Brief discussion of some the problems of cold dark matter in cosmological structure formation, the idea of `fuzzy' dark matter and some applications of the Schrodinger-Poisson system for cosmic reconstruction.
Talk given at `Post-Planck Cosmology', Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics, Pune, India (12th October 2017).
Spiritual truths are being affirmed with rapid advancement in Scientific knowledge. Sharing my reading and thoughts, that goes to establish that at long last Science has mellowed over the years, the animosity is no longer there, and Spirituality and Science are slowly but surely converging in the quest of TRUTH.
The month of Ramadan is also known as the month of reflection and retrospection, and I have spent a few hours in this month to put up a presentation.
We believe the quantum entanglement is caused by the very space itself, not by any particles, and thus not bounded by the speed of light, so is the gravity, we stand at fireworks side.
The First Annual Robert Grosseteste Lecture on Astrophysics/Cosmology, a public talk given at the University of Lincoln.
The lecture focusses on the large-scale structure of the Universe and the ideas that physicists are weaving together to explain how it came to be the way it is. Over the last few decades, astronomers have revealed that our cosmos is not only vast in scale – at least 14 billion light years in radius – but also exceedingly complex, with galaxies and clusters of galaxies linked together in immense chains and sheets, surrounding giant voids of (apparently) empty space. Cosmologists have developed theoretical explanations for its origin that involve such exotic concepts as ‘dark matter’, ‘dark energy’ and ‘cosmic inflation’, producing a cosmic web of ideas that is, in some ways, as rich and fascinating as the Universe itself.
Brief discussion of some the problems of cold dark matter in cosmological structure formation, the idea of `fuzzy' dark matter and some applications of the Schrodinger-Poisson system for cosmic reconstruction.
Talk given at `Post-Planck Cosmology', Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics, Pune, India (12th October 2017).
Spiritual truths are being affirmed with rapid advancement in Scientific knowledge. Sharing my reading and thoughts, that goes to establish that at long last Science has mellowed over the years, the animosity is no longer there, and Spirituality and Science are slowly but surely converging in the quest of TRUTH.
The month of Ramadan is also known as the month of reflection and retrospection, and I have spent a few hours in this month to put up a presentation.
We believe the quantum entanglement is caused by the very space itself, not by any particles, and thus not bounded by the speed of light, so is the gravity, we stand at fireworks side.
The First Annual Robert Grosseteste Lecture on Astrophysics/Cosmology, a public talk given at the University of Lincoln.
The lecture focusses on the large-scale structure of the Universe and the ideas that physicists are weaving together to explain how it came to be the way it is. Over the last few decades, astronomers have revealed that our cosmos is not only vast in scale – at least 14 billion light years in radius – but also exceedingly complex, with galaxies and clusters of galaxies linked together in immense chains and sheets, surrounding giant voids of (apparently) empty space. Cosmologists have developed theoretical explanations for its origin that involve such exotic concepts as ‘dark matter’, ‘dark energy’ and ‘cosmic inflation’, producing a cosmic web of ideas that is, in some ways, as rich and fascinating as the Universe itself.
What We (Don't) Know About the Beginning of the UniverseSean Carroll
A plenary talk at the January 2017 meeting of the American Astronomical Society, on whether the universe truly had a beginning, and what might have come before.
IOSR Journal of Applied Physics (IOSR-JAP) is an open access international journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of physics and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications in applied physics. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
Absolute truth is conceptualized with reference to meaning and procedure, within the limits of self-containment, which is a characteristic feature that is shared commonly between the universe, humans, and the institutions that they establish in society; and the human intellect is presented as being endowed with the capacity to appreciate it, given the appropriate environment
When asked to do a research assignment, Rafael , 12M (EJR) went for two topics that have puzzled him. This is the ppt he created as the support for his presentation.
Space is not fundamental (although time might be). Talk at the 2010 Philosophy of Science Association Meeting, Montreal. By Sean Carroll, http://preposterousuniverse.com/
Quantum Field Theory and the Limits of KnowledgeSean Carroll
A seminar, given to philosophers, on how quantum field theory allows us to delineate known from unknown in fundamental physics, and why the laws of physics underlying everyday phenomena are known.
What We (Don't) Know About the Beginning of the UniverseSean Carroll
A plenary talk at the January 2017 meeting of the American Astronomical Society, on whether the universe truly had a beginning, and what might have come before.
IOSR Journal of Applied Physics (IOSR-JAP) is an open access international journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of physics and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications in applied physics. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
Absolute truth is conceptualized with reference to meaning and procedure, within the limits of self-containment, which is a characteristic feature that is shared commonly between the universe, humans, and the institutions that they establish in society; and the human intellect is presented as being endowed with the capacity to appreciate it, given the appropriate environment
When asked to do a research assignment, Rafael , 12M (EJR) went for two topics that have puzzled him. This is the ppt he created as the support for his presentation.
Space is not fundamental (although time might be). Talk at the 2010 Philosophy of Science Association Meeting, Montreal. By Sean Carroll, http://preposterousuniverse.com/
Quantum Field Theory and the Limits of KnowledgeSean Carroll
A seminar, given to philosophers, on how quantum field theory allows us to delineate known from unknown in fundamental physics, and why the laws of physics underlying everyday phenomena are known.
hello, friends it time for new scientific consideration ,usually what we think how time pass away,,,,,,,,,o come on i wish to get back in past...also in future......what you say???...take a look........
This article aims to present possible strategies for humanity to seek its survival with the end of the Universe in which we live. Research on the fate of our Universe, on the existence or not of multiverse or parallel universes and on the development of the final theory or theory of everything, that is, of the theory of the unified field, are important questions to elucidate in order to point out possible strategies for humanity seeks its survival with the end of the Universe in which we live.
What are the basics behind the General Relativity?
General Relativity actually deals with gravitational interaction between objects. It thus deals with the rules that govern the giant universe and the galaxies within.
Read in 2011, a very foundational book on physics, narrated in a very easy lay-man terms.. This book talks about constants, in nature and how we need to interpret and listen to these constants..
These are my book notes, great book one can buy this book on Amazon... worth a read for science buffs
Interstellar Communication Theories and its PossibilitiesIJMER
This paper reviews and discusses the research dimensions in four dimensional time travel and
time dependencies of future and past on the basis of present. The paper investigates the theories that
support time travel in any manner and explore possibilities based on them for interstellar communication
Time travel is one of my favorite topics! I wrote some time travel stories in junior high school that used a machine of my own invention to travel backwards in time, and I have continued to study this fascinating concept as the years have gone by. We all travel in time. During the last year, I've moved forward one year and so have you. Another way to say that is that we travel in time at the rate of 1 hour per hour.
But the question is, can we travel in time faster or slower than "1 hour per hour"? Or can we actually travel backward in time, going back, say 2 hours per hour, or 10 or 100 years per hour?
It is mind-boggling to think about time travel. What if you went back in time and prevented your father and mother from meeting? You would prevent yourself from ever having been born! But then if you hadn't been born, you could not have gone back in time to prevent them from meeting.
Abstract: Dr. David Joseph Bohm an American scientist who theorized quantum mechanics in the most ordinary and understandable way, which is somewhat referred to as the “Pilot Wave-model”. Also he prophesized in neuropsychology, and gave the Holonomic model of brain affecting our view of the quantum mechanics. His theories suggest that the phenomenon of “NON LOCALITY” or quantum entanglement is due to the famous “frame dragging” phenomenon predicted by Sir. Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity.
Bohm’s theory also suggests that time doesn’t exist in the way we think it does as stated by “THE BIG CRUNCH” theory. According to it time exists due to the interacting frequencies of the waves due to particle vibrations in space and that the universe never began.
In this paper existence of quantum entanglement is used to question the degree of correctness of the Space-time fabric theory.
In this section, we see how New Energy science helps us move toward a workable Unified Field Theory; how it helps us to understand Zero Point Energy as the mysterious "dark energy" cosmologists have long posited; and how the Big Bang most likely never happened.
This article seeks to present the future of the Universe, as well as to point out the measures that lead to the survival of humanity in the face of the numerous threats that may occur at the level of the solar system and the Universe as a whole.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
2. Symmetry in Atomic and Quantum Physics 1
1 Symmetry in Quantum and Atomic Physics
From the interpretive symmetries found in the creativity and subjectivity of human nature, to the sheer
factual objectivity found all around us, we can now shift our focus of symmetry to the largest and most
amazing canvas of them all, the universe.
1.1 A Perfectly Symmetrical Universe
It is widely accepted that 13.7 billion years ago the universe began with an event known as the Big
Bang, whilst the name holds a tone of ironic simplicity; details of the events at the birth of the universe
still prove elusive to us now. It is within these first milliseconds of the universe that our journey into
symmetry begins.
A number of decades ago a type of theory called Supersymmetric Grand Unified Theories began to
emerge from the scientific community [Ode87], these theories suggested that in these first few moments
the universe may have been in a state of perfect symmetry, broken only by time. The consequence of
this would mean that an unlimited number of transformations, reflections and rotations would result in
no change in the universe. It was even suggested by Vilenkin [Vil83] that the universe was created out
of ”nothingness”, he proposes that through quantum tunnelling the universe reaches ”de Sitter” space.
Quantum tunnelling is the concept that dictates the probability that particle can penetrate a barrier
which it does not have the energy to do so [Col01] . De Sitter space is a theoretical concept that was
first created in order to satisfy Einstein’s theory of general relativity, its important characteristics to
us are that it has no matter [Jor06a, Jor06b]. Whilst the fundamentals of his theory are important,
this report requires focus more on the symmetry interlaced into these events. With regards to the state
that Vilenkin refers to as ”nothingness”, would there be an infinite symmetry or no symmetry? Heinz
Pagels describes the geometry of this period as ”The nothingness ’before’ the creation of the universe is
the most complete void we can imagine. No space, time or matter existed. It is a world without place,
without duration or eternity...” [Ode87]. Can our laws of symmetry exist outside of our space-time (as it
is in our dimension, it is primarily governed by this. Further, is there any possibility for CPT: ’Charge,
Parity and Time’ to exist if there is no ”classical” time?)? Conversely, could this be considered, in
fact, as a flawless state of symmetry? I believe it would be highly informative to investigate whether
time can be considered to be infinite during the period of ”no time”. This would at least allow for an
application of at least one aspect of CPT, and to consider the parameter of time as an influential factor;
although whether or not it would reflect symmetry would be cause for another investigation. In terms
of symmetry within our given concept and realm of ’time’, exactly what part ’time’ actually plays on
the symmetry of the universe will be discussed later on in Subsection 1.6 .
As we know, the entropy of the universe can only increase in the long run (according to the second
law of thermodynamics [Woo99]), hence chaos is created from order, therefore if at a point when time
was initialised it can be assumed that the entropy of the universe was at its lowest and hence it had the
potential for perfect symmetry. If there was any matter added to this state of ”nothingness”, then it
would result in the breaking of the perfect symmetry as the distribution of matter would not be equal.
It is our belief that this does reflect perfect symmetry, as where there is a ”nothingness”, there can be
nothing to break symmetry, however we do not, by any means, deem this to be a conclusive statement,
as the mathematics involved is beyond the limits of a report such as this.
1.2 Part of a Bigger Jigsaw
Since the Big Bang, the universe has continued to expand and many moons, planets, stars and galaxies
have been formed among a host of other celestial bodies. This has comprehensively broken the ”perfect
symmetry” mentioned above as the distribution of matter became unequal. The scale to which the
symmetry has been decreased is daunting indeed, with the universe containing over one hundred billion
3. Symmetry in Atomic and Quantum Physics 2
galaxies, and each of these galaxies encompassing hundreds of billions of stars. Despite this, the universe
caries a property that we consider to be astoundingly beautiful, the cosmological principle [HL07] states
that if the universe is considered over a suitably large area and compared to any another area, the
distribution of matter will be approximately the same. This is quite remarkable considering the size and
expanse of the universe (which is approximately equal to the age of the universe, 13.7 billion, multiplied
by a light year, 9,500,000,000,000 [note that disregards any theory on inflation at the beginnings of the
universe as it is outside the realms of application of this report]) in relation to its potential to retain
symmetry. A wonderfully simple analogy of this would be to consider running ones finger over a plane
of glass; whilst it may feel smooth to touch, it is highly uneven at microscopic level [HL07]. It was
unanimously agreed within the group that this is an example of ”beautiful” symmetry, and further
helps demonstrates the ’natural’ art inherently found within our world.
1.3 How Long is this Piece of String?
It has been shown that the universe may have statistical transitional symmetry on a large scale. Likewise,
it is important to consider whether there will be the symmetry of time (note the use of future tense
as at present the universe is still expanding). On a small scale, it is impossible to reverse the arrow
of time; i.e there is no force that will reverse a parachute jumper’s descent. If there was, then why
would the Earth continue to rotate about the Sun when gravity was reversed? [Pit99] Therefore, the
aforementioned hypothesis can be proven to be true. However, how does this apply to the universe on
a larger scale? This question primarily concerns if the universe will begin to contract naturally, thus
will the influence of gravity eventually overcome the kinetic force driving the universe’s expansion. We
know that the universe is currently expanding, due to the redshift caused by the Doppler Effect [AC95],
however there is much debate as to whether it will continue to do so.
There are three possibilities: first, if the density of the universe is below what is known as a critical
level, the universe will continue to expand for an infinite period of time, eventually tearing apart all forms
of matter, even subatomic matter [Par11a], into a universe tending towards de Sitter space. Secondly,
the forces of gravity and expansion could reach a point of equilibrium, where there will be a state of no
expansion or contraction. Finally, the universe could eventually collapse under the force of gravity in
an event known as ”The Big Crunch”.
It is known that the universe continues to expand in accordance with the Hubble Constant [oTdfpa94]
, however whether it will continue to do so is still very debatable. A collaborative paper [Kal02] concludes
that it is possible for all three possibilities to occur, all be it in the extremely distant future. Evidently,
the fate of the universe whose outcome provides the best symmetry, in regards to time, is the one in
which the universe contracts back into the singularity from which all was born so many billions of years
ago, the Big Crunch. If this was the case, it would certainly provide an astonishing level of symmetry
over the universe. However, the extent to which the expansion would be reflected in the contraction is
very much undiscovered; leading to the question of ”Would the influence of gravity provide a perfect
inverse for the expansion?” It is not yet known whether the events which followed nanoseconds after the
Big Bang, such as the separation and creation of the electromagnetic and weak forces, would reverse
and, for example, collapse back into the primal ’electroweak’ force which preceded today’s current forces
[Sat96]. Furthermore, would the factor of time-scale be exactly symmetrical, given that reversing effects
did occur? For example, would the collapse of forces into the electroweak force exist for exactly the
10 picoseconds [Bak07] that it initially existed after the Big Bang, or would the current asymmetrical
nature of the universe affect how quickly or slowly the reverse would happen? It is apparent from the
current uncertainty that, over the coming years, this subject will be one of much debate and interest.
4. Symmetry in Atomic and Quantum Physics 3
1.4 Quantum Entanglement and Quantum Spin
The phenomenon known as Quantum Entanglement is one such area of physics that demonstrates
an innate presence of symmetry in its nature. First off, Quantum Entanglement is the theory that,
under certain circumstances, two particles can become ’entangled’, meaning their properties, such as
speed, momentum, energy, and notably spin, become linked [VV10]. What’s significant about this
process is that these properties remain linked regardless of spatial (and temporal) positioning, relative
to each other. For example, if a property of one entangled particle is measured, the same property of
the entangled pair, a theoretically infinite distance away, would instantaneously be defined; this can be
described as a ”faster-than-light communication” [WCY05] between two particles, known as non-locality.
This is where symmetry plays an interesting part. One property that can become entangled is
Quantum Spin, which has exactly two spin orientations (or Quantum States), known as ’Spin Up’ and
’Spin Down’ [ea04]. Due to the nature of an entangled pair, one particle must always have a Spin Up,
and the other a Spin Down, thus must always be opposites. However, their spin properties are not
simply the reverse of each other, but an exact reflectional symmetry of each other’s properties. It is
yet unknown exactly why entangled particles reflect their properties in this manner, but this occurrence
does demonstrate the power and practicality of symmetry; the natural application of symmetry allows
two particles to remain linked, transcending, essentially, space and time. The power of this ’time
travelling’ connection, thus, is demonstrated by it innately counteracting Albert Einstein’s theory of
general relativity; the statement that ’nothing can travel faster than light’. [Got02] This is demonstrated,
for example, by taking two unknown entangled particles, keeping one on Earth and sending the other
to Alpha Centauri, the closest star to Earth at approximately 4.27 light years. Both particles have
unmeasured properties, and therefore are undefined. If these particles were not entangled, then to know
the Spin of both, it would take 4.27 years (at the very least, given light transmission as the fastest means
of travel) to receive the data from Alpha Centauri, but by measuring the single entangled particle on
Earth, it instantaneously fixes and defines, by symmetry, the state of the entangled partner, that large
distance away [Par11c].
1.5 Symmetric Wave Functions
Another case of symmetry comes from light, itself; or more specifically, the particles which make up light,
called photons. Photons are part of a subatomic group called bosons, which have specific properties.
Essentially, bosons are particles with absolutely symmetrical wave functions, and therefore have more
consistent behaviours [MF01], implying far more predictable actions, in theory.
Because of this symmetry, more than one boson can occupy the exact same Quantum State at any
one period of time. Therefore, unlike other particles (known as fermions, which include protons and
electrons), whose behaviour is erratic and individual; bosons demonstrate unified or ’group’ behaviour,
where each particle acts in a far more coordinated manner [Par11a]. In the aforementioned case of
the photons, this group behaviour is demonstrated in an experiment known as the ”Quantum Double
Slits” experiment, initially created by Thomas Young and developed vastly later on, which harbours
interesting results connected to symmetry. In short, the Quantum Double Slits experiment initially
attempted to demonstrate whether photons act as waves or particles, and was tested by shining a beam
of light through two minuscule slits in front of a solid screen. This demonstrated light as a wave,
as the second screen had what is known as ’interference fringes’, or bands of dark and lighter shades
created by a variation in distance travelled to different areas of the screen, with light from each slit
interfering with each other [Bli04]. Given that the light is coherent and monochromatic (most notably
found in laser light), which essentially produces a pure light; the interference fringes will be an exact
reflectional symmetry with respect to the midpoint of the two slits. This demonstrates the regularity
and symmetrical properties of boson wave functions when grouped together (into one beam of light)
[RAS06]. However, what is even more startling is that manipulating this experiment slightly results in
5. Symmetry in Atomic and Quantum Physics 4
the demonstration of a photon as a particle, as well as a wave, as well as another case of symmetry.
Instead of shining a beam of light at the two slits, it was made so only one boson, one photon, was
shone at the slits any one time. As this was only one particle or wave, it had to traverse through
either one or the other slit, and as it had no other form of light to interfere with, logically in theory, it
didn’t have any means of interference; therefore interference fringes could not be generated. Conversely,
however, when a plethora of single photons of light were fired in practice, one by one, with the resultant
position marked after each attempt, eventually, the original interference pattern appeared, without any
interference present [Par11b]. This creates an identity symmetry with the previous example, but more
interestingly, demonstrates that the symmetric wave function of a photon is identical to its probability
distribution of where to most likely find the particle, the interference pattern; therefore demonstrating
that the interference pattern has a symmetrical probability distribution. This is theorised to be due to
the single photon interfering with itself through the midpoint of the two slits and, in practice, somehow
passing through both slits, thereby symmetrically splitting itself into two when traversing to the screen,
resulting in the two sides of the probability distribution.
1.6 Synoptic Symmetry Breaking
A final case of symmetry within the realms of Physics and the universe takes into account a few ideas
already discussed previously in Subsections 1.3 and 1.5 . As mentioned before, bosons are particles with
symmetric wave functions, but they are also particles associated with the fundamental forces, and in the
following case, the electromagnetic and the strong and weak forces. Because of this, bosons are typically
known as ”force carriers” [Wax10].
Under conditions we now consider as ’normal’, i.e. conditions reflective of the universe as it is
currently, three of the four fundamental forces have an abundance of symmetrical properties, notably
the reflective symmetry and charge exchange of the strong force. This allows these forces to act in
a predictable and coherent manner, akin to the symmetrical probability waves of photons. However,
one force lacks this array of properties: the weak force. This goes a partial way in explaining why the
weak force (with relative strength of 1025 ) is substantially weaker than the strength of its comparative
other, the strong force (of strength 1038 ); the lack of symmetrical properties implies that its inherent
behaviours do not possess the same focus that the strong force does. This is most evidential by the fact
the weak force can act mainly upon left-handed systems (thus an asymmetrical application), such as
quarks and leptons, and the large mass of its bosons inferring a substantially short affect field (ie. its
range). [Cro08] What is crucial about the fact that the W and Z bosons of the weak force are heavy is the
factor of energy levels. When compared to the electromagnetic force, the two are exceptionally different
at low energy levels. However, as the energy of the two systems rise beyond perceivable levels by the
standards of today’s universe, the two forces become more and more symmetrical, tending towards one
identical set of properties; properties of the primal electroweak force. [RAS05] These levels of energy
are parallel to those seen from the outset of the Big Bang, and thus go some way to explaining how
the single electroweak force gave way to two such different forces. In this sense, with the Big Bang as
the starting point of time, time is what creates the diminishing energy levels of the electroweak force,
therefore ’time’ can be considered as the ”symmetry breaker” of the electromagnetic and weak force
symmetry. [McC07] This, therefore, goes some small way in demonstrating how much less symmetrical
the great, big universe is now, compared to the infinite symmetry that it potentially had at the very
foundation of time, or, in fact, before time.
6. Bibliography
[AC95] Eleni Adrian and David Curtis, The doppler effect, http://archive.ncsa.illinois.edu/
Cyberia/Bima/doppler.html (date accessed 16/11/2011), ”This is a dependable source as
it is published by the University of Illinois and the Doppler effect theory is widely published,
proved and accepted.”.
[Bak07] Joanne Baker, 50 big physics ideas, Quercus, 2007, A published book from a well established
Physician.
[Bli04] SM Blinder, Introduction to quantum mechanics, Academic Press, 2004.
[Col01] David Colarusso, What is quantum tunnelling?, http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/
webprojects2000/plewis/Whatis.html (date accessed 15/11/2011), ”Whilst this is
a blog, the author is highly qualified and has worked for a number of reputable organisa-
tions, he has also had excellent feedback on the videos he has published which leads me to
believe that this is a trustworthy source.”, 2001.
[Cro08] PM Crowley, Weak-force, http://www.universe-galaxies-stars.com/Weak_force.html
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[HL07] Elizabeth Heckmaier and Patrick Lii, The cosmological principle, http://
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deemed to contain accurate material.”.
5
7. Symmetry in Atomic and Quantum Physics 6
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[McC07] Gordon McCabe, The structure and interpretation of the standard model, Elsevier, 2007.
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[oTdfpa94] University of Tennessee department for physics and astronomy, The hubble law, http://
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[Par11b] , How to destroy the universe and 34 other really interesting uses of physics: p.75,
Quercus, 2011, A set of lamens concepts written by a very well established Doctor of Physics.
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Quercus, 2011, A set of lamens concepts written by a very well established Doctor of Physics.
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[RAS06] Chris Vuille Raymond A. Serway, Essentials of college physics, Cengage Learning, 2006,
After receiving a doctorate at the Illinois Institute of Technology, they have been conducting
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theories and conclusions can be assumed as being highly rigorous and accurate. Whilst
some of the working is beyond our level of comprehension it is possible to gather the general
trend of what is being said. Note that in order to open this file it is necessarily to open a
browser and verify that you indeed a user.”.
[VV10] Jacob Dunningham Vlatko Vedral, Introductory quantum physics and relativity, Imperial
College Press, 2010, A published book from a well established Physician.
8. Symmetry in Atomic and Quantum Physics 7
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