2. Society Under the Imperial Cholas
• During the Chola period, society was in a flux, and
was organized based on Varnasrama model.
• KA.N. Sastri observes that the general atmosphere
was one of social harmony and contentment with the
existing order.
• Another epigraph testifies that the Chola ruler
granted the privileges of the blowing of two conches,
the beating of drums and so on, at domestic
occurrences, good or bad; the use of sandals when
people went out of their homes and the plastering of
the walls of their residences with lime plaster.
3. Cont…
• We also notice proliferation of subcastes like
– Kaikkola,
– Chetti,
– Kammalar,
– and Rathakara besides the regular four Varnas.
• Another feature to be noted is the further division
of the subcaste into
– Valangai or the right hand and
– Idangai or left hand castes.
• This division appears to be based on the social
position of the subcastes in the society.
4. Cont…
• The Chola kings were Saivites and constructed a number of
Siva temples.
• The Vaishnava faith was also prevalent during this period.
• Because of the growth of temple-based Bhakti movement,
the temple became the centre of all activities in each village.
• K.A.N. Sastri observes that the temple became a landlord, an
employer, a consumer of goods and services, a hospital, and a
theatre, in short, a nucleus, which gathered round itself all
that was the best in the art of civilized existence and
regulated the people with the humanness born of the spirit
of Dharma.
• The medieval Indian temple had few parallels in human
society.
5. Literary works
• Owing to the growth of devotion based temple worship of
icons of Siva and Vishnu, the saints propagated their faith in
the vernacular language of Tamil.
• Of this category, the most important one was that of
Sekkiliar’s Periapuranam or Tim Hondapurana. This work is
venerated as the sixth Veda.
• The other important devotional literary works are
Tiruvalaiyadal Puranam of Nandi and Ramanuja-Nurrandai of
Amundanor.
• Among secular literary works, the most important are
Sivakasindamani of Tirukkadevar, Kamban’s Ramayana and
Jayagondar’s Kalingattupparani.
• Vikramachola Kulottuga II and Rajaraja II patronized
Ottakuttan as a court poet.
6. Cont…
• Ottakuttan wrote an Ula on each of his patrons.
• He also appears to have written Parani recording of
Vikrama Chola’s Kalinga War and Pillaittamil on
Kulottuga II.
• Grammatical works like Virasoliyam of Budhamitra
and Nannul by Pavanandi are very important works.
• Sanskrit literature was also encouraged by the
Chola rulers.
• Vaishnava religious works were composed in
Sanskrit.
7. Cont…
• It was naturally marked by the widespread
practice and patronage of literature.
• The Prabandha form became dominant and
the systematic treatment of Saiva ‘siddhanta’
in philosophical treatises began.
• A quantum of Vaishnava devotional literature
and commentaries on the canon also came
into existence.
• Interestingly, Jaina and Buddhist authors also
flourished in this period.
9. Art and Architecture
• The Chola kings built many temples throughout their
kingdoms. The temples of early Cholas are found in large
number in the Tanjore region and the former Pudukottai
region.
• These Chola temples reveal the gradual evolution of the
Chola art and architecture.
• The Chola kings earlier built brick temples. Later they built
stone temples.
• The first Chola ruler Vijayalaya Chola built temple at
Narttamalai. This is a stone temple. It is one of the finest
examples of the early Chola temple architecture.
11. Cont…
• Balasubramaniya temple of Kannanur in Pudukottai
region and Thirukkatalai temple were built during the
period of Aditya-I.
• Nageswarar temple at Kumbakonam is famous for
sculptural work. King Parantaka I built Koranganatha
temple at Srinivasanallur (Trichy District), Muvarkoil of
Kodumbalur.
• They are good examples of the later Chola
architecture and sculpture.
13. Cont…
• Besides all these temples of the Chola period, the greatest
landmark in the history of south Indian architecture is
Brhadeeswarar temple at Tanjore.
• This is also called as big temple.
• It has many architectural significance.
• It was built by Rajaraja I.
• This is one of the largest and tallest temples in Tamil nadu.
• Rajendra Chola built a temple at Gangai Konda Cholapuram
which is also equally famous.
• King Rajendra Chola added credit to the Chola art and
architecture.
• King Kulothunga I built a temple for Sun God at Kumbakonam.
This temple is first of its kind in the south Indian architecture.
• Rajaraja II built Airavatheeswarar temple at Dharasuram.
17. Special features of Chola Architecture
• The Cholas followed the Pallava style of architecture.
• Sanctum of the Chola temples are both circular and square in size.
• Inner side of the external walls and the sanctum were beautified.
• On the upper side of the sanctum special vimanas are built.
• Dome shaped sikhara and kalasa were also there on the top of
Gopurams.
• Chola temples are noted for the sculptures and ornamental works.
• Gopurams of these temples were meaningful.
• Many temples are having pillared mandapams namely
arthamandapa, mahamandapa and nandi mandpa.
• Sculptures and inscriptions are also fixed on the walls of these
temples.
18. Sculpture
• Stone and metal sculptures are found in plenty in Chola
temples. They depict the socio religious ideas of the Chola
period.
• The Nataraja sculpture is world famous not only for its
beauty but also for its spiritual meaning.
• Vishnu idol is placed in Vaishnava temples. A spiritual
calmness is depicted in sculptural representations of Alwars.
• The Cholas made use of sculptures to decorate the walls,
pillars and roofs.
• The value of sculpture is very much felt on Chola works. The
decorative sculptures are still there. Realism dominated
sculpture of the Chola period.
• Scenes from Ramayanam, Mahabharatam, Puranas and lives
of the 63 Nayanmars are sculptured in narrative panels on
the walls of temples.
24. Portraits
• The Cholas excelled the Pallavas in the art of
portrait making.
• The best specimens of portraits are found on the
walls of Koranganatha temple and Nageswarasamy
temple.
• The portraits of Cholamadevi and Kulothunga-III
are there in Kalahasti temple. They are good
examples of Chola art of portrait making.
28. Paintings
• The art of paintings flourished, Figures were painted
with realism.
• The proficiency of the Chola painters are seen on their
paintings.
• Paintings in Big temple are good examples.
• Scenes of Periyapuranam are beautifully depicted
Kailasanathar temple at Kanchipuram, Vishnu temple
at Malaiyadipatti contain fine specimen of the Chola
paintings.
• Rajaraja-I and Rajendra contributed more for the
development of the art of painting during the Chola
period.
31. Music
• During the Chola period the art of music was developed.
Twenty three panns were used in music.
• The seven music alphabets sa. ri, ga, ma, pa, da, ni were used.
• The hymns of Alwars and Nayanmars were sung in every
temple.
• Nambiandar nambi and Nathamuni contributed much for the
development of music. Books were written on music.
• Several musicians were appointed in Brahadeeswarar temple.
• Drums, udukkai, veena, flute were famous music instruments
and Sagadakkottigal formed a group of musicians.
• Endowments were made to promote music. Musicians were
honored by the kings.
• Temples and mutts imparted training in vocal and instrumental
music.
33. Dance
• The Chola kings patronized the art of dance.
• Bharatha natyam and kathakali were two types of dances
performed during the Chola period.
• Lord Siva was represented as the exponent of Karana dance.
• Natarajar temple at Chidamparam and Sarangapani temple
at Kumbakonam have dancing poses of Lord Nataraja.
• Rajaraja I appointed 400 dancing girls in the big temple at
Tanjore.
• There were two dance directors to coordinate these dancing
girls. Dance dramas were also performed on stages at festival
times.
• Chola kings made endowments to promote the art of
dancing.
35. Drama
• The Cholas promoted the art of drama.
• and dance were affiliated to drama. Many types
of theatres and stages were there to perform
dramas.
• Rajarajeswara natakam and Rajarajavijayam were
the dramas enacted during festival times.
• Drama actors received honors from the Chola
kings.
• Koothu is one type of drama. Inscriptions refer
about Ariyakoothu, Chakki koothu and Santhi
koothu.