The study aims to evaluate the chemical compositional variability within the male and female Borassus aethiopum trunks to ascertain their influences and possible applications. The specimens for the study were prepared from the radial and axial portions and extracted with a Soxhlet apparatus. The varieties were analyzed for the hot water, ash content, 1% NaOH, alcohol-acetone extracts, lignin, and α-cellulose. The total extractives, lignin, and α-cellulose decreased consistently from the peripheries to the cores, unlike the ash content. Thus, total extractive decreased from 4.41 to 1.83% and 3.25 to 1.18% for the male and female, lignin from 36.88 to 29.06% and 39.53 to 28.60%, α–cellulose: 40.09 to 28.02% and 37.01 to 24.40% respectively but the ash content increased from 0.65 to 3.39%, 0.85 to 5.64% for the male and female respectively. There were significant differences along the boles for the total extractives, lignin, and α-cellulose unlike the ash content at the peripheral portions. From the results, the peripheries possess the potentials to resist moisture permeability, biodegradation, enhance mechanical properties, dimensional stability, and other wood qualities positively for commercial utilization than the cores. This will enhance the sustainability of forest biodiversity by limiting the pressure on the primary wood species.

1. The Effects of Chemical Compositional Variability on Sustainable Applications of Borassus aethiopum Trunks
The Effects of Chemical Compositional Variability on
Sustainable Applications of Borassus aethiopum Trunks
1*James Boakye Acheampong, 2Bernard Effah, 3Ernest Wenia Achana, 4Kwaku Antwi
1Department of Wood Science and Technology, Faculty of Renewable Natural Resources, Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
2Department of Interior Design and Materials Technology, Kumasi Technical University, Kumasi, Ghana
3Department of Construction and Wood Technology Education, University of Education - Winneba, Kumasi – Campus,
Kumasi, Ghana
4Department of Wood Technology, Tamale Technical University, Tamale-Ghana
The study aims to evaluate the chemical compositional variability within the male and female
Borassus aethiopum trunks to ascertain their influences and possible applications. The
specimens for the study were prepared from the radial and axial portions and extracted with a
Soxhlet apparatus. The varieties were analyzed for the hot water, ash content, 1% NaOH, alcohol-
acetone extracts, lignin, and α-cellulose. The total extractives, lignin, and α-cellulose decreased
consistently from the peripheries to the cores, unlike the ash content. Thus, total extractive
decreased from 4.41 to 1.83% and 3.25 to 1.18% for the male and female, lignin from 36.88 to
29.06% and 39.53 to 28.60%, α–cellulose: 40.09 to 28.02% and 37.01 to 24.40% respectively but
the ash content increased from 0.65 to 3.39%, 0.85 to 5.64% for the male and female respectively.
There were significant differences along the boles for the total extractives, lignin, and α-cellulose
unlike the ash content at the peripheral portions. From the results, the peripheries possess the
potentials to resist moisture permeability, biodegradation, enhance mechanical properties,
dimensional stability, and other wood qualities positively for commercial utilization than the
cores. This will enhance the sustainability of forest biodiversity by limiting the pressure on the
primary wood species.
Keywords: biodegradation, Borassus aethiopum, chemical composition, cores, moisture permeability, peripheries,
sustainability, varieties
INTRODUCTION
The tropical deforestation is of global concern towards
biodiversity conservation. The escalating utilization of
primary and lesser-used timber products, logging
activities, fuelwood collection, charcoal production, human
settlements, and overexploitation beyond annual allowable
cut (AAC) are the major drivers of deforestation particularly
in Africa (Kissinger et al., 2011, Damnyag, 2012). The
forest resources in Ghana continue to decline in quality
and quantity due to indiscriminate tree felling, poor timber
processing methods, and illegal logging. These are
resulting in biodiversity loss and subsequent forest
degradation. These distresses in the timber industry have
caused a lack of mature trees prompting renewing
research into other forest resources that can be potential
alternatives to sustain primary timber species and forest
biodiversity.
The chemical composition of lignocelluloses biomass such
as total extractives, lignin, and α - cellulose play essential
roles in plant survival by providing defense mechanisms
against predation by insects, herbivores, and
microorganisms. The potential application of wood is
attributable to one or more active chemical substances
found in the wood tissues (Oliveira et al., 2016). The
*Corresponding Author: James Boakye Acheampong,
Department of Wood Science and Technology, Faculty of
Renewable Natural Resources, Kwame Nkrumah
University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana.
Email: jbacheampong@yahoo.com
Co-Authors 2
Email: bernardeffah@gmail.com,
3
Email: ernestachana@yahoo.com
4
Email: antwikwaku10@gmail.com
Research Article
Vol. 7(2), pp. 080-088, June, 2020. © www.premierpublishers.org. ISSN: 2167-0465
International Journal of Forestry and Wood Science

2. The Effects of Chemical Compositional Variability on Sustainable Applications of Borassus aethiopum Trunks
Arecaceae family includes several tropical palms such as
Borassus aethiopum Mart is Non-Timber Forest Product
(NTFP) grouped into male and female varieties. Borassus
aethiopum grows between 7–20m in height and
sometimes 30m, considered as African tallest palm
characterized by a crown. The male variety produces
flowers that cannot develop into fruits, unlike the female
variety that develops fruits for consumption and other
medicinal purposes. (Jatau, 2008, Oliveira et al., 2016).
The two varieties of Borassus aethiopum as monocot and
non – woody materials have periphery (dermal), core (sub-
dermal), and central (pith) zones. They contain vascular
bundles and parenchyma cells embedded in axial and
radial positions along the bole (Fathi, 2014). About 60% of
cellulose fibers originate from non-woody raw materials
such as annual plants and agricultural residues. These
non-woody fibers contain more cellulose and less lignin
fraction (Sridach, 2010; Baptist, 2013). The naturally
growing non-woody plants suitable for wood industry such
as palms, Bambusa vulgaris, Hibiscus cannabinus L.,
Arundo donax L., and Borassus aethiopum have varying
physical and chemical characteristics that can be
compared to some softwood and hardwood species. The
varying characteristics depending on the soil and the
growing conditions, which could involve the climatic
conditions (Azeez, 2018).
Renewable forest resources such as Elaeis guineensis,
Cocos nucifira, Bambusa vulgaris, and Phoenix dactylifera
L. is getting more attention as potential alternative
materials to solid wood. These non-woody materials are
also used for applications such as lumber, particleboard,
pulp and paper, wood-cement composites, wood-plastic
composites, and oriented strand boards unlike the
Borassus aethiopum (Hegazy et al., 2015, Nasser et al.,
2015, Usman et al., 2016). According to Ayarkwa (1997)
and Asafu-Adjaye et al. 2012, Borassus aethiopum trunks
are locally used for wattle and daub construction, wall
plates, rafters, fences, stakes in farming, firewood,
canoes, lintels, and bridges. The effective and sustainable
use of Borassus aethiopum trunks requires scientific
research into their chemical compositions to attain
comprehensive data that can be compared to other palms,
conifers, and deciduous wood species.
The chemical composition of lignocelluloses biomass
consists of three principal polymers: polysaccharides
(cellulose: 40-50%, hemicelluloses: 20–30%) and lignin
(20-30%) with organic compounds called total extractives
(2-10%) as well as minimal ash content that ranges 0.1–
5% (Reiniati, 2009). These chemical constituents
generally vary between and within wood species due to
differences in age, height, growth, site, and environment.
The chemical constituents particularly polysaccharides,
lignin, and extractives have an immense influence on the
physical, mechanical, and durability characteristics of
wood (Rivera et al., 2015, Roitto et al., 2016, Routa et al.,
2017). Lignin as a class of complex organic polymer forms
important structural materials in the formation of woody
and non-woody cell walls. It ensures the possibility of the
wood’s vascular tissue to conduct efficient moisture (Yang
et al., 2016). Aside cellulose and lignin, total extractive is
the most influential chemical factor that can affect the
quality of woody and non-woody materials. The quantity of
total extractives has much influence on wood processing
and related applications. The wood used in the soil, above
ground or immersed in water is exposed to bacteria, fungi,
insects, and marine organisms, and the principal
contribution of total extractives in wood is their natural
resistance against these biodegrades. The extractives
also add quality to wood density, geometric stability, and
some mechanical properties (Hakkila and Verkasalo,
2009; Routa et al., 2017).
Palm trunks differ from coniferous and deciduous wood
species with alteration in polysaccharides, lignin, and total
extractives. Research into the chemical composition of
palm trunks revealed high variability in polysaccharides,
lignin, and extractive content (Sulaiman et al., 2009,
Hashim et al., 2011). Findings by Sahari et al., 2012;
Nasser et al., 2016 on Elaeis guineensis trunks recorded
total extractives in the range of 6.3–25.15% and ash
content (2.4-5%) but considerable lignin (30.32-46.4%),
and α-cellulose (39.37-40.6%). Similar proximate chemical
composition of Cocos nucifera and Phoenix dactylifera L.
trunks studied by Poulter and Hopewell, 2010; Hindi et al.,
2010, Fathi, 2014 found total extractives, lignin, α-
cellulose, and ash content in the range of 10-16.44%,
25.1–31.30%, 33–48%, and 0.25–2.4% respectively. The
chemical compositional analysis was carried out with the
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
methods. The considerable total extractives and lignin in
palms influence the odor, color, rigidity, toxicity, and
enhance resistance to decay caused by biodegrades. The
α-cellulose as a major chemical component in woody and
non-woody plants provide strength and stability to
enhance mechanical characteristics. However, extreme α-
cellulose and Moisture Content (MC) in parenchyma cells
result in decaying characteristics. The study investigated
the chemical compositions along the boles of the male and
female Borassus aethiopum. This was to identify the
variability within the varieties and their potential effects on
the wood towards utilization by the wood industry.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Preparation of Borassus aethiopum varieties
Two defect-free each variety between the ages of 35 and
40 based on their cultivated period were randomly
harvested from Kobreso semi-deciduous forest zone in the
Offinso-North District of Ashanti Region in Ghana for the
study. The diameter along the boles was between 0.20m
to 0.50m from the breast height with a height range of 15 -
18m. The samples were collected from the three main
portions along the boles as depicted in Figure 1 and air-
dried for the study.

3. The Effects of Chemical Compositional Variability on Sustainable Applications of Borassus aethiopum Trunks
Figure 1: Schematic views of B. aethiopum structure
Chemical compositional analysis
The specimens for the analysis were prepared from the
peripheries and cores at the base, middle, and crown. The
samples were air-dried to 12–14% MC, milled with Wiley
mill, and sieved. The total extractives, lignin, and α–
cellulose were determined using a Soxhlet apparatus. The
following ASTM methods: ASTM D 1105–96 (Reapproved
2007), ASTM D 1106–96 (Reapproved 2007), ASTM D
1103–60 (Reapproved 1977), and ASTM D 1102 – 84
(Reapproved 2007) were used to determine the total
extractives, lignin, α-cellulose, and ash content
respectively. The content of the lignin and α-cellulose were
conducted with extractive free Borassus aethiopum based
on the oven-dried weight of each residue while the α-
cellulose test was carried out with air-dried holocellulose.
Total extractives and ash content were determined using
unextracted wood samples. The ash content of the
samples was calculated as a percentage of the original
quantity of the samples based on oven-dry weight. Three
replicates from the base, middle, and crown (i.e. nine
samples) from each bole at the peripheries and the cores
were used for the chemical compositional analysis. The
percent of each chemical composition (%) of the study was
calculated according to the formula:
(%) 100
1
2
=
W
W
Where: W1= weight of original oven-dried wood (g), W2=
weight of oven-dried residue (g).
Chemical composition for total extractives
An amount of 10g air-dried Borassus aethiopum ground
sample that passed through a number 60 (250μm) sieves
and retained by number 80 (180μm) sieve was placed in
an extraction thimble ensuring that it did not extend above
the level of the top of the siphon tube. The sample was
extracted for 4 hours with an alcohol-acetone mixture (1:2)
in the Soxhlet extraction apparatus. The excess solvent
was removed with suction and wood in the thimble washed
with alcohol to remove the excess acetone. The sample in
the thimble was returned to the extractor and extraction
continued with 95% alcohol (about 200ml) for 4 hours until
the alcohol siphoned over colorless. The sample was
removed from the thimble and spread out on a thin layer
and allowed to dry in the air until it was free of alcohol. The
dried alcohol-free sample was returned into the thimble
and extracted with 200ml of hot water as was done for
alcohol for 4 hours. The material after hot water extraction
was air-dried thoroughly and used as extractive-free
material for the determination of lignin and α-cellulose.
Chemical composition for lignin
A 1g oven-dried sample of extractive-free Borassus
aethiopum was placed in a 150ml beaker and 15ml of cold
sulphuric acid (72%) was added slowly while stirring. The
reaction was continued for 2 hours with frequent stirring in
a water bath maintained at 20ºC. The specimen was
transferred by washing with 560 ml of distilled water into a
1,000 ml Erlenmeyer flask, diluting the concentration of the
sulphuric acid to three percent. The apparatus was placed
in a boiling water bath for 4 hours. The flask was removed
from the water bath and the insoluble material allowed to
settle overnight. The contents of the flasks were filtered by
vacuum suction into a fritted-glass crucible of known
weight. The residue was then washed free of acid with
500ml of hot distilled water and then oven-dried at 103 ±
2ºC. The crucible was cooled in a desiccator and weighed
to constant weight.
Chemical composition for α-cellulose
Air-dried holocellulose material from each part of the stem
was first obtained and placed in a 250ml Erlenmeyer flask
with a small watch glass cover. The sample was treated
with a total of 25ml of 17.5% NaOH within 45 minutes.
First, a 10ml portion of the 17.5% NaOH was added to the
sample, thoroughly mixed, and placed in a water bath
maintained at 20 °C. The sample was manipulated with a
glass rod 2 minutes after the addition of the first 10ml
portion. Five minutes after the addition of the first portion,
an additional 5ml portion was added and thoroughly
mixed. Five minutes later, the next 5 ml portion was also
added followed by the addition of the last 5ml portion and
thorough mixing 15 minutes after the addition of the first
portion. The mixture was allowed to stand at 20 °C in the
water bath for 30 minutes, making a total of 45minutes
NaOH treatment. Following the NaOH treatment, 33ml of
distilled water previously maintained at 20 °C was added
to the mixture, and the content of the beaker thoroughly
mixed and allowed to stand at 20 °C for 1 hour. The
contents of the flask were filtered through vacuum suction
into a fritted-glass crucible of known weight. The residue
was washed first with 100ml of 8.3% NaOH, then with
distilled water, and treated with 15ml of 10% acetic acid for
3 minutes. The residue was washed free of acid with
distilled water. The crucible was oven-dried at 103 ± 2ºC,
cooled in a desiccator, and weighed until a constant weight
was obtained.

4. The Effects of Chemical Compositional Variability on Sustainable Applications of Borassus aethiopum Trunks
Ash content
Empty crucibles were ignited in a muffle furnace at 600ºC,
cooled in a desiccator, and weighed to the nearest 0.1mg.
A 2g sample of air-dried Borassus aethiopum was put in
the crucibles to determine the weight of the crucibles and
the specimen. The crucibles and their contents were
placed in a drying oven at 103 ± 2ºC, cooled in a
desiccator, and weighed until the weights were constant.
The crucibles and their contents were then placed in the
muffle furnace and ignited until all the carbon was
eliminated. They were then heated slowly at the start to
avoid flaming while protecting the crucible from strong
drafts at all times to avoid mechanical loss of the test
specimen. The temperature of the final ignition was 580-
600ºC. The crucibles with their contents were then
removed to a desiccator and the cover replaced loosely,
cooled, and weighed. The heating was repeated until the
weight after cooling was constant to within 0.2g.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Total extractives
The total extractives within wood vary from species to
species and within identical species. Extractives could
range from 2-10% or 3-30% but sometimes up to 40%
depending on the tree species (Roitto et al., 2016, Routa
et al., 2017). For instance, the typical content of extractives
in Scots pine, Norway spruce, and silver birch stem wood
were found in the range of 2.5% to 4.5%, 1.0% to 2.0%,
and 1.0% to 3.5% respectively on a dry basis (Alen, 2011).
Wood extractives have diverse functions: they provide
energy and protect trees from micro-biological attacks.
Greater amounts of extractives in wood prevent or
minimize attacks by destructive organisms including
termites, beetles, and decay-fungi if the extractives are
toxic or repellent (Koehler et al., 2003, Routa et al., 2017).
Findings from the study depicted in Figure 2 confirm
variable total extractives along the boles of both Borassus
aethiopum as had been identified by researchers for wood
species.
Figure 2: Total extractives within male and female B.
aethiopum
Both varieties recorded a consistent decreasing trend up
the boles. Radially, the peripheries had the greatest
extractives at the base (i.e., 4.41% for male; 3.25% for
female) but least at the cores of the crown (i.e., 1.83% for
male; 1.81% for female). Axially, the male had a
decreasing extractive content up the crown (4.41 to 1.83%
for the periphery at the base and the core of the crown
respectively). A similar decreasing trend up the bole was
attained by the female variety (3.25 to 1.81% respectively).
Within the peripheries, vascular bundles have less MC due
to the permanently aspirated pits and extractives are
considerably deposited in the pit membranes. The
presence of these extractives in sufficient quantities at the
peripheries prevent or minimize the severity of attacks by
biodegrades and reduce excessive moisture
impermeability. This makes the peripheries naturally
moisture repellent, has less dimensional changes, more
resistant to biodegrades (i.e. being more durable), and
more useful commercially than the cores.
Lignin content
Lignin serves as ‘‘glue’’ in wood and usually ranges
between 20-30% for softwoods and 18–25% for
hardwoods. Adequate lignin content in wood provides
rigidity, resistance to biodeteriogens, and impermeable to
moisture (Sim et al., 2015, Lourenço and Pereira, 2018).
Halimahton and Ahmad, 1990 observed that lignin in
Elaeis guineensis stem was evenly distributed along the
trunk except that the core was deficient whilst the
peripheries of the base and middle had excessive
amounts. This confirms the results of the study showed in
Figure 3.
Figure 3: Lignin content within male and female B.
aethiopum
Base Periphery
Base Core
Middle Periphery
Middle Core
Crown Periphery
Crown Core
0
1
2
3
4
5
Extratives(%)
STEM POSITIONS
Male_Extractives
Female_Extractives
Base Periphery
Base Core
Middle Periphery
Middle Core
Crown Periphery
Crown Core
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
LIGNIN(%)
STEM POSITIONS
Male_Lignin
Female_Lignin

5. The Effects of Chemical Compositional Variability on Sustainable Applications of Borassus aethiopum Trunks
The lignin content within both varieties decreased up the
boles. That is, the peripheries had the greatest lignin
content in the range of 36.88–32.83% for the male, 39.53–
29.06% for the female, and least at the cores (i.e., 34.13–
29.31% for the male and 35.63–28.60 for the female). The
quantity of lignin decreased linearly from the base within
the peripheries up the crown and cores (36.88–29.31%)
for the male and (39.53–28.60%) for the female. The
availability of lignin in woody and non-woody plants serve
the function of minimizing the accessibility of cellulose and
hemicellulose to microbial enzymes and confer
mechanical strength by creating a cross-link with other cell
wall components. Therefore, the sufficient lignin
concentration at the peripheral zones than the cores of
both varieties from the study confirm findings from the
previous authors cited. This can decrease moisture
permeability through the vascular bundles, augment
nutrients transport, cement, minimize microbiological
degradation, enhance wood quality, and natural durability.
These strengthen the peripheries' natural defenses and
durability against biodegradation by impeding the
penetration of destructive enzymes.
Alpha-cellulose
The α-cellulose has been identified as the main
lignocelluloses carbohydrates ranging between 40–50%.
This drives termites towards the wood components, serves
as reinforcing material, and greatly enhances the stiffness
and mechanical strength of wood (Bowyer et al., 2003).
Studies by Bakar et al., 1998; Fathi, 2014 identified a
gradual decrease in α-cellulose from the periphery to the
core for Elaeis guineesis and Cocos nucifera trunks at a
mean value of 42% and 29.2% respectively. Khunrong,
2008 also reported 37.14% mean for Elaeis guineensis
trunks which are in the range of most wood species.
Results from the study shown in Figure 4 recorded
consistent decreasing values up the bole for both
Borassus aethiopum. Radially, (i.e. from the periphery to
the core), the peripheries at the base had the greatest
amount of 40.09% for the male and 37.01% for the female
than the cores: 28.02% for the male and 24.40% for the
female at the crown. Axially, (i.e. from the base to the
crown), the male recorded this trend: Base: 40.09% >
middle: 34.11% > crown: 29.53% for the peripheries, while
the cores had similar trend: Base (34.20%) > middle
(30.05%) > crown (28.02%). An identical trend was
identified for the female (37.01% > 35.38% > 25.97% for
the periphery at the base, middle, and crown respectively).
The core also recorded 36.10% for the base, 29.36% for
the middle, and 24.40% for the crown.
Figure 4: α– cellulose within male and female B.
aethiopum
Both varieties had consistent decreasing trends (40.09–
28.02% and 37.01–24.40% for the male and female
respectively from the peripheries of the base to the cores
of the crown). Being the principal nutrient for termites,
wood structures with excessive α-cellulose and MC are
avidly consumed and destroyed by termites and other
insects. A sufficient amount of α-cellulose and moisture at
the core portions along both varieties are factors that
attract biodegrades to feed and attack the core portions.
This makes the cores less durable, dimensionally
unstable, and potentially less useful in exterior and
structural applications than the peripheries.
Ash content
The chemical properties of wood ash vary significantly
depending on factors including soil type, source of
biomass, combustion type, the temperature used for its
production, age, and climatic conditions of the species
(Lanzerstorfer, 2015; Neina et al., 2020). Ash from woody
and non-woody plants often serve as an insect repellent,
soil enrichment and are useful as a polish and abrasive
cleaner. The amount ranges between 0.1 and 1.0% but
sometimes up to 5% (Ndlovu, 2007). Imbeah, 1998
reported that ash content is highly variable within trees,
being greatest at the pith and decrease towards the bark.
Research on Elaeis guineensis trunks by Bakar et al., 1998
noted greater ash content at the inner zones (cores) than
at the peripheries. Similar results in Figure 7 depict an
increasing range from 0.65 to 3.39% for the male and 0.85
to 5. 64% for the female; all from the periphery of the base
to the core of the crown.
Base Periphery
Base Core
Middle Periphery
Middle Core
Crown Periphery
Crown Core
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Alpha-cellulose(%)
STEM POSITIONS
Male_Alpha-Cellulose
Female_Alpha-Cellulose

6. The Effects of Chemical Compositional Variability on Sustainable Applications of Borassus aethiopum Trunks
Figure 7: Ash content within male and female B.
aethiopum
Along the periphery, the male recorded the greatest ash
content at its crown (2.45%) but lowest at the base
(0.65%). However, its core recorded the greatest at the
crown (3.39%) and lowest at the base (1.31%) (Table 1).
The trend was similar for the female as greatest at its
crown (2.83%) and lowest at the base (0.85%) for the
peripheries. Its core also had 5.64% at the crown and
1.49% for the base. Generally, the peripheries and cores
of both varieties recorded a consistently increasing trend
from the base to the crown. The lower ash content at the
peripheries than the cores along the boles can be ascribed
to an embedded cellular structure at the peripheries
compare to the porous voids at the core zones. This
positively influences the physicochemical, mechanical,
and durability characteristics of peripheral zones than the
cores for various essential applications.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
The analysis of variance (ANOVA) using Complete
Randomized Design (CRD) was employed to test the
differences between the variables using OriginPro 8.5
software. Subsequent Tukey’s Honestly Significant
Difference (HSD) tests were used to determine significant
differences at the 5% probability level (LSD 0.05) to detect
the means differences among all the measured properties.
The mean differences within both varieties are presented
in Table 1 with standard deviations in brackets. Means that
do not share a letter are significantly different.
Table 1: Chemical composition (%) within the male and female Borassus aethiopum trunks
Varieties
Stem positions Chemical properties
Radial Axial Total
extractives (%)
Lignin (%) Cellulose
(%)
Ash content (%)
Male Periphery
(Dermal)
Base 4.41a (0.13) 36.88a(0.54) 40.09a (0.95) 0.65d (0.16)
Middle 3.06b (0.02) 35.98b(0.49) 34.11b(0.13) 1.44c (0.14)
Crown 2.38c (0.30) 32.83d(0.39) 29.53c (0.73) 2.45b (0.43)
Core (sub-
dermal)
Base 2.62c (0.23) 34.13c (0.26) 34.20b(0.46) 1.31c (0.16)
Middle 2.35c (0.17) 33.90c(0.19) 30.05c(0.49) 1.58c (0.17)
Crown 1.83d (0.17) 29.31e(0.51) 28.02d(0.24) 3.39a (0.48)
Female
Periphery
(Dermal)
Base 3.25A (0.04) 39.53A(0.00) 37.01A(0.34) 0.85D (0.28)
Middle 3.08AB (0.11) 36.31B(0.29) 35.38C(0.56) 1.98C (0.29)
Crown 2.04D (2.04) 29.06D(0.55) 25.97E(0.18) 2.83B (0.59)
Core (Sub-
dermal)
Base 2.95B (0.06) 35.63B(0.00) 36.10B(0.48) 1.49CD (0.16)
Middle 2.35C (0.21) 33.59C(0.40) 29.36D(0.26) 2.94B (0.34)
Crown 1.81E (0.14) 28.60D(0.79) 24.40E(0.27) 5.64A (0.67)
*Values in the same column with the same letter are not significantly different (P<0.05)
Base Periphery
Base Core
Middle Periphery
Middle Core
Crown Periphery
Crown Core
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
ASHCONTENT(%)
STEM POSITION
Male_Ash Content
Female_Ash Content

7. The Effects of Chemical Compositional Variability on Sustainable Applications of Borassus aethiopum Trunks
The chemical constituents within both varieties showed
better peripheral properties at the bases and middle in all
cases along the boles. In most cases, significant
differences exist radially (i.e. between the peripheries and
the cores) (Table 1). Generally, there were variable
chemical compositions within both varieties as was
confirmed by cited researchers for palms, deciduous, and
coniferous wood species. The lower total extractive, lignin,
and α-cellulose but greater ash content at the cores and
crowns than the peripheries at bases and middle of both
varieties are due to the presence of porous parenchyma
tissues at the cores and crowns unlike the embedded
vascular bundles at the peripheries along the boles which
create permanent aspirated voids at the peripheries than
the cores. These increase porosity, moisture
accumulation, minimize density, and mechanical
characteristics, resulting in the cores and crowns less rigid,
resistant to biodegradation (or less durable), dimensionally
unstable, more permeable to moisture than peripheries at
the bases and middle of both varieties. This makes
peripheries particularly at the base and middle more
suitable for use, especially in hazardous environments.
CONCLUSION
• The peripheries along the boles (i.e. from the base to
the crown) particularly at the basal and middle portions
were identified to possess considerable total
extractives, lignin content, α-cellulose, and minimal
ash content. These can enhance the basses and
middle portions to become more resistant to
biodegradation (durable). Therefore, they possess
viable potentials for commercial applications such as
furniture, flooring, poles, doors, and other enhanced
structural works in the wood industry.
• The chemical characteristics of the cores from the
base to the crown within both varieties indicate the
potential possibility for interior applications like
parquet, stools, shelves, wardrobes, ceiling, and
packaging. This is due to their minimal total
extractives, lignin, α-cellulose, and optimal ash
content that can render the cores more susceptible to
bio-attacks and moisture absorption is minimal.
• The commercialization of both varieties in the wood
industry will reduce the excessive dependence on the
primary timbers and sustain the forest biodiversity.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Our profound appreciation to the staff of the Department of
Wood Science and Technology, Faculty of Renewable
Natural Resources (FRNR), Kwame Nkrumah University
of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana for their
assistance. We also thank Ms. Agnes Ankomah Danso
(Bio-Statistician, Crops Research Institute of CSIR,
Kumasi) for the statistical guidance.
DECLARATION OF INTEREST STATEMENT
No conflict of interest exists.
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Citation: Acheampong JB, Effah B, Achana EW, Antwi K
(2020). The Effects of Chemical Compositional Variability
on Sustainable Applications of Borassus aethiopum
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Copyright: © 2020 Acheampong et al. This is an open-
access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted
use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original author and source are cited.