that I made for Diploma main project. It carries the complete detail about parallel operation AC Generators aka Alternators.
MATLAB NOTES
To create a matrix that has multiple rows, separate the rows with
semicolons.
>> a = [1 2 3; 4 5 6; 7 8 10]
a =
1 2
4 5
3
6
7 8 10
Another way to create a matrix is to use a function, such as ones, zeros,
or rand. For example, create a 5-by-1 column vector of zeros.
>> z = zeros(5,1)
z =
0
0
0
0
0
>> z = ones(5,2)
z =
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
>> z = rand(5,3)
z =
0.8147 0.0975 0.1576
0.9058 0.2785 0.9706
0.1270 0.5469 0.9572
0.9134 0.9575 0.4854
0.6324 0.9649 0.8003
To transpose a matrix, use a single quote ('):
>> a'
ans =
1 4 7
2 5 8
3 6 10
>> a + 10
4
ans =
11 12 13
14 15 16
17 18 20
To perform element-wise multiplication rather than matrix
multiplication, use the .* operator:
>> p = a.*a
p =
1 4 9
16 25 36
49 64 100
To perform Natural Matrix multiplication, use the * operator:
>> a * a
ans =
30 36 45
66 81 102
109 134 169
MATLAB NOTES
Concatenation
>> A = [a,a]
A =
1 2 3 1 2 3
4 5 6 4 5 6
7 8 10 7 8 10
>> A = [a; a]
A =
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 10
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 10
When you want to access selected elements of an array, use indexing.
>> a(2,2)
ans =
5
5
MATLAB NOTES
use a single subscript that traverses down each column in order:
>> a(6)
ans =
8
The colon operator also allows you to create an equally spaced vector
of values using the form start:step:end.
>> b = 0:20:200
b =
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
sqrt(X) is the square root of the elements of X. Complex results are
produced if X is not positive.
>> sqrt((-2:2)')
Hydrographic Surveying : Safe Navigation Ahmed Nassar
SAFE NAVIGATION ON THE NILE RIVER TEAM (6) MEMBERS AHMED YASSER AHMED MOHAMED NASSAR HOSSAM HASSAN RAMADAN HASSAN AHMED FAYEZ MOHAMED AHMED AHMED MOHAMED MESBAH ELSAYED AHMED ABDEL-RAHMAN GALAL ABSTRACT Millions of tons of cargo is transported over the Nile River yearly. Hundreds of Nile Cruises (Floating Hotels)operating between Luxor and Aswan. the Egyptian government gives a high priority to the improvement of safety of navigation on the Nile River. Cargo Ship Nile Cruise INTRODUCTION Transport on Nile River is for: Goods and Materials Tourists and Passengers INTRODUCTION SAFE VISUAL NAVIGATION implementation of hydrographic survey. cost effective solar-powered visual aids to navigation. Together with further development of infrastructure works along the Nile River. vessel tracking system for Nile cruise ships for lock passage planning and emergency cases. PROBLEMS OF Long duration of transport due to daylight navigation only NAVIGATION LOW FLOW OF CARGO REASONS: Unreliability of the river; no technical means for safe navigation in the navigable channel. Poor quality of services Unreliable delivery times due to grounding or technical failures of the barges. Poor quality of barges. AIM Is to define and design the main steps that should be followed now and, in the future, to achieve safe visual navigation on the Nile River. Considering (IHO) standards for hydrographic survey. HYDROGRAPHIC DATA ACQUISITION Data ACQUISITION Water level records Data Collection Vertical Position Horizontal Position Data Logging Data Processing Shoreline Survey Ortho-photos-Coordinates of First Order Points DATA ACQUISITION WATER LEVEL RECORDS Ministry of Public Works and Water Resources maintains a series of Staff Gauges along the Nile River from Aswan to the Mediterranean Sea. . The MPWWR can provide the water level reading daily. Overall, station readings are sufficient for the need of hydrographic survey. DATA ACQUISITION WATER LEVEL RECORDS Tide Guage DATA ACQUISITION VERTICAL (DEPTH) POSITION The flow depth is recorded referring to the bed level. The output data in form of chart . The output depth in the form of digital data is logged into data logger. DATA ACQUISITION HORIZONTAL POSITION boats are equipped with GPS antenna and controller. A reference installed GPS station is over a defined controlling point. Momentarily, The corrected horizontal position is logged into data logger to be integrated with vertical position. DATA ACQUISITION DATA LOGGING Data from DGPS system and digital depths from Echo sounder are logged in an ISAH data logging system (Integrated System for Hydrography). Automated DATA PROCESSING Sounding and position data are saved then processed workstation. then depths and positions are plotted on the screen and erroneous data are rejected. To produce navigation charts, depths were set to the chart datum .
DETERMINATION OF THE EARTH’S RADIUS, MASS, AND GRAVITIONAL CONSTANT - PHYSIC...Ahmed Nassar
DETERMINATION OF THE EARTH’S RADIUS
In 200 B.C., the size of the Earth was calculated to within 1% accuracy! Eratosthenes used Aristotle's idea that, if the Earth was round, distant stars in the night sky would appear at different positions to observers at different latitudes. Eratosthenes knew that on the first day of summer, the Sun passed directly overhead at Syene, Egypt. At midday of the same day, he measured the angular displacement of the Sun from overhead at the city of Alexandria - 5000 stadia away from Syene. He found that the angular displacement was 7.2 degrees - there are 360 degrees in a circle, making 7.2 degrees equivalent to 1/50 of a circle. Geometry tells us that the ratio of 1/50 is the same as the ratio of the distance between Syene and Alexandria to the total circumference of the Earth. Thus, the circumference can be estimated by multiplying the distance between the two cities, 5000 stadia, by 50, equaling 250,000 stadia.
C equals circumference (5000 times 50 or 250,000)
the unit of the "stadium" was about 0.15 km. This means that Eratosthenes estimated the circumference of the Earth to about 40,000 km. He also knew that the circumference of a circle was equal to 2 times π (3.1415...) times the radius of the circle. (C = 2πr) With this information, Eratosthenes inferred that the Earth's radius was 6366 km. Both values are very close to the accepted modern values for the Earth's circumference and radius, 40,070 km, and 6378 km respectively, which have since been measured by orbiting spacecraft.
The diameter of a circle is twice the radius, giving us a diameter for Earth of 12,756 km.
Note: Eratosthenes was measuring the polar radius, and his value (using the 0.15 km/stadium conversion) lies between the polar and equatorial values.
DETERMINATION OF THE GRAVITIONAL CONSTANT
Isaac Newton expressed the Universal Gravitation Equation in 1687:
where
F is the force of attraction between objects
G is the Universal Gravitational Constant
M is the mass of the larger object
m is the mass of the smaller object
R is the separation between the centers of mass of the object
After that, there really wasn't much interest in G. Most scientists simply considered it a proportionality constant. they were more interested in gravity than gravitation.
In 1798, Henry Cavendish made an experiment to determine the Earth’s density. He used a torsion balance to measure the force of attraction between the two masses.
The Cavendish experiment uses a torsion equilibrium to measure the weak gravitational force between lead balls. A torsion equilibrium consists of a bar suspended at its middle by a thin wire. Twisting the wire requires a torque.
The way it works is that the gravitational force attracting the balls together turns the bar, overcoming torque resistance from the wire. That resistance is a function of angle turned and the torsion coefficient of the wire.
Parallax
Apparent shift in the position of an object, with respect to a frame of reference, caused by a shift in the position of observation.
Change in position of an image from one photo to the next is caused by aircraft’s motion.
– Called stereoscopic parallax, x parallax, or simply parallax
Parallax of any point is directly related to the elevation of the point.
Parallax is greater for high points than for low points.
Stereoscopic Parallax
Stereoscopic parallax is caused by taking photographs of the same object but from different points of observation.
Note the displacement between the top and base of the storage towers in this photo stereo-pair.
Parallax of Principal Point
Parallax of left ground principal point is photo base b’ measured on right photo, and the parallax of right ground principal point is photo base b measured on left photo.
For moderate relief, b ≈ b’
Photo base is average of two values
Photographic Flight-Line Axes for Parallax Measurement
Parallax is occurred along the flight-line.
Photographic x and x′ axes for parallax measurement must be parallel with the flight line.
Flight line is the line connecting the two principal points.
The y and y′ axes for parallax measurement pass through their respective principal points and are perpendicular to the flight line.
Monoscopic Methods of Parallax Measurement
Direct measurement of x and x' on the left and right photos, respectively.
By fastening the photographs down on a table:
flight lines O_1 O_2 and O_1'O_2' are marked as usual.
Now parallax is P_b=D-d_(b )
Stereoscopic Methods of Parallax Measurement
Stereoscope is used with a parallax bar, or a stereometer for calculation.
D = spacing between principal points
C= the parallax bar constant.
K = the distance from the fixed mark to the index mark of the parallax.
Parallax pf Point A =P_a=X_a'-X_a=D-(K-r_a)=(D-K)+r_a
حقوق الانسان هي المعايير التي تنسق تعامل الناس كجزء من المجتمع وتحكم أساليب معيشتهم وتحفظ لهم كرامتهم وتعمل على تطوير حياتهم ونموها وهي أساس السلام والعدل والحرية. أيضا هي ملك للكل وليست حكر على أحد. فهي حق متساوي وغير قابل للتجزئة. فبدونها لا نستطيع العيش كبشر.
من الصعب تحديد فكرة الحقيقة والعدالة لدي قدماء المصريين، فلم تكن قوانينهم مكتوبة بل كانت قائمة على الممارسة اليومية، بالإضافة لاختلاف مفهوم العدالة عما تعنيه في عالمنا اليوم. كانت الحضارة المصرية القديمة أولي الحضارات التي جسدت فكر حماية حقوق الانسان، فكان المصريون القدماء اول من اعترفوا بحق الانسان في الحياة. ولكي ندرك ونتعمق في مفهوم حقوق الانسان في مصر القديمة، فمفهوم الماعت هو البداية التي سنحاول التعمق منها.
The Importance of Railway in TransportationAhmed Nassar
This research article mainly talks about railways. An account of the long history of centuries-old railways will be mentioned. Hence the vital importance of the railways and its role in all fields. Then the types of railway elements (rail, sleepers, and ballast). Then we will look at the advantages and disadvantages of each. Finally, the design of rail with all needed geometric equations.
In the Middle Ages, people traveled on foot or horseback, and other forms of transport were intended for goods. It is impossible to imagine the revolution that took place in industry and population expansion without the modern means of transportation for passengers and goods. So, the development of railways to coincide with industrial progress was a major challenge. In ancient civilizations in Egypt, Greece…etc, transportation of transporting goods and people by carts (drawn by bulls or horses), and they built predetermined methods to reduce animal energy consumption during transport, paved flat roads and prevented animals from walking on unpaved terrain Because this consumes much energy, this was the first transportation lines in the world.
Geometric Design of Roads and HighwaysAhmed Nassar
The Geometrical design of the highways deals with the nature of the visible dimensions and the setting of the visible features of the highway. The focus of geometric design is to meet the requirements of the driver and the vehicle such as safety, comfort, efficiency, smooth-flowing, and crash-free facility…etc. The features generally considered are elements of cross-section, sight distance, horizontal and vertical alignments, gradients, intersections, bicycle, and pedestrian lanes. The design of these features depends greatly on driver behavior, the characteristics of the vehicle, and traffic characteristics such as speed and size. The right geometric design will help reduce the severity of accidents. Hence, the goal of the geometric design is to ensure and provide optimum efficiency in the operation of traffic and maximum safety at an economic cost. We mean here to reduce costs and improve the quality and function of the highway.
Gearsare a type of mechanical element, the surface with the same space. It is toothed members used for the turning and transmitting of power and/or motion by meshing a pair of elements with no-slip from the driving shaft to the driven shaft. Therefore, gear drives are called positive drives. The smaller one is called pinion in any pair of gears and the larger one is called the immaterial gear that drives the other. The smaller gear is called pinion in any pair of gears and the larger one is called the immaterial gear that drives the other. If the pinion is the driver, the speed is decreased and the torque increases. If the pinion (the smaller one) is the driver, the speed is decreased and the torque increases, vice versa. The gears may be classified according to their shape into spiral, cycloid, and trochoid gears. Depending on the direction of the shaft, it can be categorized as Parallel, non-parallel, transverse, and non-transverse shaft gear.
Photogrammetry: Stereoscopy and ParallaxAhmed Nassar
This literature review talks about the principles of stereoscopy and the stereoscopic instruments used, in addition to the steps for correcting the rotation of photos under the stereoscope, then talks about the Y-Parallax which result of Principal points line not parallel with Flight line. also, the stereoscopic parallax principles and it's measurement.
Geodesy - Definition, Types, Uses and ApplicationsAhmed Nassar
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The Function of Electric Power Systems
1. Faculty of Engineering - Shoubra
Benha University
Research Article
in fulfillment of the requirements of
Department Surveying Engineering Department
Division Second Year Surveying
Academic Year 2019/2020
Course name Electromechanical Engineering
Course code EPE/260
Electrical Part
“Topic (1): The Function of Electric Power System”
By:
Name Edu mail B. N
Ahmed Yasser Ahmed Mohamed Nassar ahmed170165@feng.bu.edu.eg 210018
Approved By:
Examiners committee Signature
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Table of contents
1. ABSTRACT...........................................................................................................3
2. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................3
3. GENERATORS.....................................................................................................5
3.1. NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY GENERATORS .........................................5
3.2. RENEWABLE ENERGY GENERATORS....................................................5
4. TRANSFORMERS................................................................................................6
5. DISTRIBUTION ...................................................................................................7
5.1. DISTRIBUTION SUBSTATION...................................................................7
5.2. DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS ............................................................7
5.3. FEEDERS........................................................................................................7
5.4. DISTRIBUTOR CONDUCTORS ..................................................................7
5.5. SERVICE MAINS CONDUCTORS ..............................................................7
6. SUBSTATIONS ....................................................................................................8
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List of Figures (If any)
Figure I.D Description Page
1 Electric Power System 4
2 Transformer Diagram 6
3 Transformer 6
4 Distribution Power System 7
5 Insulators 9
6 Circuit Breaker 9
7 Lightning Arresters 9
8 Substation 9
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1. ABSTRACT
This Research Article speaks about electrical power systems which consist of three
main phases: generation, transmission, and distribution. generators produce electricity
from power sources at power plants. then power is delivered to customers through
transmissions which stepping power up or down According to the distance that the
energy travels. then power moves through distribution lines that carry electricity to
homes and businesses.
2. INTRODUCTION
Typically, electricity is provided to homes and industries as AC. The electrons do not
travel overhead along the power lines but vibrate in these lines 60 times per second.
The electricity outlet plugs in your home does not produce electrons, but energy. If an
appliance is attached, the outlet plugs provide the power for electrons to be moved
around a closed circuit which is already in the wire. The energy is supplied as voltage
to your home via a large, very complex distribution network. The energy is generated
in a power plant and transmitted to the consumer via a network of power lines. In
several steps, this is done. With a power voltage of several thousand volts, electricity
leaves the power station at very high levels. The voltage is increased to several
hundreds of thousand volts due to the loss of energy on high voltages at the overhead
power lines. The voltage is decreased again to several thousand volts before power is
distributed to industrial users. The voltage is decreased to 110 volts for home use. A
transformer is used every time the voltage is down. Transformers are devices that only
work with alternating current flows to either increase or decrease voltages.
Electric power systems (Figure 1) are real-time energy supply systems. Real-time
means that power is generated, transported, transmitted, and distributed now of
consumption. Electric power systems do not store electricity for the time of need as
water and gas systems. Instead, generators produce the energy needed by demand It
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transforms other sources of energy (Such as wind, mechanical, solar, chemical,
hydraulic, heat, geothermal, nuclear …etc.) into electrical power. Six main
components of the power system are the power stations, transformer, transmission
line, substations, distribution lines, distribution transformers. Also, there are many
other devices connected to the network such as circuit breakers, conductors, etc. The
system starts with a power plant generator where electrical energy is produced. Then
power station transformers transformed to high-voltage electrical energy that is more
suitable for efficient far distances transportation. High-voltage power lines in the
electric power transmission system efficiently transport electricity over long distances
to the distribution locations. Then substations transform the High-voltage electricity
into a lower-voltage, transmitted via distribution power lines to the destination of the
electricity distribution, then is transformed once again for urban, industrial, and
commercial uses. Failure to maintain the balance (lack of production, failures, bad
management) leads to a system unstable or, worse, a blackout with very serious
economic effects.
Figure 1: Electric Power System
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3. GENERATORS
Generators are based on the 1831 discovery by Faraday, which showed that moving a
magnet within a coil of wire can generate an electric current. Generators depend on the
magnetism, motors, and electricity connection. Generators produce a large amount of
current by an electromagnet which generated by electricity and a fast-spinning turbine.
standard generator includes a group of insulated cylindrical wire coils. rotary
electromagnet is inside the cylinder. As the magnet is rotating, it induces a slight
current in each portion of the wire coil. Every part of the wire coil then transforms into
a small, individual electrical conductor, and the tiny currents of each segment combine
to produce a single large current. then the resulting generated electricity is sent to the
user through power lines. All Generated electricity in a power plant is alternating
current (AC). but home electric current is direct current (DC).
There are two major types of electrical generators: non-renewable and renewable
energy generators.
3.1.NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY GENERATORS
Generators of Non-renewable energy sources include: Fossil fuel (coal, natural gas or
diesel.), maintaining nuclear reactions, and Hydroelectricity (from river-dams). In
power plants that use non-renewable sources, the burning of fuel generates heat. the
heat is used to create high-pressure, heated steam. A steam turbine pumps the steam
into the shaft to push a series of blades to rotate within a generator.
3.2.RENEWABLE ENERGY GENERATORS
Continuously being replaced by nature, there are several different kinds of renewable
energy sources, including wind, wave, and hydroelectric power. Solar radiation can
also be used; no turbine or generator is involved in this type of power generation.
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4. TRANSFORMERS
Transformers (Figure 2) are electrical circuit devices used to change the voltage flow
through the circuit. Transformers can either be used to increase or decrease the
voltage. Energy is lost in the process of transmitting electricity long distances, such as
during the journey from a power plant to your home. power loss is inversely
proportional to voltage, so electrical utilities use high voltage in long-distance
transmission wires. This high voltage is too dangerous to be used at home. Electrical
utilities use transformers to change the voltage of electricity as it travels from the
power plant to homes. The power plant voltage is stepped up using the transformers
for long-distance transmission at the appropriate level. The voltage will be lowered
later before it enters home with transformers once again. The voltages need to be
increased before power is transmitted for great distances over power lines to the
electrical power distribution network to work. One big issue is power loss between the
power plant and users, because currents heat transmission lines with power. The
transmitted power on the line = voltage x current. The higher the voltage the lower the
flow, which is necessary to deliver the power within the transmission lines. Lower
currents cause significantly less heating and much less loss of power.
Figure 3: Transformer
Figure 2: Transformer Diagram
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5. DISTRIBUTION
the distribution station is placed near or within the city/town/industrial area. It receives
power from a transformer. The high voltage is decreased to the primary distribution
level voltage from the transmission line. The typically primary distribution volt is 11
kV but depending on the area or the consumer this can vary from 2.4 to 33 kV.
There is a standard distribution system consists of:
5.1.Distribution Substation
5.2.Distribution Transformers
The distribution transformer provides final transformation in the electric power
distribution system. It is a 3-phase step-down transformer. Distribution transformer
steps down to 400V/230V.
5.3.Feeders
A feeder is a conductor connecting the local sub-station to the area of power
distribution. normally the current stays the same in the feeder because the feeder does
not take tappings.
5.4.Distributor Conductors
5.5.Service Mains Conductors
It is a short cable links the distributor conductor to the consumer end at the nearest
pole.
Figure 4: Distribution Power System
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6. SUBSTATIONS
An electric substation is a subsidiary station for generation, transmission, and
distribution electrical systems where the voltage is transformed from high to low, vice
versa. power may be transmitted between the generator and the user by several
substations, and voltage is changed several times. A substation that has a step-up
transformer which increases voltage and decreases current while a step-down
transformer decreases voltage and increases the current for personal and commercial
usage. substations are required for all the power system operation. substations are
electrical equipment congregation through which customers receive electrical power
from Generation plants. The required electrical quantity can be changed in
substations, to offer quality power to consumers, by changing the voltage, frequency,
or other elements.
substations are classified into: Generation, Indoor, Outdoor, Pole-mounted, Switching,
Transmission, Converter, and Distribution substations. Substations usually have one or
more transformers with protection switching, and control devices. The circuit breakers
are used in a large substation to interrupt any short circuit or overload currents that
may happen on the system. For distribution circuits protection, smaller distribution
stations are using re-closer fuses or circuit breakers. Substations do not usually have
generators, although a power plant may have a substation nearby.
The substation consists of the following major electrical devices: Electrical Power
Transformers, Instrument transformers, Conductors & Insulators, Isolators, Bus bars,
Lightning arresters, Circuit breakers, Relays, Capacitor banks and miscellaneous
equipment, power factor correction capacitor, voltage regulators.
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Figure 5: Insulators Figure 6: Circuit Breaker Figure 7: Lightning Arresters
Figure 8: Substation
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References
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El-Hawary, M. E. Introduction to Electrical Power Systems. Wiley-Blackwell, 2008.
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windows2universe.org/physical_science/physics/electricity/power_system_generator_to_homes.h
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“Electrical Power System Components.” Electrical Academia, 7 July 2018,
electricalacademia.com/electric-power/electrical-power-system-components/.
Meier, Alexandra Von. Electric Power Systems: a Conceptual Introduction. Hoboken, N.J. : IEEE
Press : Wiley-Interscience, 2006.
Moursalou, et al. “What Is Power System? Definition & Structure of Power System.” Circuit Globe,
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Schavemaker, Pieter, and Lou Van der Sluis. Electrical Power System Essentials. Wiley Blackwell,
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