- The document discusses the Big Bang theory of the origin and expansion of the universe, and the search for the Higgs boson particle through experiments at the Large Hadron Collider. - It explains that the Big Bang originated from a point of infinite density where the laws of physics break down, and that black holes may give birth to "baby universes" through singularities. - The document highlights how particle physics experiments like those at the LHC aim to understand the fundamental forces and particles that make up the universe, such as the still-hypothetical Higgs boson particle.

1. “MISSING HIGGS: BIGBANG & PARTICLE STUDY”
PUSHKAR SUNIL PUROHIT
[S.Y.BSC Physics]
ADITYA SANJAY DALAL
[S.Y.BSC Physics]
PREFACE
We all are always bounded by the thoughts & the questions about the origin of Universe.
The unsolved & unexplained; the solutions to all such questions lies in understanding the expansion of
Universe and the origin of Universe i.e. Big Bang. The article tries to explain the subject in frame of
Physical study of fundamental forces and the context of the above the main topic of interest,
understanding of LHC & of finding the Missing Higg’s particle.
Consider the following chain of questions. [1] What causes Earth's motion? The answer is, of course,
gravity. The Sun pulls on Earth causing it to orbit in an almost perfect circle. [2] But what causes gravity?
According to Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity, it is the curvature of space. [3] But what causes
space to curve? Again, according to Einstein's theory, it is mass. [4] But why should mass cause space to
deform? At this point, scientists can only say, "This is the way things are."
The idea that the universe was born in a singular event called the Big Bang, at a definite moment in time
some 15 billion years ago. From then, the Universe is expanding.
An amazing consequence of gravity theory is the expansion of the Universe. The fabric of space is
stretching, causing its contents to drift apart. We, humans, do not see the expansion because its local
effect is insignificant. One needs to look at distance objects. When astronomers view faraway galaxies,
they see them all moving away from Earth and away from one another.
Mathematical physicists also toyed with another great idea that they could not prove had any direct
relevance to the universe we live in. this was the concept of what are known as black holes—they were
only given the name in 1969.According to the best laws of physics we know (Einstein’s general theory of
relativity), any dead star with more than about three times as much matter as there is in our sun must
collapse under its own weight , shrinking down literally to a mathematical point , a singularity. Living
stars do not do this, because the heat generated in the interiors provides the pressure needed to hold them
up against the inward pull of gravity. On its way to a singularity, the collapsing star becomes so dense
that the gravitational pull at its surface becomes so strong that nothing, not even light can escape. It
disappears inside what is known as “Event horizon.”
Roger Penrose proved that all the matter inside a black hole must collapse into the singular point, a point
of infinite density at which the laws of physics break down. Collapsing things must form singularities,
according to Penrose’s work; now, the found that expanding things must come from singularities. In

2. particular, they proved that the expansion of the universe must have started from a point of infinite
density where the laws of Physics break down.
Big bang theory was being reinforced by the discovery of the now-famous cosmic background radiation,
interpreted as the echo of the big bang itself.
(According to theory – nobody has yet seen a black hole) particles ought to “bubble off” from the event
horizon. In effect, the energy of the intense gravitational field at the surface of the black hole is converted
into mass (in line with Einstein’s famous equation E =m*c^2) in the form of pairs of particles. One
member of each pair falls in to the hole, while the other escapes. The activity gives every black hole a
temperature, which depends only on its mass.
We are living inside an extremely large black hole, and will one day suffer the fate of any matter inside a
black hole, as spelled out by Penrose thirty odd years ago. So cosmologists have recently puzzled over
what happens at the singularity at the end of time, the Omega point. The obvious guess is that the
singularity that marks the death of our Universe marks the birth of another universal cycle, and this is
born out by the Mathematics.
The only thing that can stop the expansion is gravity, and there is not enough matter in all the bright stars
and galaxies to do the trick. This is enough to ensure that the expansion will one day halt, and then
reverse, crushing everything together again in a singularity—the “Omega point.”
If one singularity can give birth to a Universe, why can’t others? Specifically, what happens at the
singularities that form inside black holes in our own universe? The singularities could form their own
baby universe. Stuff that falls into a black hole singularity is shunted sideways into another set of
dimensions, its own space time.
Expanding universe as like the kin of an expanding balloon. Hawking’s baby universes are rather like
that, little bubbles on the surfaces of the expanding balloon, each expanding in their own right, still
connected to the mother universe by a “wormhole”. And, of course, the baby universes can have babies of
their own, while our universe may be the offspring of a black hole that formed in another space-time.
Such type of thinking only comes from profound imagination.
Science fiction writers are never as Imaginative as Mathematical Physicists.
And that’s why Stephen hawking is regarded as a top rank mathematical physicist. Because he helped to
prove that the universe was born in a big bang , because he found a way of combining relativity theory,
quantum theory and thermodynamics to describe what goes on at the surface of a black hole, and because
he has some extremely interesting ideas about how the universe was born, and how it will end.
But how this theories and abstract understanding expressed in scientific world? Science demands Proofs.
Following topic discussions throws light on the practical side. A great discovery of the twentieth century
is that all matter is made up of only a few microscopic constituents and that only four fundamental forces
control everything. The ultimate in reductionism has been achieved. The four fundamental forces are
gravity, the electric-magnetic force, the strong sub nuclear force and the weak sub nuclear interaction.
Gravity is the mutual attraction between bodies of mass.

3. It was realized that the electric and magnetic forces were manifestations of a single force known as
electromagnetism. Charges come in two kinds: positive and negative. The electric force is the repulsion
between charges of the same kind and the attraction between charges of the opposite kind: As the saying
goes, "Unlikes attract; likes repel." All magnetism is created by currents, or the movement of charge. For
example, Earth's magnetic field is produced by currents in its liquid outer core. The most familiar
manifestation of magnetism is the deflection of a compass needle.
The strong nuclear force binds quarks in a proton or neutron. It also holds these protons and neutrons
together in a nucleus. The weak sub-nuclear interaction is responsible for certain radioactive decays of
nuclei. It also participates in nuclear processes that produce the Sun's energy. As its name implies, it is the
weakest force.
Quantum mechanics involves what-is-known-as "wave mechanics." A wave is associated with every
entity in the Universe. Waves can interfere, meaning that their crests, when coinciding, add to form a
higher crest (a phenomenon called constructive interference), or the crest of one and the trough of
another, when merging, produce no wave at all (a phenomenon called destructive interference). This
inference can create highly no intuitive effects
Because a wave extends over a finite distance, it does not have a precise location. This leads to
uncertainty especially for tiny objects. If you were an electron zooming around an atom, you would not
know your position exactly. You would continually ask, "Where am I now?" And the answer would be in
terms of probabilities: 25% chance over there, 10% chance here, and so on. The idea that you, a
microscopic particle, might be here or there is difficult to fathom. So there is a need to find relation inside
those which is now the most expensive and the much awaited study of Higgs particle, from the point of
Particle Physics, the LHC Project.
Hawking only briefly mentions what-is-perhaps the most intuitive way of understanding quantum
mechanics: the path integral.
The basic building blocks are quarks and leptons. Three quarks bind tightly together to form a proton or a
neutron. Protons and neutrons stick to one another to form a nucleus, the central, heavy core of an atom.
Atoms join to create molecules, and molecules compose everything there is in the macroscopic world,
from human flesh to jagged rocks. Of the leptons, there are two types: electrons, which are negatively
charged, and neutrinos, which are -- as the name implies -- neutral or without charge. Electrons, which are
relatively light, form a cloud of probability that surrounds the nucleus. Thus, an atom is a nucleus together
with an electronic quantum cloud.
Neutrinos are produced in subatomic reactions, such as those that take place in the center of the Sun.
Neutrinos rarely interact with anything, which is why they go unnoticed. Millions are streaming through
your body at this very instance, causing you no harm since they do not collide with any of the quarks or
electrons inside you. Neutrinos are like rapid-moving tiny ghosts.
Because of the uncertainty that arises from quantum mechanics, there is a minute probability that either
an electron or a wave of light can find itself outside the black hole. If so, it is free to escape. This effect is
known as Hawking radiation. Hence, black holes are not completely black. However, the radiation of

4. electrons and light emerging from a black hole is extremely feeble unless the black hole is of microscopic
size. This is because quantum mechanical effects are only significant for tiny object
If the Universe is expanding now, then in the remote past, it must have been considerably smaller. About
15 billion years ago, all matter had to have been concentrated in a tiny place. If so, it is possible that the
Universe began as a black hole in which space and time were on equal footing.
The laws of physics determine how the Universe evolves. But they do not specify the initial conditions,
that is, the position of each point of space at the moment of creation.
Hawking in work with Jim Hartle believes that our Universe began with no boundary, a possibility that
can arise only if space and time are on equal footing. But as discussed above, right from molecular
interaction to subatomic interaction, there is a need to understand interaction beyond this, which is the
search for the so called “God Particles” i.e. the Higgs Particles from the famous LHC [Large Hadron
Collider] project of CERN at Geneva.
MISSING HIGGS
A major breakthrough in particle physics came in the 1970s when physicists realized that there are very
close ties between two of the four fundamental forces – namely, the weak force and the electromagnetic
force. The two forces can be described within the same theory, which forms the basis of the Standard
Model. This ‘unification’ implies that electricity, magnetism, light and some types of radioactivity are all
manifestations of a single underlying force called, unsurprisingly, the electroweak force. But in order for
this unification to work mathematically, it requires that the force-carrying particles have no mass. We
know from experiments that this is not true, so physicists Peter Higgs, Robert Brout and François Englert
came up with a solution to solve this conundrum.
“They suggested that all particles had no mass just after the Big Bang. As the Universe cooled and the
temperature fell below a critical value, an invisible force field called the ‘Higgs field’ was formed together
with the associated ‘Higgs boson’. The field prevails throughout the cosmos: any particles that interact
with it are given a mass via the Higgs boson. The more they interact, the heavier they become, whereas
particles that never interact are left with no mass at all. “
This idea provided a satisfactory solution and fitted well with established theories and phenomena. The
problem is that no one has ever observed the Higgs boson in an experiment to confirm the theory. Finding
this particle would give an insight into why particles have certain mass, and help to develop subsequent
physics. The technical problem is that we do not know the mass of the Higgs boson itself, which makes it
more difficult to identify. Physicists have to look for it by systematically searching a range of mass within
which it is predicted to exist. The yet unexplored range is accessible using the Large Hadron Collider,
which will determine the existence of the Higgs boson.
BUT WHAT IS HIGGS PARTICLE?
The Higgs boson is a hypothetical elementary particle predicted by the Standard Model (SM) of particle
physics. It belongs to a class of subatomic particles known as bosons, characterized by an integer value of
their spin quantum number. Higgs field is a quantum field with a non-zero value that fills all of space, and

5. explains why fundamental particles such as quarks and electrons have mass. The Higgs boson is an
excitation of the Higgs field above its ground state.
The existence of the Higgs boson is predicted by the Standard Model to explain how spontaneous
breaking of electroweak symmetry (the Higgs mechanism) takes place in nature, which in turn explains
why other elementary particles have mass. As it is the only elementary particle predicted by the Standard
Model that has not yet been observed in particle physics experiments. The Standard Model completely
fixes the properties of the Higgs boson, except for its mass. It is expected to have no spin and no electric
or color charge, and it interacts with other particles through weak interaction and Yukawa interactions.
Alternative sources of the Higgs mechanism that do not need the Higgs boson are also possible and would
be considered if the existence of the Higgs boson were ruled out. They are known as Higgsless models.
EXPERIMENTS AT THE CERN’S LARGE HADRON COLLIDER PROJECT, GENEVA
Experiments to find out whether the Higgs boson exists are currently being performed using the Large
Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN, and were performed at Fermilab's Tevatron. Mathematical consistency
of the Standard Model requires that any mechanism capable of generating the masses of elementary
particles become visible at energies above 1.4 TeV;[3] therefore, the LHC (designed to collide two 7-TeV
proton beams) is expected to be able to answer the question of whether or not the Higgs boson actually
exists. The two main experiments at the LHC (ATLAS and CMS) both reported independently that their
data hints at a possibility the Higgs may exist with a mass around 125 GeV/c2 (about 133 proton masses,
on the order of 10−25 kg). They also reported that the original range under investigation has been
narrowed down considerably and that a mass outside approximately 115–130 GeV/c2 is almost ruled out.
No conclusive answer yet exists, although it is expected that the LHC will provide sufficient data by the
end of 2012 for a definite answer.
THE STANDARD MODEL & THE EXTENSION
A one-loop Feynman diagram of the first-order correction to the Higgs mass. The Higgs boson couples
strongly to the top quark so it might decay into top–anti-top quark pairs if it were heavy enough.
The Standard Model predicts the existence of a field (called the Higgs field) which has a non-zero
amplitude in its ground state; i.e. a non-zero vacuum expectation value. The existence of this non-zero
vacuum expectation spontaneously breaks electroweak gauge symmetry which in turn gives rise to the
Higgs mechanism. It is the simplest process capable of giving mass to the gauge bosons while remaining
compatible with gauge theories. The field can be pictured as a pool of molasses that "sticks" to the
otherwise mass less fundamental particles that travel through the field, converting them into particles with
mass that form (for example) the components of atoms. Its quantum would be a scalar boson, known as
the Higgs boson.
The quantum of the remaining neutral component corresponds to (and is theoretically realized as) the
massive Higgs boson. Since the Higgs field is a scalar field, the Higgs boson has no spin. The Higgs
boson is also its own antiparticle and is CP-even, and has zero electric and color charge
The Standard Model does not predict the mass of the Higgs boson.[citation needed] If that mass is
between 115 and 180 GeV/c2, then the Standard Model can be valid at energy scales all the way up to the
Planck scale (1016 TeV).The highest possible mass scale allowed for the Higgs boson (or some other

6. electroweak symmetry breaking mechanism) is 1.4 TeV; beyond this point, the Standard Model becomes
inconsistent without such a mechanism, because unitarily is violated in certain scattering processes.
Extensions to the Standard Model including super symmetry (SUSY) predict the existence of families of
Higgs bosons, rather than the one Higgs particle of the Standard Model. Higgs mechanism yields the
smallest number of Higgs bosons; there are two Higgs doublets, leading to the existence of a quintet of
scalar particles. Many super symmetric models predict that the lightest Higgs boson will have a mass only
slightly above the current experimental limits, at around 120 GeV/c2 or less.
“If it turns out that we cannot find it, this will leave the field wide open for Physicists
to develop a completely new theory to explain the origin of particle mass.”
References
1. Case Study of “A Brief History of Time” by Stephen Hawking.
- From the Big Bang to the Black holes.
2. With references from reviews and articles by Bantum, Jupiter Scientific
3. Free Public License Information source - Wikipedia.org [the free encyclopedia]