This document summarizes the evolution of Dravidian temple architecture from early rock-cut cave temples under the Pallavas to later structural temples of the Cholas. It describes key developments such as the transition from simple rock-cut caves to carved monoliths depicting temple designs under the Pallavas. Structural temples began under later Pallava kings with examples at Kanchipuram featuring ornate carvings. Early Chola temples had distinguishing features and elaborated on structural complexes, while later periods saw hundreds of temples built across South India in evolving architectural styles over centuries of Chola rule.
The document summarizes the key differences between Dravidian and Nagara styles of Hindu temples in India. Dravidian temples, more common in South India, emphasize horizontality with one or more stories and a stepped pyramidal tower. Nagara temples of North India emphasize verticality with a tall spire and suppression of horizontal lines. Some examples of architectural features described include the Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora, Brihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur, and Kandariya Mahadeva Temple at Khajuraho.
The document provides details about Chalukyan architecture found in temples located in Aihole, Pattadakal, and Badami in Karnataka, India. The Chalukyan style originated in the 6th century and blended northern Indian and southern Indian architectural elements. Key features included curved towers, pilastered walls, and elaborate carvings. Important early Chalukyan sites included the Ladkhan Temple and the Durga Temple in Aihole, which featured sloping roofs and richly carved ceilings. In Pattadakal, the Virupaksha Temple and Jambulinga Temple exhibited both Dravidian and Nagara styles. Badami was the Chalukyan capital, with rock
History of Architecture - Evolution of temples - Indo aryan (North Indian st...Sachith Pagidi
brief introduction about the indo aryan architecture in India and their evolution in the temple architecture styles with examples from different parts of north India and the similarity from chalukyan period
The document is a presentation about the Shore Temple at Mamallapuram. It was presented by Ar.Shruti and thanks the audience at the end. The Shore Temple is a 7th century CE monument located on the Coromandel Coast of Tamil Nadu in India.
The document summarizes the history and architecture of the Sanchi Stupa located in Madhya Pradesh, India. It describes the Sanchi Stupa as one of the oldest Buddhist monuments in India, originally built in the 3rd century BCE and later enlarged during the Sunga period in the 1st century BCE. The document outlines the key architectural features of the Sanchi Stupa, including its circular plan and structure, symbolic meaning of its different sections, and sculpted gateways depicting Buddhist stories and symbols.
This document provides an overview of cave temples in Mamallapuram, including Kotikkal Mandapam, Dharmaraja Mandapam, Koneri Mandapam, Mahishasuramardini Mandapam, Atiranachanda Mandapam, Varaha Mandapam, Adivaraha Mandapam, Ramanuja Mandapam, Trimurti Mandapam, and Tiger Cave. It describes the architectural features and sculptures of each cave temple, highlighting their historical and religious significance. The caves represent different stages of development in Pallava architecture and sculpture over time, from simple early structures to more ornate later examples.
1. Evolution of Temple Architecture in Tamil Nadu
2. Major Styles of Temple Architecture in Tamil Nadu
3. Three Traditions of Temple Architecture in Tamil Nadu
4. Pallava Rock - cut Temples
5. Pandya Rock - cut Temples
The document summarizes the key differences between Dravidian and Nagara styles of Hindu temples in India. Dravidian temples, more common in South India, emphasize horizontality with one or more stories and a stepped pyramidal tower. Nagara temples of North India emphasize verticality with a tall spire and suppression of horizontal lines. Some examples of architectural features described include the Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora, Brihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur, and Kandariya Mahadeva Temple at Khajuraho.
The document provides details about Chalukyan architecture found in temples located in Aihole, Pattadakal, and Badami in Karnataka, India. The Chalukyan style originated in the 6th century and blended northern Indian and southern Indian architectural elements. Key features included curved towers, pilastered walls, and elaborate carvings. Important early Chalukyan sites included the Ladkhan Temple and the Durga Temple in Aihole, which featured sloping roofs and richly carved ceilings. In Pattadakal, the Virupaksha Temple and Jambulinga Temple exhibited both Dravidian and Nagara styles. Badami was the Chalukyan capital, with rock
History of Architecture - Evolution of temples - Indo aryan (North Indian st...Sachith Pagidi
brief introduction about the indo aryan architecture in India and their evolution in the temple architecture styles with examples from different parts of north India and the similarity from chalukyan period
The document is a presentation about the Shore Temple at Mamallapuram. It was presented by Ar.Shruti and thanks the audience at the end. The Shore Temple is a 7th century CE monument located on the Coromandel Coast of Tamil Nadu in India.
The document summarizes the history and architecture of the Sanchi Stupa located in Madhya Pradesh, India. It describes the Sanchi Stupa as one of the oldest Buddhist monuments in India, originally built in the 3rd century BCE and later enlarged during the Sunga period in the 1st century BCE. The document outlines the key architectural features of the Sanchi Stupa, including its circular plan and structure, symbolic meaning of its different sections, and sculpted gateways depicting Buddhist stories and symbols.
This document provides an overview of cave temples in Mamallapuram, including Kotikkal Mandapam, Dharmaraja Mandapam, Koneri Mandapam, Mahishasuramardini Mandapam, Atiranachanda Mandapam, Varaha Mandapam, Adivaraha Mandapam, Ramanuja Mandapam, Trimurti Mandapam, and Tiger Cave. It describes the architectural features and sculptures of each cave temple, highlighting their historical and religious significance. The caves represent different stages of development in Pallava architecture and sculpture over time, from simple early structures to more ornate later examples.
1. Evolution of Temple Architecture in Tamil Nadu
2. Major Styles of Temple Architecture in Tamil Nadu
3. Three Traditions of Temple Architecture in Tamil Nadu
4. Pallava Rock - cut Temples
5. Pandya Rock - cut Temples
The document provides an overview of temple architecture in India, focusing on northern, southern, and eastern Indian styles. It describes the key architectural elements and evolution over time, with examples including the Khajuraho group of temples, Lingaraj temple in Bhubaneswar, Jagannath temple in Puri, and the Sun Temple in Konark. The styles are characterized by elements such as shikhara towers, mandapas, and sculptural details that varied regionally under religious and geographic influences.
The Pallavas contributions to temple architecture are many, of which conceiving temples sculpted out of single blocks of stone would remain the most important. There are as many as eight in Mamallapuram, each of which has certain special features. The Panch-pandava group is the most important, in which the Dharmaraja Ratha stands out as the best, containing some exquisite sculptures never found later in this part of India.
A presentation by Prof.Subramanian Swaminathan
The document summarizes Chalukyan architecture found in Aihole, India. It describes several important early Chalukyan temples in Aihole including the Ravana Phadi cave temple dedicated to Shiva, the Durga Temple with its unusual apsidal shape, the Hucchimalli Gudi temple which was the first to have a porch, and the Lad Khan temple with its unique rooftop shrine. It provides details on the architectural features, sculptures, and historical significance of these early Chalukyan structures from the 6th-8th centuries that mark the origins of a distinct South Indian temple building tradition.
This Presentation is prepared for the Graduate Students. A presentation consisting of basic information regarding the topic. Students are advised to get more information from recommended books and articles. This presentation is only for students and purely for academic purposes.
The Kandariya Mahadeva Temple was built in 1030 AD in Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh as part of the Khajuraho Group of Monuments. It is the largest temple within the western group and is famous for its elaborate stone carvings and erotic sculptures. The temple follows the Hindu symbolic mandala design principle and was built by the Chandela dynasty during the reigns of kings Yashovarman and Dhanga between 950-1050 CE.
History of Architecture - Evolution of temples - Dravidian Architecture Part - 2Sachith Pagidi
Dravidian Architecture - during the rule of pandya, vijayanagara and nayaka the evolution of temples.
Pandya - Evolution of the Gopuram – number, height,embellishment
High walls for enclosure for security( Muslim invasion)
Vijayanagara - Addition of Mandapas, Secondary halls and Gopurams
Nayaks- Temple cities, addition of Gopurams to existing temples
The Dilwara Jain Temples are a cluster of 5 white marble temples located in Mount Abu, Rajasthan built between the 11th-13th century AD. The oldest and most prominent temple is the Vimal Vasahi Temple built in 1031-32 AD by Vimal Shah, a minister, to atone for killings in battle. It is noted for its intricate carvings and dome featuring goddesses. The Luna Vasahi Temple built in 1230 AD is dedicated to the 22nd Jain Tirthankara and has a similar architectural style with a notable dome. Both temples demonstrate the intricate carving, dome, and shrine details common in Solanki architecture of this period.
History of Architecture - Evolution of temples - Chalukyan ArchitectureSachith Pagidi
The following gives a brief introduction about the chalukyan architecture and the style they used based on the social context and there adaptation towards the versara style.
Early chalukyas architecture,aihole, pattadkalluVijay Bharadwaj
The document summarizes key architectural features and historical context of several early Hindu temples in India. It describes the Ladh Khan Temple in Aihole as the oldest structure in the group, dating to the 5th century. It also describes the Durga Temple in Aihole, which follows the design of Buddhist Chaitya halls. Finally, it analyzes the Papanatha and Virupaksha temples at Pattadakal, with the Virupaksha Temple showing architectural advances compared to the older Papanatha Temple, demonstrating progress between the 7th and 8th centuries.
This document discusses Indian temple architecture from ancient times through the Gupta period. It notes that Gupta period temples were derived from earlier rock-cut prototypes, having wider spacing between columns in the middle and features like flat roofs and modest sizes. Key architectural elements of Hindu temples are described like the vimana, mandapa, and shikhara. Sculpture flourished during this time on a massive scale, though structures relied more on piling blocks than technical design. Gopurams, large entrance towers, came to mark the importance of temples within southern Indian cities.
vedic architecture and buddhist architecture of asiasurya teja
The document provides information on Vedic, Buddhist, and Tibetan architectural styles. It discusses key elements of each style such as vastupurusha in Vedic architecture, stupas and viharas in Buddhist architecture, and the eight great stupas in Tibetan architecture. Pagodas are also summarized as evolving from stupas and varying in design across countries in Asia based on local architectural details. Specific historic structures exemplifying each style are highlighted such as the Great Sanchi Stupa and the Iron Pagoda of Kaifeng.
The Kailasa Temple was built in the 8th century in Aurangabad, India. It was carved out of a single rock cliff and took over 400,000 tons of rock to complete. The temple complex consists of four parts - the body of the temple, an entrance gateway, an intermediate Nandi shrine, and cloisters surrounding a courtyard. It is considered one of the largest monolithic structures in the world and was awarded UNESCO World Heritage status in 1983.
The Sun Temple in Modhera, Gujarat was constructed in 1026-27 CE during the reign of Bhima I of the Solanki dynasty. It faces east and has several components including a shrine, vestibule, assembly hall, and kunda (water tank). The temple features intricate stone carvings depicting figures of the sun god and other deities. It marks the zenith of temple architecture in Gujarat but was damaged by Muslim invaders, though locals preserved much of what remains today.
The key elements of a Hindu temple include the Vimana, Sikhara, and Garbhagriha. The Vimana is the sanctuary and consists of an upper Sikhara, which is the tapering tower, and lower Garbhagriha, which is the inner womb chamber housing the deity. Other elements are the Pradakshina patha ambulatory, Mandapa assembly hall, Antarala vestibule, Ardhamandapa front porch, Gopurams tower entrances, Pitha plinth, and Toranas gateways. These architectural components have standard Sanskrit names and their shapes and uses are defined.
The document provides an overview of the evolution of Hindu temple architecture during the Gupta period in India. Key developments include the emergence of the first free-standing stone temples, with a central sanctum and pillared porch. Early temples had flat roofs, while later brick and stone temples developed curved towers known as shikharas. Decorative elements like arched doorways and amalaka disks atop towers became characteristic of the Gupta style. By this period, the basic elements of the modern Hindu temple were established.
The document summarizes Jain architecture, focusing on temples at Dilwara and Ranakpur. It discusses how Jains built temple cities on hills according to concepts of immortality. It describes key architectural features of temples like the Adinatha temple at Ranakpur, known for its intricate carvings, and the Dilwara temple complex near Mount Abu, which contains five unique marble temples renowned for their ornate stonework. The temples at Dilwara were built between the 11th-13th centuries and include the Vimal Vasahi and Luna Vasahi temples noted for elaborate ceilings, pillars, and domes.
The document discusses several aspects of Indian temple architecture including:
1) Temples were primarily designed to house sacred statues or emblems and lacked large internal spaces, instead featuring small shrines and areas for rituals.
2) Key styles included the Dravida style of South India and the Nagara style of North India.
3) Important examples discussed include the monolithic rathas at Mamallapuram carved in the 7th century to imitate early wooden temples, and the Shore Temple at Mamallapuram from the 8th century featuring three shrines.
This Presentation is prepared for Graduate Students. A presentation consisting of basic information regarding the topic. Students are advised to get more information from recommended books and articles. This presentation is only for students and purely for academic purposes.
The document discusses Dravidian architecture and temple architecture from South India. It describes the key components of Dravidian style temples including the vimana (sanctuary), mantapams (porches), gopurams (gateway towers), and other structures. It also discusses the origins of the Dravidian style in the Gupta period and provides examples of structural temples from the Pallava dynasty like the Kailasanatha temple. Materials used included stone, brick, and wood, with stone becoming more common over time.
Nasik city has a rich cultural and historical legacy dating back to Chalcolithic age. Ruled by several dynasties including the Satvahanas, Yadavas and Marathas, Nasik was an important trading center. The document discusses Nasik's temples built in Hemadpanti style, including the iconic Kalaram and Trimbakeshwar temples. It also describes the city's architectural heritage like the ornate Wadas and scenic Godavari ghats. Nasik is surrounded by the Sahyadri mountains containing numerous forts and rock cut caves depicting religious icons. Coins from ruling dynasties provide historical insights. The document highlights Nasik's cultural diversity and
The document provides an overview of temple architecture in India, focusing on northern, southern, and eastern Indian styles. It describes the key architectural elements and evolution over time, with examples including the Khajuraho group of temples, Lingaraj temple in Bhubaneswar, Jagannath temple in Puri, and the Sun Temple in Konark. The styles are characterized by elements such as shikhara towers, mandapas, and sculptural details that varied regionally under religious and geographic influences.
The Pallavas contributions to temple architecture are many, of which conceiving temples sculpted out of single blocks of stone would remain the most important. There are as many as eight in Mamallapuram, each of which has certain special features. The Panch-pandava group is the most important, in which the Dharmaraja Ratha stands out as the best, containing some exquisite sculptures never found later in this part of India.
A presentation by Prof.Subramanian Swaminathan
The document summarizes Chalukyan architecture found in Aihole, India. It describes several important early Chalukyan temples in Aihole including the Ravana Phadi cave temple dedicated to Shiva, the Durga Temple with its unusual apsidal shape, the Hucchimalli Gudi temple which was the first to have a porch, and the Lad Khan temple with its unique rooftop shrine. It provides details on the architectural features, sculptures, and historical significance of these early Chalukyan structures from the 6th-8th centuries that mark the origins of a distinct South Indian temple building tradition.
This Presentation is prepared for the Graduate Students. A presentation consisting of basic information regarding the topic. Students are advised to get more information from recommended books and articles. This presentation is only for students and purely for academic purposes.
The Kandariya Mahadeva Temple was built in 1030 AD in Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh as part of the Khajuraho Group of Monuments. It is the largest temple within the western group and is famous for its elaborate stone carvings and erotic sculptures. The temple follows the Hindu symbolic mandala design principle and was built by the Chandela dynasty during the reigns of kings Yashovarman and Dhanga between 950-1050 CE.
History of Architecture - Evolution of temples - Dravidian Architecture Part - 2Sachith Pagidi
Dravidian Architecture - during the rule of pandya, vijayanagara and nayaka the evolution of temples.
Pandya - Evolution of the Gopuram – number, height,embellishment
High walls for enclosure for security( Muslim invasion)
Vijayanagara - Addition of Mandapas, Secondary halls and Gopurams
Nayaks- Temple cities, addition of Gopurams to existing temples
The Dilwara Jain Temples are a cluster of 5 white marble temples located in Mount Abu, Rajasthan built between the 11th-13th century AD. The oldest and most prominent temple is the Vimal Vasahi Temple built in 1031-32 AD by Vimal Shah, a minister, to atone for killings in battle. It is noted for its intricate carvings and dome featuring goddesses. The Luna Vasahi Temple built in 1230 AD is dedicated to the 22nd Jain Tirthankara and has a similar architectural style with a notable dome. Both temples demonstrate the intricate carving, dome, and shrine details common in Solanki architecture of this period.
History of Architecture - Evolution of temples - Chalukyan ArchitectureSachith Pagidi
The following gives a brief introduction about the chalukyan architecture and the style they used based on the social context and there adaptation towards the versara style.
Early chalukyas architecture,aihole, pattadkalluVijay Bharadwaj
The document summarizes key architectural features and historical context of several early Hindu temples in India. It describes the Ladh Khan Temple in Aihole as the oldest structure in the group, dating to the 5th century. It also describes the Durga Temple in Aihole, which follows the design of Buddhist Chaitya halls. Finally, it analyzes the Papanatha and Virupaksha temples at Pattadakal, with the Virupaksha Temple showing architectural advances compared to the older Papanatha Temple, demonstrating progress between the 7th and 8th centuries.
This document discusses Indian temple architecture from ancient times through the Gupta period. It notes that Gupta period temples were derived from earlier rock-cut prototypes, having wider spacing between columns in the middle and features like flat roofs and modest sizes. Key architectural elements of Hindu temples are described like the vimana, mandapa, and shikhara. Sculpture flourished during this time on a massive scale, though structures relied more on piling blocks than technical design. Gopurams, large entrance towers, came to mark the importance of temples within southern Indian cities.
vedic architecture and buddhist architecture of asiasurya teja
The document provides information on Vedic, Buddhist, and Tibetan architectural styles. It discusses key elements of each style such as vastupurusha in Vedic architecture, stupas and viharas in Buddhist architecture, and the eight great stupas in Tibetan architecture. Pagodas are also summarized as evolving from stupas and varying in design across countries in Asia based on local architectural details. Specific historic structures exemplifying each style are highlighted such as the Great Sanchi Stupa and the Iron Pagoda of Kaifeng.
The Kailasa Temple was built in the 8th century in Aurangabad, India. It was carved out of a single rock cliff and took over 400,000 tons of rock to complete. The temple complex consists of four parts - the body of the temple, an entrance gateway, an intermediate Nandi shrine, and cloisters surrounding a courtyard. It is considered one of the largest monolithic structures in the world and was awarded UNESCO World Heritage status in 1983.
The Sun Temple in Modhera, Gujarat was constructed in 1026-27 CE during the reign of Bhima I of the Solanki dynasty. It faces east and has several components including a shrine, vestibule, assembly hall, and kunda (water tank). The temple features intricate stone carvings depicting figures of the sun god and other deities. It marks the zenith of temple architecture in Gujarat but was damaged by Muslim invaders, though locals preserved much of what remains today.
The key elements of a Hindu temple include the Vimana, Sikhara, and Garbhagriha. The Vimana is the sanctuary and consists of an upper Sikhara, which is the tapering tower, and lower Garbhagriha, which is the inner womb chamber housing the deity. Other elements are the Pradakshina patha ambulatory, Mandapa assembly hall, Antarala vestibule, Ardhamandapa front porch, Gopurams tower entrances, Pitha plinth, and Toranas gateways. These architectural components have standard Sanskrit names and their shapes and uses are defined.
The document provides an overview of the evolution of Hindu temple architecture during the Gupta period in India. Key developments include the emergence of the first free-standing stone temples, with a central sanctum and pillared porch. Early temples had flat roofs, while later brick and stone temples developed curved towers known as shikharas. Decorative elements like arched doorways and amalaka disks atop towers became characteristic of the Gupta style. By this period, the basic elements of the modern Hindu temple were established.
The document summarizes Jain architecture, focusing on temples at Dilwara and Ranakpur. It discusses how Jains built temple cities on hills according to concepts of immortality. It describes key architectural features of temples like the Adinatha temple at Ranakpur, known for its intricate carvings, and the Dilwara temple complex near Mount Abu, which contains five unique marble temples renowned for their ornate stonework. The temples at Dilwara were built between the 11th-13th centuries and include the Vimal Vasahi and Luna Vasahi temples noted for elaborate ceilings, pillars, and domes.
The document discusses several aspects of Indian temple architecture including:
1) Temples were primarily designed to house sacred statues or emblems and lacked large internal spaces, instead featuring small shrines and areas for rituals.
2) Key styles included the Dravida style of South India and the Nagara style of North India.
3) Important examples discussed include the monolithic rathas at Mamallapuram carved in the 7th century to imitate early wooden temples, and the Shore Temple at Mamallapuram from the 8th century featuring three shrines.
This Presentation is prepared for Graduate Students. A presentation consisting of basic information regarding the topic. Students are advised to get more information from recommended books and articles. This presentation is only for students and purely for academic purposes.
The document discusses Dravidian architecture and temple architecture from South India. It describes the key components of Dravidian style temples including the vimana (sanctuary), mantapams (porches), gopurams (gateway towers), and other structures. It also discusses the origins of the Dravidian style in the Gupta period and provides examples of structural temples from the Pallava dynasty like the Kailasanatha temple. Materials used included stone, brick, and wood, with stone becoming more common over time.
Nasik city has a rich cultural and historical legacy dating back to Chalcolithic age. Ruled by several dynasties including the Satvahanas, Yadavas and Marathas, Nasik was an important trading center. The document discusses Nasik's temples built in Hemadpanti style, including the iconic Kalaram and Trimbakeshwar temples. It also describes the city's architectural heritage like the ornate Wadas and scenic Godavari ghats. Nasik is surrounded by the Sahyadri mountains containing numerous forts and rock cut caves depicting religious icons. Coins from ruling dynasties provide historical insights. The document highlights Nasik's cultural diversity and
The document discusses several Hindu temples located in Tamil Nadu that are significant in Chola and Pallava architecture and history. It provides details about the Chidambaram Temple which represents the element of ether. It also discusses the Ekambareswara Temple in Kanchipuram which represents the element of earth. Finally, it shares information about festivals held at the Kapaleeswarar Temple in Chennai and the Parthasarathi Temple, and provides images of sculptures and structures from temples including Darasuram, Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Kailasanathar, and the Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram.
The document provides historical information about several important archaeological sites in Andhra Pradesh, India. It discusses the excavation history of sites like Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda, Undavalli caves, Kotappakonda, Chebrolu, and Bapatla. These sites show evidence of Buddhist monasteries, Hindu temples, and inscriptions from rulers of dynasties like Satavahanas, Ikshvakus, Pallavas, and others, highlighting the rich cultural history of the region.
The document summarizes Indian architectural styles spanning 4,500 years of civilization. It describes major styles including Mauryan, Kushana, Gupta, Chalukyan, Pallava, Chola, Hoysala, Rajput, Islamic, Indo-Islamic, Mughal and provincial architectures. Key highlights are the extensive town planning of Indus Valley sites, temples reflecting Nagara and Dravida styles, rock-cut structures of Ellora and Ajanta, and iconic buildings like Taj Mahal representing cultural blending of styles. Indian architecture reflects the diversity of the country emerging from ancient traditions through different rulers.
The first phase of Pallavan architecture from 610-690 AD saw the development of rock-cut cave temples known as mandapas at Mahabalipuram. These included early experiments with pillared halls and structural prototypes like the Rathas that served as models for later temples. Key features included the beginnings of the Dravidian column with elements like the lion capital, and the use of reliefs to combine sculpture with architecture. This phase established foundations for the evolution of the temple architecture in the Dravidian style.
The document provides historical background on the Chola dynasty and their contributions to art and architecture from the 9th to 13th centuries CE in South India. Some key points:
- The Cholas established a powerful empire and patronized architecture, building many grand temples across their territories.
- Important Chola period temples mentioned include the Brihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur built by Rajaraja I, the Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple built by Rajendra Chola I, and the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram.
- Chola art flourished in sculptures, murals, bronzes, and other mediums seen on the orn
The document provides information about three different types of Indian art - Mahabalipuram Sculptures, Kalamkari painting, and Tanjore painting. It describes that Mahabalipuram Sculptures were carved out of rock along the coast of Tamil Nadu between the 7th and 8th centuries and include temples, cave sanctuaries, and rock reliefs depicting Hindu deities. Kalamkari painting originated 3000 years ago in India and involves intricate resist dyeing and hand printing techniques on cloth. Tanjore painting originated in the 16th century during Maratha rule and uses canvases along with natural dyes and gold leaves to create detailed sketches of Hindu religious themes.
The document provides information on three UNESCO World Heritage sites in India - Agra Fort and Taj Mahal in Agra, Ajanta Caves, and Ellora Caves. It summarizes that Agra Fort was a major building project of Emperor Akbar in the 16th century and now houses several important structures. It also notes that the Taj Mahal in Agra was commissioned by Shah Jahan in the 17th century to house the tomb of his wife. Finally, it briefly describes the Ajanta and Ellora Caves, noting that Ajanta Caves contain paintings dating from the 2nd century BC while Ellora Caves feature rock-cut temples representing Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism from the 5
I. The murals of the Chola period were found in important temples built between the 10th-13th century CE, including the Brihadeeswara Temple in Thanjavur.
II. The murals discovered at Brihadeeswara Temple were painted between 1008-1012 CE and depict Hindu religious themes like Shiva as Nataraja and stories from mythology.
III. The natural pigments were applied using a fresco technique on lime plaster and include masterpieces like dancing celestial beings and Shiva in various forms. While covered for centuries, conservation efforts are helping to preserve these important examples of Chola art.
The Rashtrakuta dynasty ruled southern India between 753-982 CE, originating as feudatories of the Badami Chalukyas. They established their empire with its base in modern Karnataka. Major contemporary dynasties included the Palas in eastern India and Paramaras in western India. The Rashtrakutas patronized Brahminical, Buddhist and Jain religions and made important contributions to art and architecture, with centers at Ellora, Aihole, Pattadakal, and Elephanta. Their rule declined in the 10th century and later empires annexed their territory, though cultural practices continued.
Hindu Temple Architecture | History of ArchitecturePranay Kumar Tode
The Gupta and Early Chalukyan periods saw developments in Hindu temple architecture in India. Under the Guptas, temples transitioned from rock-cut cave structures to free-standing structures, with early styles consisting of a sanctuary and porch. The Chalukyas established their rule in the 6th century and made Aihole, Badami, and Pattadakal centers of architectural experimentation, combining North and South Indian elements into their distinctive Vesara style with features like ornate doorframes and octagonal towers. Rock-cut structures from this period can still be seen at sites like Ajanta, Ellora, Junagarh, and the cave temples of Badami.
Ellora is a UNESCO World Heritage site located in Maharashtra, India, known for its 34 cave monuments excavated from charcoal-colored basalt rock between the 6th and 10th centuries. The caves include Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain temples and monasteries represented through rock-cut architecture, sculptures, and murals. The largest and most famous is the Kailasanatha Temple, a megalithic Hindu temple carved out of a single rock in the 8th century. Other notable caves include the Vishvakarma Cave with its statue of the Buddha in preaching position and the Indra Sabha and Jagannath Sabha Jain caves with carvings of J
The Shore Temples complex in Mamallapuram contains several structural temples built by the Pallavas using different types of stone. The two Shore Temples located directly on the seashore are the oldest structural temples in the complex. Between the two temples is a rock-cut reclining Vishnu sculpture. The complex contains numerous religious sculptures both inside and outside the temples, many of which are now badly eroded after centuries of exposure to the sea waves. The temples demonstrate the Pallava architectural styles and sculptural skills but also the fanciful nature of the Pallavas in locating temples in unusual locations like directly on the seashore.
Anuradhapura was the largest ancient city and capital of Sri Lanka from 377 BC to 1017 AD. It was founded in 437 BC and became an important center of trade and diplomacy by the 1st century AD, linked to both the Roman-Hellenistic world and China. Over 1400 years it was the royal seat of more than 250 Buddhist and Hindu kings. Important religious structures built there include the Thuparamaya dagoba, containing relics of the Buddha, and the massive Jetavanarama dagoba. Archaeological finds provide evidence of its trade links and the city was home to foreign merchant quarters.
The stone age remainings in Kerala is pretty interesting artefacts to all archaeologists in the world. The reality is still the research on it didn't done properly and the full history of ancient civilization in Kerala is unknown. Some of the sites like Edakkal Caves, Muniyaras or dolmens in Marayur are preserved well here in Kerala for tourism purpose only. See the slide show of these interesting spots in Kerala.
The Gupta and Early Chalukyan periods saw developments in Hindu temple architecture in India. Under the Guptas, temples evolved from simple rock-cut structures to free-standing stone structures with shikhara towers. The Chalukyans further developed temple architecture, combining North and South Indian elements to create the Vesara style seen at Aihole, Badami, and Pattadakal, with structural temples and intricate carvings. Key features included curving shikhara towers, ornate doorframes, and the introduction of mandapas and garbhagrihas.
INDIAN ANCIENT CONSTRUCTION: DRAVIDIAN AND TEMPLE ARCHITECTUREKarthik Kumar
Published on march 21, 2018
India has got many wonders in the form of structures built especially in ancient times, these remained strong against all the destructive forces unlike modern structures built with latest technologies.
Why do hundreds of koreans throng to ayodhya every year Betsy Booboo
The document discusses the legend of an Indian princess from Ayodhya named Heo Hwang-ok or Suriratna who traveled to Korea around 2000 years ago and married King Kim Suro, founder of the ancient Korean kingdom of Karak. According to Korean texts, she helped unite various Korean kingdoms and her descendants now number over 6 million. Many prominent Korean leaders trace their lineage back to her. To honor this cultural connection, a memorial was built for her in Ayodhya and Koreans visit it annually. Recent genetic studies have provided some evidence supporting this legend as a historical event.
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1. Pic showing evolution of the Pallavan Order
DRAVIDIAN
TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
paper presented at Second International Conference Seminar of Tamil Studies, January 1968 by T.V.Mahalingam,
Professor of Ancient History and Archaeology, University of Madras on Tamil Art & Architecture
Compiled and submitted by Dr Uday Dokras
2. "The following works of art ...are among the most remarkable contributions of the Tamil
creative genius to the world's cultural treasure and should be familiar to the whole world and
admired and beloved by all in the same way as ... the cathedrals of France and the sculptures
of Greece ...... Dravidian temple architecture, of which the chief representatives are perhaps
the temples of Tanjore, Chidambaram and Madurai....." Tamil Contribution to World
Civilisation - Czech Professor Dr. Kamil Zvelebil in Tamil Culture - Vol. V, No. 4. October,
1956
"...The plan of a temple closely resembles the plan of a human body in which the Sanctum
Sanctorum (garbha gudi) is the head and the outer gate is the lower limb. The spine
(gopuram) on the outer gate is the foot of the Lord. Even if a visitor does not enter the temple,
he can as well contemplate on the gopuram and derive the benefit of a darshan. Temple
architecture developed in two streams, Saiva style and Vaishnava style. Silpa is the
architecture and Agama is the mode of worship. Agama of the Saivas is different from that of
the Vaishnavas. The Vaishnava worship is again in two different styles, the Vaikasana and the
Pancharatra. .." Architecture of a Hindu Temple - Sthapathi
"Before sketching in outline the evolution of architecture it is necessary to acquaint ourselves
with the major types of extant structures. These basic shapes are fivefold, viz., square (caturasra),
rectangular (ayatasra), elliptical (vrittayata), circular (vritta) and octagonal (astasra). Generally
speaking the plan of the temple was conditioned by the nature of the consecrated deity. The
shrine of the reclining Ranganatha, for example, can only be rectangular. The basic shapes are
amply reflected in the superstructure of the vimas . Though square and rectangular shrines are
frequently met with, circular and octagonal shapes are very rare. However these forms are
represented in the sikhara of the vimana. The apsidal form, a derivative from Buddhist
3. architecture, was popular up to the 10th century in the Tondaimandalam, after which it declined
in usage.
Mention should also be made here of the temples which have more than one shrine in the vertical
order. This is to be found in a handful of Vaisnava temples as those
at Kanchipuram, Uttiramerur, Madurai, Tirukkostiyur etc. Three shrines, one above the other, are
found in these and are intended for the seated, standing and reclining forms of Visnu.
Unlike other parts of India the architectural history of the Tamil country starts only with the
beginning of the seventh century A.D., the monuments built before that period having perished.
In early Tamil literature we hear of such structures as koyil, maddam, nagaram, palli, pali. etc.,
which are apparently references to temples or religious edifices. Presumably they were built of
impermanent materials which have succumbed to the ravages of time.
The earliest extant monuments in the Tamil country are the rock-cut caves scooped out under the
Pallavas, and following them by the Pandyas, Muttaraiyars, and Atiyas. In his inscription in the
cave of Laksitayatana at Mandagappattu, South Arcot district, Mahendravarman I (610-630
A.D.) declares that he caused the construction of the temple for Siva, Visnu and Brahma without
the use of conventional building materials like brick, timber, metal and mortar; and the tenor of
the language has been taken to indicate that the king was introducing a new mode of architecture
by scooping out the cave.
Many other cave temples are definitely attributable to Mahendravarman on the authority of his
inscriptions in them. These include the excavations at Pallavaram, Mahendravadi, Mamandur,
Tiruchirapalli, Slyamangalam and Dalavanur. The Vasantesvaram at Vallam was also excavated
in Mahendravaraman's reign by a feudatory of his.
Besides these caves of definite authorship, those at Kuranganilmuttam, Vilappakkam,
Aragandanallur and the Rudravahsvara cave at Mamandur are stylistically attributable to the
period of Mahendravarman. These caves of Mahendra are simple in plan and consist of a
mandapa with one or a few shrines. The sculptural decoration of the caves is inconspicuous. The
pillars in them are equidistant and have square sections both on base and top with the portion in
between chamfered octagonally. In the square section are seen delicate carvings of lotus
medallions. The pillars and pilasters carry on top massive corbels with beams.
This 'Mahendra style' was continued by his son and successor Mamalla, the famous
Narasimhavarman I, who, however, introduced certain variations in some of his caves. In these
the entablature is almost completely finished, unlike in those of the Mahendra variety. Besides
kudu arches in the cornice, it carries salas, karnakutas and alpanasikas. The pillars in Mamalla's
caves are not only taller but also more slender than those of his father. The strutting figure of a
lion ro vyala as the base of the pillar is a notable feature. Again in Mamalla's caves one can also
find large bas-reliefs on walls in striking contrast to their plain nature in all but one of
Mahendra's caves. The Konerimandapam, Varahamandapam, Mahisamardanimandapam,
Trimurti cave, Adivaraha cave, Ramanujamand. apam, etc. - all at Mahabalipuram - are typical
4. examples of the Mamalla types of rock architecture.
The Pandyas, who were ruling in the extreme south of the Tamil country, appear to have soon
adopted the rock-cut technique and developed certain interesting variations in their excavations.
It is possible that the cave at Pillaiyarpatti is one of the earliest Pandya attempts in the rock
medium as evidenced by the archaic palaegraphy of the inscription in Vatteluttu characters in it.
The Siva cave shrine at Malaiyadikurichi is assignable on the basis of an inscription to the
second half of the seventh century and the Narasimha cave at Anamalai and the Subrahmanya
cave at Tirupparankunram are on the same ground datable respectively to 770 to 773 A.D.
At Tiruttangal, Piranmalai, Kudumiyamalai and Sittannavasal are to be found other caves of the
Pandyas. Though similar to Pallava caves in plan and design, the Pandya examples differ from
them in their adoption of certain Calukyan features such as the introduction of the rock-cut linga
and Nandi and sculptural representations of Ganesa and Saptamatrkas. The pillars are large and
reminiscent of those of the Mahendra variety with corbels generally with a plain level.
In this movement of scooping out live rocks for divine abodes minor dynasties like the Atiyas
and Muttaraiyars also participated, though stylistically their excavations are much akin to those
of their political master. The cave at Namakkal is evidently an Atiya enterprise while Muttaraiya
involvement may be seen at Tiruvellarai, Narttamalai, Kunrlandarkoil etc.
Under Narasimhavarma I, Pallava rock-architecture took a new turn. besides cutting into rocks
for caves, attempts were made to cut out monoliths from rocks. The rudiments of this practice are
to be found in the carved-out stupas in the caves of Western India and the vimana-form in the
Tawa cave at Udayagiri but it was at Mahabalipuram under the Pallavas that it found a full and
eloquent expression.
Architecturally they depict the external aspects of contemporary brick and timber structures.
There are as many as nine monoliths at Mahabalipuram of which the five, named after the
Pandavas and Draupadi, are a well-known assemblage of contiguous excavations, the other
examples are the Ganesa ratha, Valayankuttai ratha and the two Pidari rathas. As they represent
varying architectural designs they are of primary importance for any study of the plan and
different zones and the details of the Yima-nas.
The Dharmaraja-ratha is three-storeyed with a square viguana and an octagonal dome. Though
the Arjunaratha is similar to this it is two-storeyed. The Bhimaratha has a wagon-top roof and is
5. single-storeyed unlike the Ganesa ratha, another example of wagon top roof, which is double-
storeyed. The Draupadiratha is hut-shaped and is square in plan and its roof is domical.
The Sahadevaratha represents the apsidal form with its back resembling that of an elephant, a
feature high-lighted by the carving of a huge elephant by the side of the monolith.
The only non-Pallava monolith in the Tamil country is Kalugumalai which was cut-out under the
Pandyas. This has been cut out, like the Rastrakuta monoliths in the Deccan, by entrenching all
round and not by free cutting of standing rocks as in the Pallava domain.
Though the rock medium appears to have continued for some more time it was soon replaced by
structural temples. This movement, as available evidences indicate, appears to have first started
under Narasimhavarman I's grand-son Paramesvaravarman (669-691 A.D.), though it is not
unlikely that the practice was still older. A few pillars in the typical Mahendra style, one of them
with an inscription of Mahendravarman I, found in the Eltamranatha temple
at Kanchipuram seem to suggest that even at the beginning of the seventh century structural
mandapas were built. The presence of Pallava pillars at Sivanvayil, Kuram, Vayalur, Tirupporur
etc., is enough to confirm this.
The Vidyavimta Pallavesvaragriha at Kuram built by Paramesvaravarman I is an early structural
edifice. The provision of a series of vertical and horizontal slabs instead of a full bAitti is an
interesting and early feature in this temple. While this is a small temple and reflects the modest
nature of the enterprise, the temples of the next reign are large in size, elaborate in plan and rich
in architectural and sculptural decorations. With the accession of Narasimhavarman II Rajasimha
the history of Pallava architecture enters upon a new and eventful phase.
While the temples of Kailasanatha at Kanchipuram, Talagirlsvara at Panamalai and the Shore
temple at Mahabalipuram are indisputably assignable to his reign on epigraphical grounds, a
large number of other smaller temples are also stylistically akin to them. The temples of
Vaikuntanatha, Muktesvara and Matangesvara at Kanchipuram are said to be slightly later and
belong to the reign of Nandivarman Pallavamalla.
The Kailasanatha is four-storeyed and is an example of sandharaprasada containing two walls
providing an ambulatory.
6. The storeys are decorated with architectural designs like kutas, kostas and panjaras. The pillars in
structural temples are with rampant lions generally and with elephants, nagas and bhulas at
times. Niches are to be seen in both the rock-cut and structural temples and have a makaratorana
decoration on their top, the makaras in them having floriated tails overflowing on the sides. The
corbels are generally curved in profile with the taranga (wave moulding) ornament and a median
band. The gopuras are absent in these early temples.
In the Kailasanatha at Kanchi and the Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram there are faint but
unmistakable suggestions of gopuradhvaras which were to evolve into towers. Another feature of
these early structural temples is the almost prodigal sculptural embellishment of the exterior
walls. The carvings are invariably those of deities, a few of which appear to be fresh inceptions
from the Calukyan area.
The Colas who supplanted the Pallavas about the middle of the ninth century as a political force
continued the latter's artistic activities. For about five centuries a large part of the Tamil country
besides peripheral regions in contiguous areas in Andhra, Karnataka and Kerala were under their
sway which they studded with hundreds of temples. On the basis of certain accepted notions
regarding the evolution of temple architecture and on the authority of numerous inscriptions it is
now fairly possible to determine the dates of most of the Chola monuments. Though the
periodisation of South Indian art-history is even now a subject of debate it is conceded by most
scholars that the Chola temples are broadly divisible into three groups:
the first group belonging to the period from the accession of Vijayalaya to the accession of
Rajaraja I (i.e., 850-985 A.D.);
the second group assignable to the period from the accession of Rajaraja I to the accession of
Kulottunga (985-1070 A.D.); and
7. the third group comprising the period from the accession of Kulottunga I to the decline and fall
of the Chola empire under Rajaraja III and Rajendra III (1070-1270 A.D .).
The temples of the first group are many which in stylistic characteristics break away from the
structural temples of the Pallavas. In the Pallava temples the lowermost tier of the vimana is
extended to the vestibule in front of the shrine, while this is not found in early Chola temples, the
only exception being the Vijayalayacolisvaram at Narttamalai
[see also Takeo Kamiya - Architecture of the Indian Sub Continent] which according to recent
researches is not a Chola but a Muttaraiya edifice. The torus moulding in the basement which is
chamfered in Pallava temples continues to be so in the Chola period for sometime but soon gets a
rounded shape. The cornice in Chola temples is no longer a projecting tier as it is in Pallava
monuments but gets a flexed shape. The old lion and vyala motifs in pillars are also dispensed
with, though they linger for sometime in a few temples. Further, the corbels in pillars get an
angular profile and are bevelled, resulting in a triangular, tenon-like projection. The absence of
extravagant sculptural decoration on the exterior of the shrine walls is another distinguishing
feature.
Though typical early Chola examples are numerous, special mention must be made of those at
Kilaiyur, Srinivasanallur (Koranganatha), Kumbhakonam, Erumbur, Pullamangai, Punjai and
Kodumbalur. The introduction of sub shrines for attendant divinities (parivara-devatas) noticed
in these temples reveals elaboration and development of the temple complex.
In fact the beginnings of this practice are to be discerned even in the latter Pallava temple of
Virattanesvara at Tiruttani built under Aparajita. This temple, though Pallava in name, is Chola
in design and style and chronologically almost coeval with some of the Chola monuments
enumerated above. The parivdra shrines, usually eight in number, were meant for attendant
deities like Ganesa, Subrahmartya, Surya, Candra, Saptamatrkas, Jyestha, Candikesvara and
Nandi. The gopuras of this period continue to be inconspicuous, the vimanas, dominating the
8. temple complex.
Generally speaking, temples built under Aditya and Parantaka contained only three niches in the
shrine walls, one on each wall, and two niches in the walls of the ardhamandapa, again one on
each wall. While the niches in the southern and northern walls of the ardhamandapa carried
respectively carvings of Ganesha and Durga, those of the main shrine were intended for Daksin
amurti and Brahma. The niche in the rear wall offered scope for variation, the enshrined deity
being either Lingodhbhava or Visnu, Harihara or Ardhanarisvara.
But even in two very early temples - those at Srinivasanallur and Kumbhakonam - the tendency
to multiply the niches is found, the additional niches carrying what looks like portraits. This
tendency has been developed in the temples built by Sembiyan Mahadevi, mother of Uttamacola
at such places as Tirukkodikkaval, Sembiyan Mahadevi, Anangur, Aduturai, Tirunaraiyur,
Kuttalam, etc., where the additional niches carry such iconographic types as Nataraja, Bhiksatana
and Ardhanri besides Agastya.
These early Chola architectural traditions are carried to those of the later Chola period by the
temples built under the illustrious Rajaraja and his son Rajendra. Many are the extant examples
assignable to this middle phase, the most famous among them being
the Brihadisvara temple at Tanjore and Gangaikondacolapuram.
Other temples of this period are those at Tiruvaji, Malpadi,
Tiruvalajuli, Tirumalavadi, Tiruvarangulam, Dadapuram, etc. In
most of these temples the basement is ornamented with pilasters
which carry a cornice. The walls have a greater number of niches
and a semi-circular arch (tiruvacci) the centre of which is identical
with that of the kadu which appears beneath the architrave and over the niche. The introduction
of the kumbhapaajara in between the niches is another feature.
The Tanjore temple is undoubtedly the grandest achievement of the age.
9. It was more a monument of triumph than a strict example of temple architecture. It is in this
temple that one notices for the first time two gopuras oriented in the same direction. They are
architecturally coeval with the main vimana and are referred to in inscriptions as Rajarajan
tiruvasal and Keralantakan tiruvasal In spite of the massive size of the gopuras the vimana, rising
majestically to a height of 190 feet, continues to dominate and it is only in the subsequent period
that a change in the gradation of magnitude takes place.
The multiplication of parivara shrines and the introduction of a separate shrine for the goddess
are the two significant changes in the temple complex effected during this period. Even in the
Tanjore temple the Devi shrine is not contemporaneous with the main cella but was built later.
The earliest Devi shrine which appears to be definitely chronologically coeval with the main
shrine is the one at Gangaikondacolapuram.
The Devi shrines, known as Tirukkdmakkottams, were thus largely a feature from the reign of
Rajndra. In the temples representing the final phase of Chola architecture a discernible maturity
of style is evident.
Notable examples of them are to be found at Drsuram, Tribhuvanam, Chidambaram and
Jambukesvaram. Of the stylistic improvements made in these temples mention must be made of
the torus moulding in the basement which is rounded and has a smooth surface, though in a few
cases it is ornamented with vertical grooves or ribs. The makaratoranas become tall with narrow
10. reverse curves on each side; the kumbhapanjaras are also developed and carry on top over the
abacus the superstructure of a panjara. The phalaka in the pillars are thinner than those of earlier
periods and the padma below it, which is inverted and smooth in early temples, now has petals.
The pillars in the mandapas have attached pilasters on their sides, known as Aniyottikal.
Perhaps the most distinguishing feature of the temples of the late Chola phase is the increased
height of the gopuras. The five-storeyed gopuras at Tiruvenkadu, Uyyakondan-Tirumalai,
Tiruccengattangudi and Kumbhakonam must belong to this phase. Besides the gopura, pillared
mandapas were also built within the temple complex, some of them being shaped in the form of a
chariot by the addition of wheels and horses and elephants.
Generally speaking, the characteristics of the early and late Chola temples are shared by Pandya
monuments of the respective periods, though minor variations are present in them.
The next stage of development is, however, seen only in the temples built under the Vijayanagar
rulers. The Vijayanagar kings not only built many new edifices, but made many additions to the
already existing temples. Such additions are to be found in many places, the most noteworthy
among them being Kanchipuram, Tiruvannmalai, Chidambaram,
Kumbhakonam, Madurai, Srirangam, Vellore, etc.
The mandapas become large and conspicuous adjuncts during this period due to the
multiplication and elaboration of religious rituals and ceremonial observances. The
Kalynamandapa, Sopnatmandapa, Davanamandapa, Sndpanamandapa, Alakramandapa, etc., are
the usual mandapas in addition to the ardha, mukha and maha mandapas of earlier times.
Some of these mandapas are, however, not entirely unknown under the late Colas. A few of them
were built outside the temple circuit but not much away from it. These mandapas are essentially
pillared halls, open or closed, and contain either a shrine or a raised platform over a huge tortoise
either in the centre or behind. They are also notable for their pillars which are rich in sculptural
work and to which are attached riders on horse or lion or li. The fluted type of simple pillars
becomes rare and huge and monolithic ones are often seen. They have ornamental brackets
forming their capitals, below each of which is a pendant. This pendant has been in many
examples elaborated into a volute which terminates as an inverted lotus bud.
The niches in the walls are not surmounted by toranas as in Pallava and Chola temples but have a
simple panjara design over them. What is more, the niches are empty, without any image in
them. Their old functional character has been lost and they remain a simple ornamental design on
the exterior of the wall. The increase in the height of the gopuras and in the number of prakaras
is yet another feature. The gopuras are generally seven storeyed and are large and tall, especially
in the Pandya region. The most typical gopuras of this period are to be found
at Ka�chipuram, Srirangam, Chidambaram and Tiruvannamalai. These are rich with
architectural designs like salas, karnakutas and alpanasikas rather than sculptural decoration.
The Vijayanagar mode of architecture was continued by the Nayak rulers of Madurai. In the
11. temples renovated or rebuilt by them, as the ones at Madurai, R�mesvaram and Tirunelveli, the
corbels in the pillars show at their ends a plantain-flower-like motif. The gopuras continue to be
slender and tall, the typical example being the Vatapatrasayi gopura at Srivilliputtur which is
eleven-storeyed. The corridors in these temples, unlike those of earlier periods, are provided with
ceilings which are at times painted.
General features of a Chola temple (Dravidian style)
"The two major temple styles of ancient India, namely the Nagara and Dravida, was formalised
and crystallised during the fifth and sixth centuries A.D. The Dravidian style of construction
was initiated largely by the Pallavas in a more permanent medium during the sixth century
A.D. which reached its culmination under the Cholas.
The development of this style could be discernible from the examples
at Mahabalipuram and Kanchipuram which were the major Pallava centres of art and commerce.
The Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram is an example of a complete temple complex,
consisting of a garbhagriha, antarala, mandapa enclosed by a cloistered enclosure wall with an
entrance gopura. The sikhara of a Dravidian temple is square on plan and pyramidal on elevation
unlike that of a Nagara temple which is square on plan and curvilinear on elevation. The sikhara
is divided into various tiers or storeys by the arrangement of miniature shrines of three types,
namely, the sala (rectangular), kuta (square) and panjara (apsidal). The arrangement of the pillar
elements improvise from their Pallava examples in terms of elaboration and additional elements.
The Dravidian order of temples attained its zenith under the Cholas and ultimately under
Rajaraja I, which is reflected in the Brihadisvara Temple.
The main shrine is the most dominant feature of the Chola temples, and in the Brihadisvara
temple, it reaches the highest watermark. The sikhara of the Brihadisvara temple is the tallest
among all the temples of south India. The construction of the entrance gopura also crystallises
during this period which is reflected in the first entrance gopura of the temple. "
12. Temples of India: Pallava (600-900 AD), Chola (900-1250 AD), Pandyas (1100-1350 AD),
Hoysala (1100-1350 AD), Vijayanagara (1350-1565 AD), Nayaks (1600 AD) - Sibashis
Nanda
" ...The south Indian style of temple architecture is very distinct from that of the rest of India.
The sikhara of a Dravida temple is a tower that ascends in ever-shrinking tiers. The base of these
sikharas can be rectangular, hexagonal, or octagonal. The tiered structure creates a strong
presence of horizontal lines which is absent on the vimana and mandapa. The height of sikharas
varied, but by the peak of the Dravida style (during the Chola dynasty), they reached almost 200
feet above the ground. It is convenient to resolve South Indian types of architecture into four
periods corresponding to the principal kingdoms that ruled in southern India down the centuries
i.e. the Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas and the Vijayanagara rulers.
Pallava (600-900 AD)
The earliest examples of temples in the Dravidan style belong to the Pallava period. The temple
architecture of the Pallavas is divided into two groups: rock-cut (610-690 AD) and structural
(690-900 AD). The greatest accomplishments of the Pallava architecture are the rock-cut temples
at Mahabalipuram. These temples are further divided into excavated pillared halls or mandapas
and monolithic shrines known as rathas. The five rathas were built by Narasimhavarman I (625-
645 AD) and are named after Draupadi, Arjuna, Bhima, Dharmaraja and Sahadeva. The
Dharmarajaratha is the longest and most complete of these rathas. The famous Kailasanatha and
the Vanikunthaperumal temples at Kanchipuram are the best specimens of the structural temples
of the Pallavas. The temple complex consists of a sanctum, preceded by a mandapa and an
incipient entrance gateway. Early temples were mostly dedicated to Shiva, and were sparsely
adorned in the interiors.
Chola (900-1250 AD)
The Chola art is a continuation of that of Pallava times. The Cholas had built several hundreds of
temples, the earlier examples of which were modest in size while the later ones were huge and
large with the Vimanas or gopuras dominating the landscape. Mention must be made of
the Brihadeeswarar Temple in Tanjavur, the capital established by the Chola ruler Rajaraja-I.
The 55 metres long main structure of the temple had a 58 metres feet tall pyramidal tower or
shikhara. The temple is composed of several structures combined axially, such as a Nandi
pavilion, a pillared portico and a large assembly hall, all aligned in the centre of a spacious
walled enclosure.
The temples at Thanjavur, Chidambaram, Sri Rangam, Gangaikonda-Cholapuram, Darasuram
and Tribhuvanam amply illustrate the style of architecture that characterised the monuments in
southern India between the 11th-13th centuries. The Chola style of architecture also had a
considerable influence on the architecture of temples of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and those of the
Southeast Asian kingdoms like Sri Vijaya (Sumatra) and Chavakam (Java).
13. Pandyas (1100-1350 AD)
The Pandyas mostly concentrated on the Gopurams, the main entrance. A typical gopuram
consists of a building oblong in plan, rising up into a tapering tower and entered by a rectangular
doorway in the centre of its long side. The Sundara Pandya gopuram, added to the temple of
Jambukesvara around 1250 AD and the gopuram of the great temple at Kumbakoman (1350 AD)
are the best examples of the gopurams of the Pandyan times.
Hoysala (1100-1350 AD)
Temples erected during the Hoysala kings have complicated plans with numerous angled
projections. Carved surfaces are executed with remarkable precision, usually in chlorite. Temples
from the Hoysala period can be seen at Belur, Halebid and Sringeri. After the reign of the
Hoysalas, architectural traditions were interrupted by Muslim raids at the end of the 13th
century. Monumental temple building resumed later under the Vijayanagara Empire.
Vijayanagara (1350-1565 AD)
By the 16th century almost all of southern India was part of the Vijayanagara Empire. The main
contributions of the Vijayanagar period were the tall massive gopurams and the multiple
mandapas. Unlike the Chola style, where the entire temple structure was usually a unified whole,
there were numerous mandapas, pillared halls, shrines to minor deities, etc. Another major
feature is the carved pillars - with the rearing simhas (lions), yalis (lions with elephant trunks.
The Temple of Pampapati, the Hazararama temple and the Vittalaswami temple are the best
examples of the Vijayanagar architecture. The ruins of Buggala Ramalingeswara at Tadpatri also
depict the Vijayanagar architecture at its best.
Nayaks (1600 AD)
The Dravidian style of architecture assumed its final form under the Nayaks and lasted almost
until the modern times. The style developed by these rulers is described as the 'Madura style' and
is most evident in the Meenakshi temple at Madurai. The Meenakshi temple (17th century) is a
double temple, as it has two separate sanctuaries, one dedicated to Sundareshwara (Shiva) and
the other to his consort Meenakshi (Parvati).
The total number of pillars in the temple exceeds two thousand. The art of constructing
gopurams also reached its maturity during the Nayaka period. The temples at Srirangam,
Jambukesvara, Rameshwaram and Chidambaram are other notable examples of the
Nayaka architecture..." https://tamilnation.org/culture/architecture/temple.htm
14. Hindu Temple Tirumala Venkateswara Temple BELOW
paper presented at Second International Conference Seminar of Tamil Studies, January 1968 by T.V.Mahalingam,
Professor of Ancient History and Archaeology, University of Madras on Tamil Art & Architecture