The surface realizer takes a discourse plan as input and generates individual sentences from it. It is constrained by lexical and grammatical resources. It produces an ordered sequence of words that complies with the specified resources. Influential approaches to surface realization include Systemic Grammar and Functional Unification Grammar.
This document summarizes semantic analysis in compiler design. Semantic analysis computes additional meaning from a program by adding information to the symbol table and performing type checking. Syntax directed translations relate a program's meaning to its syntactic structure using attribute grammars. Attribute grammars assign attributes to grammar symbols and compute attribute values using semantic rules associated with grammar productions. Semantic rules are evaluated in a bottom-up manner on the parse tree to perform tasks like code generation and semantic checking.
Neural & Fuzzy Logic On Linguistic Variable.
Modus Ponens,Modus Tollens,Fuzzy Implication Operators
Fuzzy Inference,Fuzzy Proposition,Linguistic variable etc are described here
Finite-state morphological parsing uses finite-state transducers to parse words into their morphological components like stems and affixes. It requires a lexicon of stems and affixes, morphotactic rules describing valid morpheme combinations, and orthographic rules for spelling changes. The parser is built as a cascade of finite-state automata representing the lexicon, morphotactics and spelling rules. It maps surface word forms onto their underlying lexical representations including stems and morphological features. This allows morphological analysis of both regular and irregular forms.
This document covers syntax and sentence structure. It defines syntax as the arrangement of words in a sentence and identifies the subject and predicate as the two essential parts. There are four main types of sentences: declarative, imperative, exclamative, and interrogative. The document explains subordinate clauses cannot stand alone as sentences and identifies them in examples. It also describes four sentence structures - simple, compound, complex, and ellipsis. Key learning strategies discussed are identifying parts of speech, clauses, and sentence types in activities.
Introduction to Systemic Functional LinguisticsAleeenaFarooq
Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) is an approach to linguistics developed by Michael Halliday that views language as a social semiotic system. In SFL, grammar is seen as a meaning-making resource that evolved to serve social functions. Halliday proposed that languages involve three metafunctions: using language to construe experience, enact social relations, and create coherent texts. SFL analyzes language from both a general semantic perspective as a system of options and a specific perspective as socially constructed texts.
This document discusses design patterns, beginning with how they were introduced in architecture in the 1950s and became popularized by the "Gang of Four" researchers. It defines what patterns are and provides examples of different types of patterns (creational, structural, behavioral) along with common patterns in each category. The benefits of patterns are that they enable reuse, improve communication, and ease the transition to object-oriented development. Potential drawbacks are that patterns do not directly lead to code reuse and can be overused. Effective use requires applying patterns strategically rather than recasting all code as patterns.
Overview of Language Processor : Fundamentals of LP , Symbol Table , Data Str...Bhavin Darji
Fundamentals of Language Processor
Analysis Phase
Synthesis Phase
Lexical Analysis
Syntax Analysis
Semantic Analysis
Intermediate Code Generation
Symbol Table
Criteria of Classification of Data Structure of Language Processing
Linear Data Structure
Non-linear Data Structure
Symbol Table Organization
Sequential Search Organization
Binary Search Organization
Hash Table Organization
Allocation Data Structure : Stacks and Heaps
Semantic interpretation is the process of determining the intended meaning of natural language expressions. It involves resolving ambiguity, where a word, phrase or sentence can have multiple possible meanings. There are different types of ambiguity, including structural ambiguity due to unclear syntactic structure, and lexical ambiguity where a word has multiple meanings. Disambiguation involves combining models of the world, the speaker's mental state, language, and acoustics to determine the most likely intended meaning. Semantic interpretation is important for applications like call routing systems, to understand different ways callers may express the same core meaning.
This document summarizes semantic analysis in compiler design. Semantic analysis computes additional meaning from a program by adding information to the symbol table and performing type checking. Syntax directed translations relate a program's meaning to its syntactic structure using attribute grammars. Attribute grammars assign attributes to grammar symbols and compute attribute values using semantic rules associated with grammar productions. Semantic rules are evaluated in a bottom-up manner on the parse tree to perform tasks like code generation and semantic checking.
Neural & Fuzzy Logic On Linguistic Variable.
Modus Ponens,Modus Tollens,Fuzzy Implication Operators
Fuzzy Inference,Fuzzy Proposition,Linguistic variable etc are described here
Finite-state morphological parsing uses finite-state transducers to parse words into their morphological components like stems and affixes. It requires a lexicon of stems and affixes, morphotactic rules describing valid morpheme combinations, and orthographic rules for spelling changes. The parser is built as a cascade of finite-state automata representing the lexicon, morphotactics and spelling rules. It maps surface word forms onto their underlying lexical representations including stems and morphological features. This allows morphological analysis of both regular and irregular forms.
This document covers syntax and sentence structure. It defines syntax as the arrangement of words in a sentence and identifies the subject and predicate as the two essential parts. There are four main types of sentences: declarative, imperative, exclamative, and interrogative. The document explains subordinate clauses cannot stand alone as sentences and identifies them in examples. It also describes four sentence structures - simple, compound, complex, and ellipsis. Key learning strategies discussed are identifying parts of speech, clauses, and sentence types in activities.
Introduction to Systemic Functional LinguisticsAleeenaFarooq
Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) is an approach to linguistics developed by Michael Halliday that views language as a social semiotic system. In SFL, grammar is seen as a meaning-making resource that evolved to serve social functions. Halliday proposed that languages involve three metafunctions: using language to construe experience, enact social relations, and create coherent texts. SFL analyzes language from both a general semantic perspective as a system of options and a specific perspective as socially constructed texts.
This document discusses design patterns, beginning with how they were introduced in architecture in the 1950s and became popularized by the "Gang of Four" researchers. It defines what patterns are and provides examples of different types of patterns (creational, structural, behavioral) along with common patterns in each category. The benefits of patterns are that they enable reuse, improve communication, and ease the transition to object-oriented development. Potential drawbacks are that patterns do not directly lead to code reuse and can be overused. Effective use requires applying patterns strategically rather than recasting all code as patterns.
Overview of Language Processor : Fundamentals of LP , Symbol Table , Data Str...Bhavin Darji
Fundamentals of Language Processor
Analysis Phase
Synthesis Phase
Lexical Analysis
Syntax Analysis
Semantic Analysis
Intermediate Code Generation
Symbol Table
Criteria of Classification of Data Structure of Language Processing
Linear Data Structure
Non-linear Data Structure
Symbol Table Organization
Sequential Search Organization
Binary Search Organization
Hash Table Organization
Allocation Data Structure : Stacks and Heaps
Semantic interpretation is the process of determining the intended meaning of natural language expressions. It involves resolving ambiguity, where a word, phrase or sentence can have multiple possible meanings. There are different types of ambiguity, including structural ambiguity due to unclear syntactic structure, and lexical ambiguity where a word has multiple meanings. Disambiguation involves combining models of the world, the speaker's mental state, language, and acoustics to determine the most likely intended meaning. Semantic interpretation is important for applications like call routing systems, to understand different ways callers may express the same core meaning.
The document discusses various topics related to software engineering including:
1) The fundamental activities in the software development process like planning, analysis, design, implementation, testing and maintenance.
2) The different phases of the Rational Unified Process including inception, elaboration, construction and transition.
3) The drawbacks of the spiral model including high costs, expertise required for risk analysis, and poor fit for smaller projects.
There are two main types of language processing activities: program generation and program execution. Program generation aims to automatically generate a program in a target language from a source program through a program generator. Program execution can occur through either translation, which translates a source program into an equivalent target program, or interpretation, where an interpreter reads and executes the source program statement-by-statement.
This document provides information about the CS416 Compiler Design course, including the instructor details, prerequisites, textbook, grading breakdown, course outline, and an overview of the major parts and phases of a compiler. The course will cover topics such as lexical analysis, syntax analysis using top-down and bottom-up parsing, semantic analysis using attribute grammars, intermediate code generation, code optimization, and code generation.
The document provides an overview of compilers and interpreters. It discusses how compilers translate source code into target code like machine language while interpreters directly execute source code. It also describes the different stages of compilation from preprocessing to assembly and linking. Key points made include:
- Compilers translate entire programs at once while interpreters translate and execute one line at a time.
- Compilers generate error reports after full translation while interpreters stop at the first error.
- Compilation takes more time than interpretation but executed code runs faster.
- Some languages use hybrid approaches that interpret translated bytecode for faster execution.
- Larger programs are compiled in pieces and linked together with libraries before execution.
This document discusses different approaches to identifying classes and objects in object-oriented analysis, including:
1. Classical categorization, conceptual clustering, and prototype theory which group entities based on common properties.
2. Behavior analysis which identifies objects based on their behaviors and responsibilities.
3. Use case analysis which identifies participant objects and responsibilities by analyzing system usage scenarios.
4. CRC cards which record each class's responsibilities and collaborations to represent system interactions.
The document describes the structure and process of a compiler. It discusses the major phases of a compiler including scanning, parsing, semantic analysis, code generation and optimization. It also summarizes the key data structures used in a compiler like the symbol table and syntax tree. The document uses the TINY programming language and its compiler for the TM machine as an example to illustrate the compiler construction process.
Object Oriented Design in Software Engineering SE12koolkampus
The document discusses object-oriented design (OOD) and describes its key characteristics and processes. Specifically, it covers:
1) Objects communicate by message passing and are self-contained entities that encapsulate state and behavior.
2) The OOD process involves identifying objects and classes, defining their interfaces, relationships, and developing models of the system.
3) The Unified Modeling Language (UML) is used to describe OOD models including classes, objects, associations, and other relationships.
This chapter discusses syntax analysis and parsing. It covers topics such as syntax analyzers, context-free grammars, parse trees, ambiguity, left-recursion, left-factoring, and predictive parsing. Syntax analyzers check that a program satisfies the rules of a context-free grammar and build a parse tree. Grammars must be unambiguous and free of left-recursion to be suitable for top-down parsing techniques.
This document discusses corpus linguistics and the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA). It defines a corpus as a collection of natural texts and corpus linguistics as the analysis of language based on computerized text collections. COCA can be used to learn English by solving doubts and for teaching by creating classroom activities. The document demonstrates how to use COCA's search features like lists, charts, and key word in context and provides examples of classroom activities using COCA to find frequent words by genre and examples of phrasal verbs in context.
The document discusses requirements engineering for software systems. It covers topics like functional and non-functional requirements, the software requirements document, requirements specification processes, and requirements elicitation, analysis, and management. Requirements engineering is the process of establishing customer needs for a system and constraints for its development and operation. Requirements can range from abstract to highly detailed and serve different purposes depending on their intended use.
This document provides an overview of compilers and translation processes. It defines a compiler as a program that transforms source code into a target language like assembly or machine code. Compilers perform analysis on the source code and synthesis to translate it. Compilers can be one-pass or multi-pass. Other translators include preprocessors, interpreters, assemblers, linkers, loaders, cross-compilers, language converters, rewriters, and decompilers. The history and need for compilers and programming languages is also discussed.
Lexical Analysis, Tokens, Patterns, Lexemes, Example pattern, Stages of a Lexical Analyzer, Regular expressions to the lexical analysis, Implementation of Lexical Analyzer, Lexical analyzer: use as generator.
This document discusses discourse analysis and pragmatics. It defines Grice's Cooperative Principle of conversation and its four maxims. It also discusses implicit meaning, implicatures, ellipsis, substitution, and conjunction. The document then discusses the role of discourse analysis for language teachers and differences between written and spoken language.
UML (Unified Modeling Language) is a standard modeling language used to specify, visualize, and document software systems. It uses graphical notations to model structural and behavioral aspects of a system. Common UML diagram types include use case diagrams, class diagrams, sequence diagrams, and state diagrams. Use case diagrams model user interactions, class diagrams show system entities and relationships, sequence diagrams visualize object interactions over time, and state diagrams depict object states and transitions. UML aims to simplify the complex process of software design through standardized modeling.
1) Generative grammar was first defined by Noam Chomsky in 1957 as a set of rules for producing grammatical sentences in a language based on universal grammar principles innate to humans.
2) Generative grammar includes finite state grammar, phrase structure grammar, and transformational grammar, which identifies rules that govern sentence structure beneath aspects like word order.
3) The document discusses differences between traditional grammar, focused on Latin instruction, and generative grammar, conceived to describe language in a way computers could process human language. It also provides the writer's positive reflection on learning about generative grammar.
This document discusses the typical structure of text editors. It describes the main components of an editor including the command language processor, editing operations, viewing operations, and traveling operations. It explains how the editing and viewing buffers are related, with the editing buffer determining the area to edit based on the editing pointer and the viewing buffer determining the displayed area based on the viewing pointer. When the user performs an edit, it updates the editing buffer, and when needing to update the display, it filters the document using the viewing buffer.
Cognitive linguistics emerged from developments in linguistics in the 1960s-1970s. It views language as grounded in human cognition and experience rather than as an autonomous system. Some key principles of cognitive linguistics include: meaning arises from conceptualization rather than being truth-conditional; semantics is encyclopedic rather than compositional; and linguistic knowledge comes from language usage. Cognitive linguistics investigates various topics like categorization, grammar theories, discourse analysis, and language acquisition using these principles.
The document provides an overview of knowledge representation techniques. It discusses propositional logic, including syntax, semantics, and inference rules. Propositional logic uses atomic statements that can be true or false, connected with operators like AND and OR. Well-formed formulas and normal forms are explained. Forward and backward chaining for rule-based reasoning are summarized. Examples are provided to illustrate various concepts.
This document provides an overview of functional grammar. It discusses three main types of grammars: traditional grammar, formal grammar, and functional grammar. Traditional grammar focuses on parts of speech and prescriptive rules, but does not account for meaning or context. Formal grammar analyzes sentence structure but typically ignores meaning. Functional grammar views language as a tool for making meaning and analyzes whole texts and how their structures construct meaning in different contexts. It examines language in use rather than as an abstract system. The document emphasizes that all meaning is situated within a context of culture and situation.
The document provides an overview of natural language generation (NLG) systems. It discusses what NLG is, common architectures and approaches, examples of commercial applications, and statistical approaches. The presenter also provides a case study on using NLG for weather forecasts and discusses future directions for NLG research.
The document discusses various topics related to software engineering including:
1) The fundamental activities in the software development process like planning, analysis, design, implementation, testing and maintenance.
2) The different phases of the Rational Unified Process including inception, elaboration, construction and transition.
3) The drawbacks of the spiral model including high costs, expertise required for risk analysis, and poor fit for smaller projects.
There are two main types of language processing activities: program generation and program execution. Program generation aims to automatically generate a program in a target language from a source program through a program generator. Program execution can occur through either translation, which translates a source program into an equivalent target program, or interpretation, where an interpreter reads and executes the source program statement-by-statement.
This document provides information about the CS416 Compiler Design course, including the instructor details, prerequisites, textbook, grading breakdown, course outline, and an overview of the major parts and phases of a compiler. The course will cover topics such as lexical analysis, syntax analysis using top-down and bottom-up parsing, semantic analysis using attribute grammars, intermediate code generation, code optimization, and code generation.
The document provides an overview of compilers and interpreters. It discusses how compilers translate source code into target code like machine language while interpreters directly execute source code. It also describes the different stages of compilation from preprocessing to assembly and linking. Key points made include:
- Compilers translate entire programs at once while interpreters translate and execute one line at a time.
- Compilers generate error reports after full translation while interpreters stop at the first error.
- Compilation takes more time than interpretation but executed code runs faster.
- Some languages use hybrid approaches that interpret translated bytecode for faster execution.
- Larger programs are compiled in pieces and linked together with libraries before execution.
This document discusses different approaches to identifying classes and objects in object-oriented analysis, including:
1. Classical categorization, conceptual clustering, and prototype theory which group entities based on common properties.
2. Behavior analysis which identifies objects based on their behaviors and responsibilities.
3. Use case analysis which identifies participant objects and responsibilities by analyzing system usage scenarios.
4. CRC cards which record each class's responsibilities and collaborations to represent system interactions.
The document describes the structure and process of a compiler. It discusses the major phases of a compiler including scanning, parsing, semantic analysis, code generation and optimization. It also summarizes the key data structures used in a compiler like the symbol table and syntax tree. The document uses the TINY programming language and its compiler for the TM machine as an example to illustrate the compiler construction process.
Object Oriented Design in Software Engineering SE12koolkampus
The document discusses object-oriented design (OOD) and describes its key characteristics and processes. Specifically, it covers:
1) Objects communicate by message passing and are self-contained entities that encapsulate state and behavior.
2) The OOD process involves identifying objects and classes, defining their interfaces, relationships, and developing models of the system.
3) The Unified Modeling Language (UML) is used to describe OOD models including classes, objects, associations, and other relationships.
This chapter discusses syntax analysis and parsing. It covers topics such as syntax analyzers, context-free grammars, parse trees, ambiguity, left-recursion, left-factoring, and predictive parsing. Syntax analyzers check that a program satisfies the rules of a context-free grammar and build a parse tree. Grammars must be unambiguous and free of left-recursion to be suitable for top-down parsing techniques.
This document discusses corpus linguistics and the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA). It defines a corpus as a collection of natural texts and corpus linguistics as the analysis of language based on computerized text collections. COCA can be used to learn English by solving doubts and for teaching by creating classroom activities. The document demonstrates how to use COCA's search features like lists, charts, and key word in context and provides examples of classroom activities using COCA to find frequent words by genre and examples of phrasal verbs in context.
The document discusses requirements engineering for software systems. It covers topics like functional and non-functional requirements, the software requirements document, requirements specification processes, and requirements elicitation, analysis, and management. Requirements engineering is the process of establishing customer needs for a system and constraints for its development and operation. Requirements can range from abstract to highly detailed and serve different purposes depending on their intended use.
This document provides an overview of compilers and translation processes. It defines a compiler as a program that transforms source code into a target language like assembly or machine code. Compilers perform analysis on the source code and synthesis to translate it. Compilers can be one-pass or multi-pass. Other translators include preprocessors, interpreters, assemblers, linkers, loaders, cross-compilers, language converters, rewriters, and decompilers. The history and need for compilers and programming languages is also discussed.
Lexical Analysis, Tokens, Patterns, Lexemes, Example pattern, Stages of a Lexical Analyzer, Regular expressions to the lexical analysis, Implementation of Lexical Analyzer, Lexical analyzer: use as generator.
This document discusses discourse analysis and pragmatics. It defines Grice's Cooperative Principle of conversation and its four maxims. It also discusses implicit meaning, implicatures, ellipsis, substitution, and conjunction. The document then discusses the role of discourse analysis for language teachers and differences between written and spoken language.
UML (Unified Modeling Language) is a standard modeling language used to specify, visualize, and document software systems. It uses graphical notations to model structural and behavioral aspects of a system. Common UML diagram types include use case diagrams, class diagrams, sequence diagrams, and state diagrams. Use case diagrams model user interactions, class diagrams show system entities and relationships, sequence diagrams visualize object interactions over time, and state diagrams depict object states and transitions. UML aims to simplify the complex process of software design through standardized modeling.
1) Generative grammar was first defined by Noam Chomsky in 1957 as a set of rules for producing grammatical sentences in a language based on universal grammar principles innate to humans.
2) Generative grammar includes finite state grammar, phrase structure grammar, and transformational grammar, which identifies rules that govern sentence structure beneath aspects like word order.
3) The document discusses differences between traditional grammar, focused on Latin instruction, and generative grammar, conceived to describe language in a way computers could process human language. It also provides the writer's positive reflection on learning about generative grammar.
This document discusses the typical structure of text editors. It describes the main components of an editor including the command language processor, editing operations, viewing operations, and traveling operations. It explains how the editing and viewing buffers are related, with the editing buffer determining the area to edit based on the editing pointer and the viewing buffer determining the displayed area based on the viewing pointer. When the user performs an edit, it updates the editing buffer, and when needing to update the display, it filters the document using the viewing buffer.
Cognitive linguistics emerged from developments in linguistics in the 1960s-1970s. It views language as grounded in human cognition and experience rather than as an autonomous system. Some key principles of cognitive linguistics include: meaning arises from conceptualization rather than being truth-conditional; semantics is encyclopedic rather than compositional; and linguistic knowledge comes from language usage. Cognitive linguistics investigates various topics like categorization, grammar theories, discourse analysis, and language acquisition using these principles.
The document provides an overview of knowledge representation techniques. It discusses propositional logic, including syntax, semantics, and inference rules. Propositional logic uses atomic statements that can be true or false, connected with operators like AND and OR. Well-formed formulas and normal forms are explained. Forward and backward chaining for rule-based reasoning are summarized. Examples are provided to illustrate various concepts.
This document provides an overview of functional grammar. It discusses three main types of grammars: traditional grammar, formal grammar, and functional grammar. Traditional grammar focuses on parts of speech and prescriptive rules, but does not account for meaning or context. Formal grammar analyzes sentence structure but typically ignores meaning. Functional grammar views language as a tool for making meaning and analyzes whole texts and how their structures construct meaning in different contexts. It examines language in use rather than as an abstract system. The document emphasizes that all meaning is situated within a context of culture and situation.
The document provides an overview of natural language generation (NLG) systems. It discusses what NLG is, common architectures and approaches, examples of commercial applications, and statistical approaches. The presenter also provides a case study on using NLG for weather forecasts and discusses future directions for NLG research.
The document provides guidelines for recruiting new members to the Militia of Gamers (MoG) clan. It outlines basic requirements for recruits such as being at least 15 years old and speaking understandable English. It also lists rules recruits must be informed of, such as showing respect to all players and knowing who recruited them. The order of command is explained where recruits start as Privates and can ask others near their rank questions. Information is provided on using the MoG website to meet members, organize activities, and get help. Tactics for recruiting suggest playing with potential recruits first to ensure they are approachable and friendly before mentioning MoG. Going recruiting with other members and choosing public matches that allow chatting is also advised.
1) A structural syllabus focuses on teaching the grammatical rules and structures of a language. It breaks the language down into discrete grammatical points like verbs, nouns, and tenses.
2) A key feature is that students synthesize the analyzed grammatical structures into unconscious language use. The goals are for students to describe rules, judge grammatical correctness, and accurately use structures.
3) While structural syllabi allow for clear definition and measurement of grammar competence, critics argue it may mislead students and has limited applications due to problems with sequencing and transfer of knowledge to real communication.
This document describes different approaches to analyzing and describing language:
1. Classical/Traditional Grammar analyzes the grammatical function of each word based on inflections as in Latin and Greek.
2. Structural Linguistics describes grammar through syntagmatic sentence structures and notions of time, number, gender.
3. Transformational Generative Grammar argues structural descriptions are superficial and do not explain relationships of meaning between surface structures.
4. Language Variation and Register Analysis examines how language varies according to context, such as areas of knowledge in English for Specific Purposes.
5. Functional/Notional Grammar focuses on social functions like advising or describing, and how the human mind thinks in
Regular expressions allow matching and manipulation of textual data. They were first discovered by mathematician Stephen Kleene and their search algorithm was developed by Ken Thompson in 1968 for use in tools like ed, grep, and sed. Regular expressions follow certain grammars and use meta characters to match patterns in text. They are used for tasks like validation, parsing, and data conversion.
The document discusses the notional/functional syllabus approach to language teaching. It begins by defining the notional/functional syllabus and explaining that it focuses on the functional uses of language over grammatical forms. It then provides more details on the origins and key concepts of the notional/functional approach, including notions, functions, form-function mapping, and its relationship to communicative language teaching. The document also discusses strengths and limitations of the notional/functional syllabus and how it can be applied.
The document discusses different types of syllabi, including:
- Synthetic vs. analytic syllabi that present language in discrete items vs. whole chunks.
- Product-oriented vs. process-oriented syllabi that emphasize the product of learning vs. specifying learning tasks and activities.
- Referential vs. instrumental syllabi that convey facts vs. get things done.
It also outlines options for organizing general English and ESP syllabi such as structurally, functionally, topically, or task-based approaches. The document emphasizes that specifying course content reveals notions of language and learning.
This document provides information and exercises about using an Oxford dictionary to look up words. It discusses features like headwords, derivatives, parts of speech, cross-references, and choosing the right meaning. There are multiple choice questions and fill-in-the-blank exercises to practice using the dictionary to find word definitions, parts of speech, related words, and other information. The goal is to help readers learn how to efficiently look up words and understand word entries in the Oxford dictionary.
Notional functional syllabus aims to teach language based on conceptual and communicative purposes rather than grammatical structures. It focuses on developing learners' communicative competence through selecting linguistic content based on notions like time, direction, size and functions like requesting, suggesting, agreeing. While it has advantages like developing real-world language skills, critics argue that dividing language into discrete notions and functions misinterprets its nature as dynamic communication.
The document discusses the structural syllabus approach to language teaching. It defines the structural syllabus as one that focuses on the grammatical and structural aspects of a language by analyzing and isolating language elements. This approach believes that functional language ability arises from structural knowledge. The summary then lists some key characteristics of the structural syllabus, including that it focuses on language form and traditional grammatical classifications. It also notes both positive characteristics, such as serving as a basis for learner self-correction, and negative characteristics, such as lack of applicability and transferability of structural knowledge alone.
This document discusses various approaches to curriculum and syllabus design for language courses. It describes defining the rationale, entry and exit levels, choosing content, and determining scope and sequence. Various syllabus frameworks are presented such as grammatical, lexical, functional, situational, topical, competency-based, skills-based, and task-based. The document also covers selecting a syllabus framework, developing instructional blocks like modules and units, and preparing a scope and sequence plan.
This document discusses various theories of functional grammar. It begins by defining text and explaining how functional theories of grammar see language as a tool used to carry out functions. It then outlines several prominent functional theories including systemic functional grammar, functional discourse grammar, role and reference grammar, and lexical functional grammar. For each theory, it discusses their key concepts and how they differ from formal theories of grammar by focusing on how language is used in context rather than just formal relations. It also covers concepts within functional theories like transitivity and the analysis of experience, interaction, and message construction.
Functional grammar analyzes language based on its communicative functions rather than formal rules. It views grammar as a set of options or choices used to construct texts and make meaning in different contexts. Functional grammar looks at various levels of language, including the clause, phrase, word class, and morpheme levels, to understand the resources used for analyzing experiences, interactions, and message construction. There are several frameworks that employ a functional approach, including systemic functional grammar, functional discourse grammar, and lexical functional grammar.
The document discusses the functional-notional approach to language teaching. It describes the historical background and basic claims of the approach. The functional-notional approach focuses on the communicative purposes and functions of language use. It emphasizes learning language through real-world functions like greetings, requests, apologies rather than through grammar rules. The approach is based on the idea that language learning should involve understanding functions, notions (vocabulary related to functions), and exponents (language forms used to express functions). It aims to help learners communicate effectively for different purposes.
A comprehensive grammar of the english language quirk greenbaum leech svartvikIvana Jovanovic
English is the most widely spoken language in the world, with over 300 million native speakers. It is used internationally more than any other language, serving as a lingua franca for about a third of the world's population. English functions as a native language, second language, and foreign language in different contexts, playing instrumental, regulatory, communicative, occupational, and creative roles in societies where it is learned as a second language.
This document provides an introduction to Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG). It discusses the following key points:
1) SFG views language as a system of choices and was developed based on the work of Malinowski, Firth, and Halliday. It examines language from a functional perspective rather than just a structural perspective.
2) SFG represents grammar as system networks that show the paradigmatic choices available and realization rules that map choices to syntactic structures. This models the relationship between semantic choices and surface structures.
3) In SFG, language is analyzed in terms of three metafunctions - the ideational to represent experience, the interpersonal to enact social relationships, and the textual to organize messages
The document discusses six types of syllabi used in language teaching: structural, functional/notional, situational, skill-based, task-based, and content-based. It provides details on structural and functional/notional syllabi. A structural syllabus prioritizes grammar and is organized by linguistic structures. A functional/notional syllabus is organized by the functions and notions performed in language use. Both approaches have benefits and limitations for developing students' communicative competence. The document also provides an example of a mini curriculum using a functional approach.
- Noam Chomsky first introduced the concepts of linguistic competence and performance. Competence refers to a speaker's underlying knowledge of language, while performance refers to actual language use which can be impacted by cognitive and psychological factors.
- Ferdinand de Saussure also distinguished between langue, the abstract system of language, and parole, actual language usage.
- The distinction between competence and performance is important because it allows linguists to differentiate between errors due to imperfect performance versus not knowing the underlying rules of a language.
Presentation of "Challenges in transfer learning in NLP" from Madrid Natural Language Processing Meetup Event, May, 2019.
https://www.meetup.com/es-ES/Madrid-Natural-Language-Processing-meetup/
Practical related work in repository: https://github.com/laraolmos/madrid-nlp-meetup
Imran Sarwar Bajwa, M. Abbas Choudhary [2006], "A Rule Based System for Speech Language Context Understanding", International Journal of Donghua University (English Edition), Jun 2006, Vol. 23 No. 06, pp:39-42
TermWiki is an open-source terminology management solution that allows organizations to centrally manage their terminology in a wiki-based system. It provides benefits like giving all employees access to the complete terminology dataset and latest versions. Users can easily search, add, edit and translate terms from any computer with an internet browser. TermWiki also offers predefined data categories, validation workflows, and supports uploading images and audio to help define terms.
- The document describes a PhD thesis defense about using rewriting logic to define the semantics of concurrent programming languages.
- The thesis proposes K as a framework for programming language definitions in rewriting logic, which aims to be more expressive, modular, and concurrent than existing approaches.
- It demonstrates K and its execution in Maude by defining the semantics of a simple concurrent language called KernelC.
Development, distribution and use of open source software comprise a market of data (source code, bug reports, documentation, number of downloads, etc.) from projects, developers and users. This large amount of data makes it difficult for people involved to make sense of implicit links between software projects, e.g., dependencies, patterns, licenses. This context raises the question of what techniques and mechanisms can be used to help users and developers to link related pieces of information across software projects. In this paper, we propose a framework for a marketplace enhanced using linked open data (LOD) technology for linking software artifacts within projects as well as across software projects. The marketplace provides the infrastructure for collecting and aggregating software engineering data as well as developing services for mining, statistics, analytics and visualization of software data. Based on cross-linking software artifacts and projects, the marketplace enables developers and users to understand the individual value of components, their relationship to bigger software systems. Improved understanding creates new business opportunities for software companies: users will be better able to analyze and compare projects, developers can increase the visibility of their products, hosts may offer plug-ins and services over the data to paying customers.
The document proposes an Ontology-Based Semantic Context (OBSC) framework for analyzing Arabic web content. The framework includes modules for tokenization, word sense disambiguation using an Arabic WordNet ontology, measuring content similarity, and clustering similar content. The key innovation is customizing existing techniques for Arabic, which has greater complexity than English in its syntax, semantics, and ontology. The framework aims to analyze Arabic text at a conceptual level to enable applications like semantic search engines and question answering systems.
This document provides an overview of the CSC 447 course on Organization of Programming Languages taught at the Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta. The course will cover topics like language definition structures, data types, control structures, runtime considerations, and language evaluation over weeks 1 and 2. It also outlines various programming language paradigms, implementation methods, influences on language design, and criteria for comparing languages.
Imran Sarwar Bajwa, [2010], "Context Based Meaning Extraction by Means of Markov Logic", in International Journal of Computer Theory and Engineering - (IJCTE) 2(1) pp:35-38, February 2010
The document provides an overview of the course "Principles of Programming Languages". It discusses the course structure, textbooks, and various topics that will be covered in the course, including what a programming language is, categories of languages, language implementation, programming domains, application domains, the role of programming languages, and goals and focus areas of language design. The course covers imperative, object-oriented, and advanced Java programming and includes case studies of various languages.
The document provides information about the structure and content of a course on programming languages. The course consists of 5 units covering introduction to programming languages, imperative and procedural programming, object oriented programming in Java, advanced Java, and case studies of various programming languages. It discusses key topics that will be covered, such as what a programming language is, different types of languages, how languages are implemented, factors influencing language design, and categories and examples of languages. Textbooks for the course are also listed.
Formal treatments of inheritance are rather scarce and those that do exist are often more suited for
analysis of existing systems than as guides to language designers. One problem that adds complexity to
previous efforts is the need to pass a reference to the original invoking object throughout the method call
tree. In this paper, a novel specification of inheritance semantics is given. The approach dispenses with
self-reference, instead using static and dynamic scope to accomplish similar behaviour. The result is a
methodology that is simpler than previous specification attempts, easy to understand, and sufficiently
expressive. Moreover, an inheritance system based on this approach can be implemented with relatively
few lines of code in environment-passing interpreters.
Natural Language Processing (NLP) involves developing computational techniques to analyze and understand human languages. Key techniques in NLP include sentiment analysis to classify emotions in text, text classification to categorize text, and tokenization to break text into discrete units like words. NLP is used to teach machines how to read and understand human language by identifying relationships between words and other linguistic elements.
The document discusses information retrieval based on word semantics in Arabic texts. It covers several key areas: (1) the challenges of natural language processing in Arabic due to its rich morphology; (2) the process of morphological analysis including preprocessing, stemming, and indexing terms; (3) the research problems of synonymy and polysemy in information retrieval; and (4) semantic approaches to address these problems including automatic discovery of similar words and synonym-based search methods.
This document compares model-oriented and process algebra approaches to formal specification languages. It discusses key formal specification styles including model-oriented, algebraic, transition-based, process algebra, logic-based, and reactive approaches. It then evaluates several model-oriented (Z, VDM, B) and process algebra (CSP, CCS) languages based on criteria like abstraction, ambiguity, consistency, concurrency, readability and reusability. Finally, it discusses the B method and its tool support, comparing it to related techniques like Event-B, VDM, TLA, ASM and Z. The document provides an overview of different formal specification approaches and evaluates some example languages in these categories.
This document discusses and compares two formal specification styles: model-oriented and process algebra approaches. It provides an overview of different formal specification languages, including model-oriented languages like B, VDM, and Z, as well as process algebra languages like CSP and CCS. The document analyzes these approaches based on criteria like abstraction, ambiguity, consistency, and concurrency to evaluate their strengths and weaknesses for specifying systems formally.
This document compares model-oriented and process algebra approaches to formal specification languages. It discusses key formal specification styles including model-oriented, algebraic, transition-based, process algebra, logic-based, and reactive approaches. It then evaluates several model-oriented languages (Z, VDM, B) and process algebra languages (CSP, CCS) based on criteria like abstraction, ambiguity, consistency, concurrency, readability and reusability. Finally, it discusses the B method and Event-B modeling language and related formal techniques, and notes that the Rodin platform provides effective tool support for modeling and proving in Event-B.
1) The document discusses a system called MaLTe (Machine Learning from Text) that aims to extract knowledge from technical expository texts using both natural language processing and machine learning techniques.
2) MaLTe will process texts containing narratives and examples, and output a representation of the knowledge in the form of Horn clauses. Some user interaction will be required during the translation process.
3) The document outlines several challenges in applying machine learning and natural language processing to knowledge extraction from real-world texts, including their logical structure and examples. It provides an example from a tax guide to illustrate these challenges.
Author Credits - Maaz Anwar Nomani
Semantic Role Labeler (SRL) is a semantic parser which can automatically identify and then classify arguments of a verb in a natural language sentence for Hindi and Urdu. For e.g. in the natural language sentence “Sara won the competition because of her hard work.”, ‘won’ is the main verb and there are 3 arguments for this verb; ‘Sara’ (Agent), ‘hard work’ (Reason) and ‘competition’ (Theme). The problem statement of a SRL revolves around the fact that how will you make a machine identify and then classify the arguments of a verb in a natural language sentence.
Since there are 2 sub problem statements here (Identification and Classification), our SRL has a pipeline architecture in which a binary classifier (Logistic Regression) is first trained to identify whether a word is an argument to a verb in a sentence or not (Yes or No) and subsequently a multi-class classifier (SVM with Linear kernel) is trained to classify the identified arguments by above binary classifier into one of the 20 classes. These 20 classes are the various notions present in a natural language sentence (for e.g. Agent, Theme, Location, Time, Purpose, Reason, Cause etc.). These ‘notions’ are called Propbank labels or semantic labels present in a Proposition Bank which is a collection of hand-annotated sentences.
In essence, SRL felicitates Semantic Parsing which essentially is the research investigation of identifying WHO did WHAT to WHOM, WHERE, HOW, WHY and WHEN etc. in a natural language sentence.
An interpreter is a medium that changes unrecognized information into a recognizable form. The interpreter pattern describes how to define a grammar for a simple language and represent sentences in that language to interpret them. It uses classes to represent each grammar rule and creates an abstract syntax tree to represent expressions. While it makes programming and problem solving easier, complex grammars can be difficult to maintain with this pattern.
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryCeline George
In this slide, we'll explore how to set up warehouses and locations in Odoo 17 Inventory. This will help us manage our stock effectively, track inventory levels, and streamline warehouse operations.
This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
A wound is a break in the integrity of the skin or tissues, which may be associated with disruption of the structure and function.
Healing is the body’s response to injury in an attempt to restore normal structure and functions.
Healing can occur in two ways: Regeneration and Repair
There are 4 phases of wound healing: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. This document also describes the mechanism of wound healing. Factors that affect healing include infection, uncontrolled diabetes, poor nutrition, age, anemia, the presence of foreign bodies, etc.
Complications of wound healing like infection, hyperpigmentation of scar, contractures, and keloid formation.
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
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providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
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Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
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Communicating effectively and consistently with students can help them feel at ease during their learning experience and provide the instructor with a communication trail to track the course's progress. This workshop will take you through constructing an engaging course container to facilitate effective communication.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
4. Surface realizer receives the fully
specified discourse plan. Discourse Plan
Generates individual sentences The discourse plan is
generated by the
Constrained by the lexical and DISCOURE PLANNER
by taking into
grammatical resources consideration the
Resources communicative goal and
the available Knowledge
Define the realizer’s potential range of Base.
output The content is structured
appropriately.
If the plan specifies multiple-
Discourse plan defines:
sentence output, the surface •Choices made for the
realizer is called multiple times. entire
(may
communication
span multiple
sentences)
•Annotations (hypertext,
figures, etc.)
4 Surface Realization
5. So, the surface realization component produces
ordered sequence of words as constrained by the
lexicon and grammar.
Input
Sentence-sized chunks of the discourse specification
Influential approaches for surface realization
Systemic Grammar
Functional Unification Grammar
5 Surface Realization
6. No general consensus as to the level at which the
input to the surface realizer should be specified.
Some approaches specify only the propositional
content.
6 Surface Realization
7. What does it do?
Derive a human readable sentence from a discourse
plan.
Discourse plan does not give syntax, only functional
information. The Surface Realizer adds syntactical
information and assures that the sentence will
comply with lexical and grammatical constraints.
7 Surface Realization
8. What doesn’t it do?
Will not verify that the correctness of the data
provided by the discourse planner or that the
information makes sense.
Does not deal with more than one sentence at a
time. If the plan calls for many sentences, the
surface realizer will be called once for each sentence
required.
8 Surface Realization
9. Simple Surface Realization Tools
Canned Text Systems Template Systems
- Takes a given input and - The idea of a template is
matches it directly to a pre- that there are premade
made sentence. sentences with fill in the
blank words that are filled
- Commonly used in simple in by the input.
systems such as error
messages or warnings. - These systems work well
- Has no flexibility with Form Letters and
whatsoever. Slightly more advanced
Error or Warning
Messages.
- They are still very
inflexible, but better than
canned text systems.
9 Surface Realization
10. The simple surface realization tools eventually gave
way to advanced Feature-based systems
Systemic Grammar Representation of sentences
as collections of functions. Rules allow mapping
from functions to grammatical forms. (Halliday, 1985)
Functional Unification Grammar Represents
sentences as feature structures that can be
combined and altered to produce sentences. (Kay,
1979)
10 Surface Realization
11. “The system will save the document”
The discourse plan Other approaches
would specify a saving
action done by a system Include the specification
entity to a document of the grammatical form
entity.
In this case, a future
tense assertion
Specification of lexical
items
In this case, save,
system and document
11 Surface Realization
12. The two approaches take input at different levels.
Common factor
Input is functionally specified, rather than syntactically
specified
Factor typical of generational systems
Generation systems start with meaning and context
Specify the intended output in terms of function, rather
than form.
12 Surface Realization
13. “The system will save the document”
Can be stated in two ways
ACTIVE FORM
PASSIE FORM
Discourse planners tend not to work with the
syntactic terms.
They are most likely to keep track of the focus or
local topic of the discourse.
More natural to define this distinction in terms of focus.
13 Surface Realization
14. Surface
If the document is the local topic of Realization
discourse, it would be marked as Approaches
the focus which could trigger the
use of the passive. Systemic Grammar
“The document will be saved by Functional Unification
the system” Grammar
Both surface realization
approaches categorize grammar in
functional terms.
14 Surface Realization
16. Systemic-
A part of Systemic-Functional Functional
linguistics. linguistics
Represent sentences as collections A branch of linguistics
that views language as a
of functions and maintain rules for resource for expressing
mapping these functions on to meaning in context
explicit grammatical forms.
-An Introduction to
Functional Grammar,
Well suited for generation
Halliday (1985)
Widely influential in NLG
16 Surface Realization
17. “The system will save the document”
Systemic sentence analysis organize the functions
being expressed in multiple layers.
17 Surface Realization
18. Mood layer – Layers
simple declarative Transitivity layer Theme layer
structure
“The system will save the
Actor / Doer
Subject
(system)
Theme document”
Process Concepts of theme and
Finite (auxiliary) Rheme
(saving)
rheme were developed by
the Prague school of
Goal – the linguistics
Predicator object being
(verb) acted upon
(document) -Firbas, 1966
Thematic roles apply here
Object too, like AGENT,
Rheme EXPERIENCER,
a topic of informal discussion INSTRUMENT, and so on.
different from a theme
18 Surface Realization
19. The three layers deal with different sets of functions.
Meta-functions
• Inter-personal
Mood layer
meta function
Transitivity • Ideational meta
layer function
Theme • Textual meta
layer function
19 Surface Realization
20. Interpersonal meta-function
Group the functions that establish and maintain the
interaction between the sentence writer and the
reader.
Represented by the mood layer
Determines whether the writer is
Commanding
Telling
Asking
Examples would be whether the writer is telling the
reader something or is asking a question.
20 Surface Realization
21. Ideational meta-function
Concerned with the propositional content of the
expression.
Transitivity layer determines
Nature of process being expressed
Variety of case roles that must be expressed
Covers much of the semantics.
In other words, identify items like who the actors are,
what the goals are for the sentence, and type of
process being performed.
21 Surface Realization
22. Textual meta-function
Concerned with the way the expression fits into the
current discourse.
Includes issues of thematization and reference.
Tries to fit the expression with a given theme and
reference.
Represented by the theme layer
Explicitly marks the system as the theme of the sentence
22 Surface Realization
23. Explicit concern for interpersonal and textual issues
as well as traditional semantics
Feature of systemic linguistics that is attractive for NLG.
Many choices that generation systems make depend
on context of communication
Formalized by the interpersonal and textual meta-
functions.
23 Surface Realization
25. Grammar represented using a directed, acyclic and/or
graph, called a system network
Curly braces
AND parallel systems
Vertical lines
OR disjoint systems
25 Surface Realization
26. Every clause (represented as the highest level
feature) will simultaneously have a different set of
features for mood, transitivity and theme.
“The system will save the document”
Indicative, declarative clause expressing an active
material process with an unmarked theme.
26 Surface Realization
27. Realization Statements
A systemic grammar uses realization statements to
map from the features specified in the grammar (like
Indicative, Declarative) to syntactic form.
Each feature in the network can have a set of
realization statements specifying constraints on the
final form of the expression.
Shows as italicized statements below each feature
Realization statements allow the grammar to
constrain the structure of the expression as the
system network is traversed.
27 Surface Realization
28. Some simple operators
+X
Insert the function X
The grammar here
specifies that all clauses
will have a predicator.
28 Surface Realization
29. Some simple operators
X=Y
Conflate the functions X
and Y. This allows the
grammar to build a
layered function
structure by assigning
different functions to the
same portion of the
expression.
Active clauses conflate
the actor with the subject
Passive clauses conflate
the goal with the subject
29 Surface Realization
30. Some simple operators
X>Y
Order function X
somewhere before
function Y.
Indicative sentences
place the subject
somewhere before the
predicator.
30 Surface Realization
31. Some simple operators
X:A
Classify the function X with the
lexical or grammatical feature
A.
Signal a recursive pass through
the grammar at a lower level.
Grammar would include other
networks similar to the clause
network that would apply to
phrases, lexical items and
morphology.
Indicative feature inserts a
subject function that must be a
noun phrase.
Phrase further specified by
another pass through the
grammar.
31 Surface Realization
32. Some simple operators
X!L
Assign function X the
lexical item L.
Finite element of the
passive is assigned the
lexical item “be”
32 Surface Realization
33. Procedure for generation
-Given a fully specified system network
1. Traverse the network from left to right, choosing
the appropriate features and collecting the
associated realization statements.
2. Build an intermediate expression that reconciles
the constraints set by the realization statements
collected during the traversal.
3. Recurse back through the grammar at a lower level
for any function that is not fully specified.
33 Surface Realization
34. “The system will save the document”
We can use the following specification as input.
(
:process save-1
:actor system-1
:goal document-1
:speechact assertion
:tense future
)
34 Surface Realization
35. save-1 knowledge base
instance is identified as
the process of the
intended expression.
Assume all knowledge base
objects to be KLONE-styled
instances
Actor and goal similarly
specified as system-1
and document-1
respectively.
Input also specifies that
the expression be in the
form of an assertion in
the future tense.
35 Surface Realization
36. Generation Process
Start at clause feature
Insert a predicator
+predicator
Classify predicator as a
verb
predicator:verb
Proceed to mood system
Correct option for a system
chosen by a simple query
or decision network
associated with that system
Decision based on the
relevant information from
input specification and from
Knowledge Base.
36 Surface Realization
37. Mood system chooses the
indicative and declarative
features
Input specifies assertion.
Realization statements
associated with the
indicative and declarative
features will insert subject
and finite functions
order them as subject, then
finite and then predicator.
+subject
subject > predicator
+finite
finite > predicator
subject > finite
37 Surface Realization
38. The resulting function structure is as follows:
38 Surface Realization
39. Assume save-1 is marked
as a material process in
the knowledge base.
Transitivity function
chooses the material
process feature
Insert goal and process
functions
Conflates the process with
the finite/predicator pair
+goal
+process
process= finite,predicator
39 Surface Realization
40. Since there is no indication
in either the input or
knowledge base to use a
passive, the system chooses
the active feature, which
Inserts the actor and
conflates it with the subject
+actor
actor=subject
Inserts the object, conflating
it with the goal and ordering
it after the predicator
+object
object=goal
predicator>object
40 Surface Realization
41. This results in the following functional structure.
41 Surface Realization
42. There is no thematic
specification in the input
Thematic network chooses
unmarked theme
Inserts theme and rheme
Conflate theme with subject
Conflate rheme with
finite/predicate/object group
+theme +rheme
theme=subject
rheme=predicator,object
42 Surface Realization
43. This results in the full function structure as:
43 Surface Realization
44. The generation process
recursively enters the
grammar a number of times
at lower levels to fully
specify the phrases, lexical
items, and morphology.
This is due to the presence
of the following statements
When the network found that
it is an indicative statement
finite : auxiliary
subject : noun phrase
When active voice was
identified
object : noun phrase
44 Surface Realization
45. Noun phrase network
Create the lexical items The system and the document
Auxiliary network systems
Create the lexical item will
The choice of lexical items system, document and
save can be handled in a number of ways, most
typically by retrieving the lexical item associated with
the relevant knowledge base instances.
The noun phrase and auxiliary network systems
work similar to the clause network we have seen till
now.
45 Surface Realization
47. Functional Unification Grammar uses unification to
manipulate and reason about feature structures.
With a few manipulations, the same technique can be
applied to NLG.
Basic Idea
Build the generation grammar as a feature structure with
lists of potential alternations
Then unify this grammar with an input specification built
using the same sort of feature structure.
47 Surface Realization
48. Unification process
takes the features specified in the input
reconciles them with those in the grammar
produces a full feature structure which can then be
linearized to form sentence output.
48 Surface Realization
49. “The system will save the document”
A simple functional
unification grammar.
Expressed as an
attribute-value matrix
Supports simple
transitive sentences in
present or future tense
Enforces subject-verb
agreement on number
49 Surface Realization
50. At highest level, the grammar
provides alternatives for
sentences, noun phrases and verb
phrases
CAT S
CAT NP
CAT VP
Alternation feature provided by the
ALT feature on the left.
Curly braces indicate that any of the
enclosed alternatives may be
chosen and followed
This level also specifies a pattern
indicating the order of the features
specified at this level
Actor
Process
Goal
50 Surface Realization
51. At sentence level, grammar
supports the following features.
Actor NP
Process VP
Goal NP
Subject-verb agreement
Enforced using the number
feature inside the process
feature.
Number of processes must unify
with the path {actor number}
Path list of features
specifying a path from the root
to a particular feature.
Here, number of process must
unify with the number of actor.
51 Surface Realization
52. While the path is given
explicitly, we can also
have relative paths
Like the number feature
of the head feature of the
NP.
The path here,
{↑↑number }, indicates
that the number of the
head of the NP must
unify with the number of
the feature 2 levels up.
52 Surface Realization
53. Use of {↑↑number}
VP level is similar to the NP
level except that it has its
own alternation between
future and present tense.
Tense is specified in the
input feature structure.
Unification will select the
alternation that matches and
then proceed to unify
associated values.
If tense is present
For example, the head will
be single verb.
If tense is future
Insert modal auxiliary “will”
before the head verb.
53 Surface Realization
54. This grammar is similar to the systemic grammar in
the point that it supports multiple levels, that are
entered recursively during the generation process.
The details of the particular sentence we want to
generate is given in an input feature structure.
54 Surface Realization
55. Functional Description (FD)
The input feature structure.
It defines the input specifications for the particular
sentence we want to generate.
It is a feature structure just like the grammar.
55 Surface Realization
56. Here, we see a sentence specification with
a particular action the system
a particular goal the document
Process saving of the document by the system in the
future
The input structure specifies the particular verbs and
nouns to be used as well as the tense
Different from input to systemic grammar
In systemic grammar, lexical items retrieved from
knowledge base entries associated with actor and goal.
Tense, not included in systemic grammar, is computed by
a decision network that determines relative points in time
relevant to the content of the expression.
56 Surface Realization
57. Since tense is also to be included in the input feature
structure (Functional Description), more decisions
have to be made by the discourse planning
component.
To produce the output, the input is unified with the
grammar.
May require multiple passes through the grammar.
57 Surface Realization
58. The preliminary unification unifies the input FD with
the S level in the grammar
First alternative at the top level
This results in the structure:
58 Surface Realization
59. The features specified in the input structure have
been unified and merged with the features at the top
level of the grammar.
Features associated with actor include the lexical item
system from the input FD and category NP from the
grammar.
Process feature combines the lexical item and tense from
the input FD with the category and number features from
the grammar.
59 Surface Realization
60. Generation mechanism
now recursively enters the
grammar for each of the
sub-constituents.
It enters the NP level
twice for actor and
goal
It enters the VP level once
for the process.
60 Surface Realization
62. Every constituent feature
that is internally complex
has a pattern
specification.
Every simple constituent
feature has a lexical
specification
The system now uses the
pattern specifications to
linearize the output,
producing
“The system will save the
document”
62 Surface Realization
63. The example didn’t specify the actor to be plural. We
can do that by adding the feature-value pair
number plural
to the actor structure in the input FD.
Subject-verb agreement would then be enforced by
the unification process.
Grammar requires that the number of heads of NP
and VP match with the number of the actor that
was specified in the input FD.
63 Surface Realization
65. The two surface generation grammars illustrate the
nature of computational grammars for generation.
Both used functional categorizations.
Bidirectional grammar
Single grammar for both generation and understanding
Currently under investigation
Haven’t found widespread use in NLG
Additional semantic and contextual information required as input
to the generator
65 Surface Realization
66. Sample NLG programs
KPML FUF/SURGE
A text generation A text generation system
system based off of the and English Grammar
using Functional
earlier Penman system. Unification.
Uses Systemic- FUF – Functional
Functional Linguistics Unification Formalism is
Principles. an implementation of
http://www.fb10.uni- Functional Unification
bremen.de/anglistik/langpro/kpml/REA Grammar developed by
DME.html
Elhadad (1992,1993)
http://www.cs.bgu.ac.il/research/projects/s
urge/index.htm
66 Surface Realization