This document provides a review of chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy (CIPN). It discusses the pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, impact, evaluation, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of CIPN. Recent studies have shown associations between inflammatory molecules, oxidative stress, and the development of CIPN. Symptoms most commonly include numbness and tingling in the limbs, with neuropathic pain significantly impacting patients' functionality. Several evaluation tools have been tested to diagnose CIPN, with electroneuromyography considered the gold standard. There are different pharmacological strategies for treating and preventing CIPN.
Tumour Hypoxia - detection and prognostic significanceMAASTRO clinic
Lecture by Dr. Heidi Lyng in the context of the Course: "Tumour Hypoxia: From Biology to Therapy III".
For the complete e-Course see http://www.myhaikuclass.com/MaastroClinic/metoxia
The presentation is a short brief regarding the brain tumor and the leading molecules used in the treatment of Brain tumor as BBB is a major limiting factor for this treating brain tumors
Tumour Hypoxia - detection and prognostic significanceMAASTRO clinic
Lecture by Dr. Heidi Lyng in the context of the Course: "Tumour Hypoxia: From Biology to Therapy III".
For the complete e-Course see http://www.myhaikuclass.com/MaastroClinic/metoxia
The presentation is a short brief regarding the brain tumor and the leading molecules used in the treatment of Brain tumor as BBB is a major limiting factor for this treating brain tumors
Clinical Results and Mechanisms of MAGCELL®-Therapy in Chemotherapy-Induced P...Mary Fickling
Electrode-free electrotherapy also known as MAGCELL®-therapy, arrived in the UK and Ireland in 2017 via exclusive distributors PhysioPod® UK Limited. This article, explains the clinical results and mechanism of MAGCELL® MICROCIRC in CIPN with scientific references.
MAGCELL® MICROCIRC can positively influence symptoms of neurotoxicities like sensory ataxia, neuropathy and neuropathic pain symptoms (especially CIPN I-IV) on hands and feet as a result of chemotherapy. Moreover a significant increase in nerve conductivity speed (ulnar nerve) was achieved by the treatment. Sufferers are now able to apply this effective treatment at home via the personal unit, due to repeatable short-treatment periods, no side effects and even through textile (including shoes).
Copywriter Collective International specialises in native-English copywriters based around the world. Wherever you are, we have an copywriter based there, or can get one there next day. We are proud to have supplied freelance creatives to work with many of the world's best-known brands and creative agencies. No client is too big or too small for us to supply with suitable candidates. We work with both advertising agencies and directly with client companies. Our portfolio includes award-winning American, Australian and Canadian copywriters, as well as British creatives.
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This is a PDF of a presentation given to the Radiation Oncology department at the University of Minnesota in October 2015. This PDF focuses on evaluation, management, and state-of-the-art approach to gliomas from a medical neuro-oncology perspective.
Paraneoplastic disorders of the peripheral nervous systemElectrodx Inr
Manifestaciones diversas en sistema nervioso periférico con relación a proceso oncológicos o su tratamiento, síndromes paraneoplásicos. Banderas rojas y alertas sobre su detección.
Clinical Results and Mechanisms of MAGCELL®-Therapy in Chemotherapy-Induced P...Mary Fickling
Electrode-free electrotherapy also known as MAGCELL®-therapy, arrived in the UK and Ireland in 2017 via exclusive distributors PhysioPod® UK Limited. This article, explains the clinical results and mechanism of MAGCELL® MICROCIRC in CIPN with scientific references.
MAGCELL® MICROCIRC can positively influence symptoms of neurotoxicities like sensory ataxia, neuropathy and neuropathic pain symptoms (especially CIPN I-IV) on hands and feet as a result of chemotherapy. Moreover a significant increase in nerve conductivity speed (ulnar nerve) was achieved by the treatment. Sufferers are now able to apply this effective treatment at home via the personal unit, due to repeatable short-treatment periods, no side effects and even through textile (including shoes).
Copywriter Collective International specialises in native-English copywriters based around the world. Wherever you are, we have an copywriter based there, or can get one there next day. We are proud to have supplied freelance creatives to work with many of the world's best-known brands and creative agencies. No client is too big or too small for us to supply with suitable candidates. We work with both advertising agencies and directly with client companies. Our portfolio includes award-winning American, Australian and Canadian copywriters, as well as British creatives.
Need an English copywriter? Or other European nationalities? Call +3120 320 5319 or mail english-copywriters @copywriter collective.com or visit Copywriter Collective website at http://copywritercollective.com/
This is a PDF of a presentation given to the Radiation Oncology department at the University of Minnesota in October 2015. This PDF focuses on evaluation, management, and state-of-the-art approach to gliomas from a medical neuro-oncology perspective.
Paraneoplastic disorders of the peripheral nervous systemElectrodx Inr
Manifestaciones diversas en sistema nervioso periférico con relación a proceso oncológicos o su tratamiento, síndromes paraneoplásicos. Banderas rojas y alertas sobre su detección.
A guideline for discontinuing antiepileptic drugs in seizure-free patients – ...Dr. Rafael Higashi
Aula apresentada por Dr. Rafael Higashi, médico neurologista sobre quando retirar droga antiepilética. A guideline for discontinuing antiepileptic drugs in seizure-free patients – Summary Statement
The Main Molecular Bases of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis: An Integrating Reviewasclepiuspdfs
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive and fatal neurodegenerative disease that affects the lower and upper motor neurons. Its etiology is unknown, despite several studies that point to risk factors and genetic for the disease. It does not have a definitive treatment and the diagnosis, most of the time, is time consuming and demands varied criteria for adequate definition and classification. In the search for new treatments, gene therapy with gene insertion aims to reduce the impact of ALS on the patient. The study of molecular basis as the root cause of the disease becomes necessary to advance the discovery of effective treatment and a rapid diagnosis, aiming at improving the quality of life of the ALS patients. Therefore, the present work had the objective to bring an update of the literature on ALS, as well as to describe the main molecular bases involved in the causative/causative process of this disease.
Needle reflexology in the treatment of neurological changes in ischemic strokeSubmissionResearchpa
In recent years, the problem of diagnosis and preventive treatment of cerebrovascular diseases has become increasingly relevant. Stroke is the most common cause of permanent disability (E. I. Gusev, 2007). The leading role in the diagnosis and prognosis of stroke, as well as the choice of further treatment and rehabilitation tactics is assigned to non-invasive ultrasound research methods, which make it possible to assess the parameters of cerebral hemodynamics. (I. D. Stulin, 2006). by I.T. Tuhtaev and D. T. Khodjaeva 2020. Needle reflexology in the treatment of neurological changes in ischemic stroke. International Journal on Integrated Education. 3, 11 (Nov. 2020), 51-52. DOI:https://doi.org/10.31149/ijie.v3i11.823. https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJIE/article/view/823/789 https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJIE/article/view/823
A child with ARFID will display a range of physical and behavioural warning signs. Behavioural signs include a sudden refusal to eat, a fear of choking and difficulty eating meals with others. Physical signs include delayed growth and, depending on your child's age, weight loss or failure to gain weight.
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Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
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Fernandes VC, Captein KM and Teixeira AL
Rev Dor. São Paulo, 2015 jul-sep;16(3):215-20
ropathy is the most frequent type of CIPN, primarily affec-
ting patients treated with taxanes (docetaxel and paclitaxel),
platinum derivatives (oxaliplatin, cisplatin and carboplatin),
vinca alkaloids (vincristine, vinblastine and vinorelbine), tha-
lidomide and bortezomib2,3
.
The incidence of CIPN is widely different among studies,
with rates from 10% to 100%, especially for therapies in-
volving taxanes and platinum derivatives. This variation is
possibly caused by technical differences in identifying CIPN
and clinical characteristics of the samples2
. Although not life
threatening, CIPN symptoms, especially neuropathic pain,
have negative impact on quality of life (QL) of people and
influence adhesion to anticancer therapy3
.
In light of its clinical relevance, this study presents a narra-
tive literature review on CIPN pathophysiology, clinical ma-
nifestations, impact, evaluation, diagnosis, management and
prevention.
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF CHEMOTHERAPY-INDU-
CED PERIPHERAL NEUROPATHY
CIPN pathophysiology is in general described as symmetric
and bilateral axonopathy where cell bodies of dorsal root
ganglia would be involved4
. Different mechanisms have been
proposed for different classes of anticancer agents (Table 1).
Platinum derivatives (oxaliplatin, cisplatin and carboplatin)
are alkylating agents inhibiting DNA synthesis and replica-
tion by mean of cross-bindings established by the platinum
complex4
. These drugs may decrease axonal transportation
and, as a consequence, induce sensory neurons apoptosis.
Large myelinated fibers are in general the most affected, lea-
ding to decreased proprioception and tendon reflexes. Dorsal
root ganglia seem to be the primary neural injury site, first
affecting lower limb nerves, such as the fibular nerve5
. In this
group of drugs, oxaliplatin may induce two types of neuropa-
thy: one acute and reversible and the other chronic.
Acute neuropathy seems to be caused by oxalate release, whi-
ch is able to kelate extracellular calcium, interfering with
sensory neurons depolarization with consequent membrane
hyper-excitability6
.
Chronic neuropathy has several hypotheses for its development,
including the fact that repeated acute neuropathy episodes may
lead to chronic neural injuries. In addition, experimental studies
show building up of platinum compounds in cell bodies of dor-
sal root ganglia, resulting in decreased cell metabolism and anxo-
nal transportation. There also seem to be mitochondrial injuries
with increased oxidative stress, which would induce chronic neu-
ropathy4
. Baptista-de-Souza et al.7
have shown in experimental
study that oxaliplatin is also able to decrease mRNA expression
of the 5HT2c receptor in the central nervous system, which
could contribute to worsen CIPN neuropathic pain. This would
indicate the potential for structural and functional changes in
the limbic system caused by oxaliplatin7
.
Taxanes, especially paclitaxel, are agents promoting the union
of microtubules as from tubuline dimers, stabilizing them and
preventing their depolymerization. This interferes with dy-
namic physiological reorganization of microtubules network
which is essential for cell vital functions8
. Taxanes-induced
peripheral neuropathy pathophysiology seems to be associa-
ted not only to this action mechanism, but also to oxidative
stress induced by such drugs, with initial apoptosis of nervous
terminations, followed by effects on Schwann cells9
. Oxygen-
-reactive species (ORS) seem to play a relevant role in the
development and maintenance of paclitaxel-induced pain10
.
For bortezomib, a proteasome inhibitor, Bruna et al.11
have
described decreased myelinated and non myelinated fibers
and the presence of abnormal inclusion bodies in non myeli-
nated axons in rats treated with the drug, which would chan-
ge pain threshold. An experimental study with rats has sho-
wn by electronic microscopy, that there were no significant
pathological changes in the morphology of myelin sheath of
animals treated with cisplatin, bortezomib and paclitaxel, al-
though there has been decreased nervous conduction veloci-
ty12
. There are evidences that platinum derivatives and taxanes
would induce blood vessels endothelial cells apoptosis, with
consequent nervous fibers ischemia13
.
Among pathophysiological CIPN mechanisms, it is currently
recognized the role of neuroimmune interaction, since the re-
lease of cytokines and chemokines able to trigger peripheral
neural injury seems to be a primary mechanism for the deve-
lopment of the syndrome. Experimental studies have shown
that, in response to toxic injury triggered by anticancer che-
motherapy, there might be neural infiltration of monocytes/
macrophages with production of several cytokines (TNFα,
IL1β, IL6), chemokines (CX3, CL1, CCL2, CCL3, CCL4,
CCL5 and CXCL8) and other inflammatory mediators such
as bradykinin, prostaglandins and nitric oxide. Schwann cells
may also suffer phenotypic changes and start releasing TNFα,
IL1β, IL6 and prostaglandins (PGE2). The same Schwann
cells may produce anti-inflammatory factors, such as IL10, in
attempt to counterbalance the injury process, thus protecting
axons from further injuries (Figure 1)14
.
Experimental studies have shown the involvement of neuro-
trophic factors on CIPN pathophysiology. For example, Aloe
Table 1. Anticancer agents and respective toxicity mechanisms in the peripheral nervous system
Anticancer agent Potential mechanisms for triggering peripheral neuropathy
Carboplatin
Cisplatin
Oxaliplatin
Decreased axonal transportation
Induction of sensory neurons apoptosis.
Oxidative stress.
Induction of endothelial cells apoptosis with consequent
nervous fibers ischemia, taxanes and platinum deriva-
tives.
Paclitaxel
Docetaxel
Stabilization of microtubules and induction of oxidative stress.
Bortezomib Proteasome inhibition.
3. 217
Chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy:
review for clinical practice
Rev Dor. São Paulo, 2015 jul-sep;16(3):215-20
et al.15
have observed that there is decrease in NGF (neural
growth factor) with cisplatin, which would trigger CIPN. Se-
veral studies propose a protective role to BDNF (brain-deri-
ved neurotrophic factor) in this syndrome16
.
Studies investigating the influence of inflammatory mediators
on human CIPN are still scarce. A cross-sectional study has
evaluated the levels of IL6, IL6R and gp130 in 40 females
with breast cancer, being 20 with painful CIPN and 20 wi-
thout CIPN and who had finished their anticancer therapy
between six and 12 months ago. Results have indicated as-
sociation of such inflammatory mediators and painful CIPN
symptoms, as well as worse QL indices17
.
CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS
CIPN incidence and severity are directly related to dose, num-
ber of treatment cycles, previous or simultaneous administra-
tion of neurotoxic anticancer agents and the type of impaired
nervous fiber13,18
. For example, when cisplatin is used alone,
the frequency of neuropathic symptoms is around 50%, while
90 to 100% of females receiving the association of cisplatin
and paclitaxel for ovarian cancer may present such symptom.
Alcohol abuse and other systemic diseases, such as diabetes,
related to higher risk of peripheral neuropathy, predispose the
onset of more frequent and severe symptoms, even with the
use of low doses of anticancer agents18
.
CIPN symptoms in general appear in the beginning of the
treatment, between the first and third cycles, with severity
peak approximately in the third month of therapy19
. At the
end of therapy, differently from other adverse effects, CIPN
symptoms may not stop and may even worsen.
Regardless of the type of anticancer agent, symptoms affect lo-
wer limbs, upper limbs and orofacial region. Sensory symptoms
are far more common than motor or autonomic symptoms.
Among autonomic symptoms there are cardiovascular (blood
pressure oscillation), gastrointestinal (constipation) and urolo-
gic (erection problems and urinary retention) symptoms. Motor
symptoms in general manifest as distal weakness (such as feet
weakness), gait and balance disorders, and difficulties with fine
movements (writing, buttoning clothes, cutting and sewing)20
.
Sensory symptoms are described as bilateral paresthesias, of-
ten reported as numbness and tingling in 90% of CIPN cases.
In addition, it is common the report of sensation of “wearing
a thin sock or glove”, as well as “difficulty to hold things”
and to discriminate shape, texture and/or temperature. Ac-
cording to the International Association for the Study of Pain
(IASP), neuropathic pain is defined as “pain caused by injury
or disease of the somatosensory system”. Neuropathic pain is
characterized by the combination of negative symptoms, such
as partial or complete loss of sensitivity, as well as positive
symptoms which include dysesthesia, paresthesia and pain. Its
incidence is 40% of cancer pain patients, being described as
“burning” pain and “sensation of shock”, in general involving
hands and feet. CIPN may be considered predictor of neuro-
pathic pain, being that CIPN patients have three times more
chance of developing neuropathic pain after treatment18
.
It is worth stressing acute pain induced by paclitaxel (P-APS)
and the subsequent risk of developing CIPN. P-APS is cha-
racterized by diffuse muscle and joint pain, especially in lower
limbs and hips, which starts during the administration of the
drug with evolution until one week after the end of the infu-
sion. It is believed that this syndrome might be a red flag for
Figure 1. Role of neuroimmune communication in the pathophysiology of chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy
b) The exposure of the sensory nerve to the action of poten-
tially neurotoxic anticancer agents induces response to the
injury, with consequent infiltration of monocytes/macropha-
ges producing and releasing inflammatory mediators. In the
attempt to counterbalance tissue injury, there is release of an-
ti-inflammatory mediators by Schwann cells. Preferred action
sites of chemotherapy drugs are also illustrated. For example,
microtubules may be the target of bortezomib and taxanes.
a) In physiological conditions stands out the vascularization of sen-
sory neuron axons located in dorsal root ganglia and the release of
mediators by Schwann cells.
Inflammatory
Mediators
Anti-inflammatory
Factors
Macrophages/monocytes
Schwann Cells
Chemotherapy drugs
Taxanes
Bortezomib
Oxilaplatin
Platinum Derivatives
Microtubules
Mitochondria
Ion Channel Myelin Subtitle
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Fernandes VC, Captein KM and Teixeira AL
Rev Dor. São Paulo, 2015 jul-sep;16(3):215-20
the need of a prophylactic agent to prevent or minimize the
development of taxane-induced CIPN. The severity of P-APS
symptoms seems to be directly proportional to the severity of
neuropathic symptoms21
.
CIPN may be dose-limiting. This means that symptoms may
evolve to a point in which people can no longer live with
them being necessary to decrease anticancer agent dose or
even discontinue treatment22
. In this context, many patients
avoid reporting symptoms, delaying CIPN diagnosis by heal-
th professionals, which is only possible when the condition is
severe and more difficult to handle21
.
IMPACT
CIPN has significant impact on QL, directly interfering with
daily activities (DA), functionality and behavior of cancer
patients23
. Verbalization of frustration feelings is common as
a consequence of social role impairment, of distress due to
functional skills changes, in addition to dismay and loss of
objectives due to the need to give up some activities24
. A study
has investigated 240 females with breast cancer and CIPN,
observing frequent reports of difficulties to drive, to notice
texture and temperature differences, to walk on high heels, to
button a blouse, to comb their hair or even to cook23
.
In addition, patients developing neuropathic pain need to
come twice as much to health services, need further care and
a larger number of drugs as compared to those not developing
painful CIPN18
.
A cross-sectional study has evaluated 706 patients with regard
to the influence of CIPN in the development of mental and
sleep disorders after the fourth week of potentially neurotoxic
anticancer treatment. The worst CIPN severity, the highest
the frequency of anxiety, depression and sleep disorders, whi-
ch were worsened by neuropathic pain24
. Cognitive impair-
ment, non-adherence to treatment and loss of self-care ability
are also described.
Effects on motility and balance up to 2.5 years after treatment
are reported, being related to clinical decay of the elderly who
received chemotherapy. Patients under potentially neurotoxic
chemotherapy are at higher risk for falls, which increases at
every chemotherapy cycle, especially in patients receiving pa-
clitaxel as compared to those receiving platinum derivatives25
.
DIAGNOSIS AND EVALUATION OF CHEMOTHERA-
PY-INDUCED PERIPHERAL NEUROPATHY
A lot has been discussed about diagnostic and evaluation me-
thods for CIPN severity, but there is still no consensus about
which would be the best strategy for the clinical practice25
.
As a consequence, studies on CIPN prevention and manage-
ment have been impaired by the absence of a simple, clinically
useful, psychometrically valid tool in a universally known
language to oncology and which could be implemented by
different health professionals taking care of this population26
.
The golden standard for CIPN evaluation is electroneu-
romyography (ENMG), method able to detect nervous beha-
vior changes, especially of myelinated fibers, defining the
neuropathic involvement27
. ENMG more commonly shows
decrease or absence of sensory potentials amplitude, espe-
cially in the sural nerve. Nervous conduction velocity may
also be decreased28
. However, conventional ENMG does not
detect neuropathy of thin fibers and may not identify cases of
CIPN restricted to them, which in general course only with
pain. There are other limiting factors, such as the fact of being
an uncomfortable and high cost exam performed by clinical
neurophysiology specialists27
.
A Medline literature search using descriptors “CIPN” (che-
motherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy), “evaluation” and
“diagnosis” has identified tools that are being used in the clinical
practice (Table 2). Each one has advantages and disadvantages
Table 2. Studies of evaluation and diagnosis of chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy using different clinical tools
Authors Origin Type of study Evaluated people Tools
Simão et al.30
Brazil Cross-sectional 117 MSW, QNIA, ECOG
Hershman et al.36
USA Clinical trial 409 FACT-Taxane NTX,NCI – CTC
Reeves et al.21
USA Longitudinal 85 EORTC- QLQ-CIPN 20
Cavaletti et al.3
Italy Longitudinal 450 TNSc, NCI-CTC 2.0
Simão et al.25
Brazil Review - ENMG, ECN, TNS, QNIA, FACT/GOG-NTX & PNQ
Tofthagen, McAllister
& McMillanet al.40
USA Validation 167 CIPNAT
Hershman et al.39
USA Cross-sectional 50 QST, FACT/GOG-NTx
Cavaletti et al.26
Italy Review - NCI-CTC, ECOG, FACT/GOG-NTX, FACT-Taxane, PNS, Oxali-
platin Scale, PNQ, EORTC- QLQ-CIPN 20
Wilson et al.27
USA Clinical trial 32 ECN, EMG
Loprinzi et al.33
USA Clinical trial 353 EORTC- QLQ-CIPN 20, NCI-CTC
Smith et al.35
USA Clinical trial 231 FACT/GOG-NTX, NCI- CTC
MSW = Semmes-Weistein monofilaments, QNIA =Anticancer agents-induced neurotoxicity questionnaire and ECOG = Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group Performance
Scale; FACT-Taxane = Functional Assessment Cancer Therapy – Taxanes; NCI-CTC = National Cancer Institute Common Toxicity Criteria; EORTC- QLQ-CIPN 20 = Europe-
an Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer Quality of Life Questionnaire CIPN 20-item; TNSc = Total neuropathy score clinical version; ENMG =Electroneuromyo-
graphy, ECN = Nervous conduction study, TNS = Total neuropathy score, FACT/GOG- NTx = Functional Assessment Cancer Terapy/Gynecologyc Group – Neurotoxicity,
PNQ =Patient Neurotoxicity Questionnaire; CIPNAT = Chemotherapy-Induced Peripheral Neuropathy Assessment Tool;QST = Quantitative Sensory testing.
5. 219
Chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy:
review for clinical practice
Rev Dor. São Paulo, 2015 jul-sep;16(3):215-20
related to applicability, reliability and association to other clini-
cal parameters such as QL26
. Recently, the CI-PeriNoms Group,
made up of 46 research centers of different countries, has been
dedicated to establishing the validity and reliability of different
CIPN measurement tools. According to their conclusion, avai-
lable scales have highly diverting reliability and there are gaps,
especially in determining the severity of CIPN symptoms29
.
In Brazil, investigators are studying the use of Semmes-Weins-
tein Monofilaments (MSW) and the Anticancer Agents-Indu-
ced Neurotoxicity Questionnaire (QNIA) to evaluate CIPN.
QNIA has shown high reliability, being clearly understood by
respondents. By means of a cross-sectional study, QNIA and
MSW were applied to 87 people in potentially neurotoxic
anticancer treatment and to 30 healthy controls. There have
been significant differences between groups in all evaluated
items, as well as good matching between tools. MSW were
able to detect subclinical CIPN presentations30
.
MANAGEMENT AND PREVENTION
Aiming at preventing CIPN, different substances are being
studied such as vitamin E, aminophosphatine, glutathione,
adrenocorticotrophic hormone analogs (ACTH) and diethyl-
citiocarbamate. To date, the efficacy of these approaches is not
clearly defined. A Cochrane review on interventions to pre-
vent cisplatin-induced neuropathy has concluded that data
are insufficient to prove the efficacy of any studied agent31
.
The role of calcium and magnesium infusion to prevent oxa-
liplatin-induced CIPN in colorectal cancer patients was eva-
luated in meta-analysis involving four prospective and three
retrospective studies with 1,170 patients. Among them, 892
have received calcium and magnesium infusions (Ca++/Mg++)
and 368 constituted the control group. The incidence of acute
neurotoxicity level 3 was lower in the group receiving calcium
and magnesium (OR=0.26; CI95%=0.11-0.62; p=0.0002).
Cumulative and late toxicity level 3 rates were also lower in the
group receiving ion infusions (OR=0.42; CI95% 0.26-0.65;
p=0.0001; OR=0.60; CI95% 039-0.92; p=0.02, respective-
ly). The difference in the number of oxaliplatin cycles between
groups was also significant, indicating better tolerance to tre-
atment by the experimental group. There were no differences
in progression-free survival, in global survival or response rate,
showing that the administration of calcium and magnesium
has not decreased the efficacy of chemotherapy32
.
However, the study N08CB denies such results: 353 patients
receiving adjuvant oxaliplatin for colon cancer were randomi-
zed in three arms: intravenous Ca++/Mg++ (IV), 1g calcium
gluconate, 1g magnesium sulfate before and after oxaliplatin;
placebo before and after oxaliplatin, and the arm receiving
IV Ca++/Mg++ before oxaliplatin and placebo after. Prima-
ry outcome was cumulative neurotoxicity. There has been no
benefit with ions administration, being that cumulative neu-
rotoxicity, acute neurotoxicity and chemotherapy discontinu-
ation rates were similar for all groups33
.
The possible benefit of venlafaxine was suggested in a small
placebo-controlled study with 48 patients with oxaliplatin-
-induced acute neuropathy. The group receiving 50mg ven-
lafaxine 1h before oxaliplatin infusion, followed by 37.5mg
twice a day from the second to the 11th
day, had acute symp-
toms relief as compared to the group receiving placebo (31
versus 5%). Even three months after treatment, less patients
had neurotoxicity symptoms in the venlafaxine group (6 ver-
sus 39%). Although promising, these data need confirmation
by more robust studies34
.
The first large phase III study describing an effective interven-
tion for CIPN was recently published. In the double-blind
placebo-controlled study (CALBG 170601) involving 231
patients with CIPN induced by taxanes or oxaliplatin, the
efficacy of duloxetine was evaluated. Patients received one
tablet (30mg) per day during one week and then 2 tablets
(60mg) per day for four weeks. The National Cancer Institu-
te-Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Effects (NCI-
-CTCAE) was used to classify the level of painful CIPN. This
is a subjective scale which evaluates adverse events related to
toxicity including peripheral, sensory and motor neuropathy,
dysesthesia, paresthesias, as well as neuralgias, with scores
from 1 to 5 according to symptoms severity.
With regard to pain and QL, the following tools were used:
Short Form of the Brief Pain Inventory (BPI-SF), which mea-
sures pain intensity and interference, Functional Assessment of
Cancer Therapy/Gynecologic Oncology Group-Neurotoxicity
(FACT/GOG-Ntx) which evaluates QL and neurotoxicity,
in addition to the European Organization for Research and
Treatment of Cancer (EORTC) and the Quality of Life Ques-
tionnaire 30 (QLQ-30) used to evaluate QL. As compared to
placebo, the relative risk of 30% less in pain with duloxetine
was 1.96 (CI95%=1.15-3.35) and of 50% less pain was 2.43
(CI95%=1.11-5.30). Patients treated with oxaliplatin had hi-
gher benefit as compared to those treated with taxanes. Duloxe-
tine was also associated to functional and QL improvement35
.
A criticism to the study relates to tools to evaluate the level of
neuropathy, which were based only on subjective judgment.
A different perspective for CIPN management would be Alcar,
an L-carnitine ester which helps energetic metabolism and may
be endogenously produced or acquired by diet22
. Preliminary
studies showed that Alcar would probably not influence ova-
rian cancer treatment and could have a neuroprotecting effect
by different mechanisms, including increased NGF receptor
expression22
. The Southwest Oncology Group (SWOG) S0715
study has contradicted initial optimism after evaluating the role
of Alcar in preventing CIPN in 409 patients receiving taxanes
during adjuvant breast cancer therapy. With regard to control
group, there has been a trend to worsening neurological symp-
toms in the intervention group after 24 weeks of follow-up36
.
A randomized placebo-controlled study has evaluated the
efficacy of baclofen (10mg), amitriptyline (40mg) and keta-
mine (20mg) in a lecithin in organogel (BAK-OLP) versus
placebo (OLP) to treat CIPN during 4 weeks in 208 patients.
This topic gel provided a slight improvement in symptoms as
compared to the placebo group, both in sensory and motor
symptoms. There have been no reports of undesirable local
toxic effects with BAK-OLP or of systemic toxicity effects37
.
6. 220
Simão DA, Murad M, Martins C,
Fernandes VC, Captein KM and Teixeira AL
Rev Dor. São Paulo, 2015 jul-sep;16(3):215-20
In summary, from pharmacological viewpoint, there are no con-
sistent evidences about the efficacy of CIPN prevention strategies.
Duloxetine is the best available evidence to treat CIPN-related
symptoms. Given the efficacy of neuropathic pain management,
tricyclic antidepressants (nortriptyline, amitriptyline) and gaba-
pentin may be considered in the context of painful CIPN38
.
Even without scientific evidences, non-pharmacological stra-
tegies are widely employed for CIPN symptoms, including
physiotherapy, acupuncture, physical activity, massages and
occupational therapy, in addition to educative interventions
aiming at encouraging patients and their families to be careful
with symptoms and to plan home environment23
.
CONCLUSION
It is known that CIPN is a frequent problem negatively in-
terfering with anticancer therapy. Different drugs are associa-
ted to variable risk levels, which shows CIPN neurobiological
complexity. Prevention, diagnosis and management strategies
still have to evolve to minimize CIPN incidence and severity.
Patients should be informed about the limitations of scientific
evidences for CIPN prevention and management, as well as
about their potential risks, benefits and costs.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was partially supported by CNPq & Fapemig, Brazil.
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