The document discusses various concepts and theories related to strategic planning. It covers theories of planning such as rational comprehensive planning and pragmatic incrementalism. It also discusses different typologies of planning theories including Faludi's distinction between substantive and procedural theory. Additionally, it outlines four major planning theories: philosophical synthesis, rationalism, organizational development, and empiricism. Finally, it defines strategic planning as helping determine an organization's long-term direction, scope, and resources to match its changing environment and meet stakeholder expectations.

1. StrategicPlanning:Concepts,
TheoriesandPractices
WYN-LOVE NATINO CAAMPUED-MPA STUDENT
DR. JOSEFINA B. BITONIO
PROFESSOR

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WENEEDAPLAN,WORKONTHATPLANANDSTART IT NOW.
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Theories of Planning
Concepts of Strategic
Planning
Rationale of Strategic
Planning
Purposes and Functions of
Strategic Planning
StrategicPlanning:
Concepts,Theoriesand
Practices
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PLANNING
• is one of the fundamentals of
modern life. We all practice it to a
greater or lesser extent. In our
personal lives we plan holidays,
careers, the acquisition of assets.
• In essence such plans are
organizational 'route maps' to get
us from 'where we are at now' to
'where we want to get to' at some
defined point, or points, in the
future.
WHATISPLANNING?
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• Planning is not an end in
itself. It is a purposive
action.
• Ultimate aim of planning
is to promote human
growth or development ,
that is , planning is a
means and a process to
achieve development.
(Faludi, A: 1973)
WHYISPLANNING
NECESSARY?
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• The issues of development
are complex and
interconnected.
• There is need for a
systematic approach to
tackling them.
• The solution lies in Planning.
• It is central in shaping the
responses to challenges in
order achieve sensible and
attractive development.
WHYFOCUSON
PLANNING?
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• Planning practice is influenced by
theory and theory can be
structured in accordance with
planning practice.
• Early planning theories emerged
out of practice planning codified
as a professional activity.
• Efforts to develop a coherent
theory emerged in the 1950s and
60s that need to rationalize the
interests and activities of planning
under conditions of social foment.
Whatistheroleoftheoryin
understandingPlanning?
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Theories of
Planning
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• Up until the early 1980s, the dominant
typology of planning theory derived from
Andreas Faludi (1973) who based his
approach on the distinction between
substantive and procedural theory.
• Planning theory has been in a
hyperactive state since the early 1980s
with developments in a number of fields
including neo-liberal and public choice
perspectives.
• Planning is no different in this respect. It
is now a truism to claim that planning is
comprised of an eclectic collection of
theories
Theories of Planning
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• Theory of Planning helps
planners to understand
themselves and their
operating methods.
• Theory of planning is
synonymous with procedural
theory.
• ‘Theory of Planning’ which is
concerned with organization
of planning agencies and
planners.
Theories of Planning
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• The substantive theory (theory
of planning) seeks to explain the
essence of teleological or purpose
action and to give a better
understanding of planning itself.
• The procedural theory (theory in
planning), focusing more on the
practice of planning, describes the
various phases and techniques
used in designing the future,
clarifies the role of planners and
other actors involved, and
recommends various tools for the
solution of the problems/tasks.
Theories of Planning
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• The first and most widely used typology
of planning is the Procedural Theory
which explains the procedure of planning
per se, irrespective of what we plan for.
• Furthermore, Falludi strongly believed
that procedural theory is the area of
specialization of planners rather than
substantive, which has its own specialists
(economists, sociologists etc.).
• Procedural theories define and justify
preferred methods of decision-making
whereas substantive theories pertain to
interdisciplinary knowledge relevant to
the content of planning.
• Consequently, it is overwhelmingly
focused on the means of planning and
not the ends.
Theories of Planning
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• (Pseudo-)positivist Functional
Planning
• Rational Comprehensive Planning
• Pragmatist incrementalism
• Strategic planning (management)
in the public sector
• Communicative-collaborative
planning
• Post-modern modernity in
planning: Pragmatic eclectics
Basic cases in
Theories of Planning
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• Functional plan making and purposive
actions usually have a rational justification,
and can be judged in a more exact way
than the other planning processes. The
choice of means at a given time can be
justified with rational arguments and even
the incidental failure of the means chosen
can be explained after the intervention,
when the facts have come to be known.
• A functionalist planner with a positivist
attitude would not have the chance to
choose among competing planning
theories, modes or styles, because these
choices involve values because different
means produce different results,
consequently they affect the various
interest groups in different ways.
(Pseudo-)positivist
functionalplanning
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• In the 1960s rational comprehensive
planning was the most frequently applied
method, which greatly contributed to the
general acceptance of planning and is
still highly recommended in our days.
• The adjective comprehensive refers to
the complex handling of the system and
a multi-disciplinary approach. It actually
means a multilateral approach, because
manageability sets a limitation to the
depth of problem solving.
• Representatives of rational-
comprehensive planning often tend to
ignore the duality of facts and decisions
and have a penchant for presenting the
ends/goals as if they were the findings of
comprehensive analysis.
RationaleComprehensive
Planning
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• Pragmatism and incrementalism have a lot in
common. Both tend to avoid radical changes,
follow liberal-democratic ideas, and besides
the traditional technical instrumental
rationality they take into account power
related issues as well.
• Every kind of planning is pragmatist to some
extent, but in this special case it is
particularly justified to emphasize it in the
name as well, because this theory of
planning focuses decidedly on solving
practical problems.
• Incrementalism also implies that a program
promising measurable benefits should be
carried out only if it does not involve damage
to the environment; the method actually
prefers solutions which contribute to the
improvement of the environment besides
pursuing a particular interest.
Pragmatist
Incrementalism
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• The evolution of strategic thinking after World War II
has gradually led from long-term planning through
strategic planning to strategic management. With
respect to the concept of planning the most important
step was the shift from strategic planning to
management, the latter regarding planning as an
integral part of a complex process including
implementation and feedback as well.
• Strategic planning practiced at community level has a
component which has preserved its special character
to this very day: the SWOT analysis, developed from
the Harvard model.
• Strategic management is a complex process which
includes the definition of the missions or goals, the
formulation of the potential strategic alternatives we
might use to attain them.
• The key issue in defining strategic action in the public
sector is the establishment or maintenance of a
multilateral equilibrium on the basis of mutually
accepted assumption and norms.
Strategicplanning(management)
inthepublicsector
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• In the late 20th century many authors reacted to the
new challenges that planners had to face by
strengthening democratization and giving more
importance to linguistic communication and
understanding.
• The action aimed at mutual understanding can take
the form of argumentation, a discourse between the
partners conducted in the course of common planning
and debate of the plan in the context of topic
discussed.
• All the stakeholders should be given a chance to
participate in the planning process of their own free
will. In practice this means that the adequate
conditions should be guaranteed, or the obstacles to
the participation should be removed.
• These efforts can be successful only if the whole
communicative community uses a similar stock of
knowledge and meaning, follows similar basic norms
which are respected by all members but sincere and
intelligible participation should also be required.
Communicative-collaborative
planning
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• In the new power space the fight will be carried on for
access to information, new knowledge, the opportunity
to express and enforce one’s standpoint, and the right
to engage in planning, instead of land or raw
materials.
• A planner who uses post-modern arguments as well
does not believe in absolute, resolvable truth, he
knows only norms that are accepted in a specific place
at a given time.
• In the course of the discourses planners should
explore the prevailing values and – through mutual
understanding – seek solutions which produce no
losers but promise the best possible output in the
given operative situation, and help to secure the
highest number of winning positions.
• The idea that post-modern modern community
planning has taken over from modernity is that its
mission is to serve public interest redefined as being
constructed from autonomous elements that are not in
conflict but in a synergic relation; it is not technical
rationality any longer, but uniquely the privileged
means of enhancing economic growth.
Post-modernmodernityin
planning:PragmaticEclectics
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• In 1980, Nigel Taylor recognized two classes
of theories related to planning: sociological
and philosophical.
• In fact he coined these two terms, he tried to
distinguish between descriptive theoretical
statements and statements with prescriptive
nature.
• Planning theories have commonly embodied a
mixture of sociological assumptions about
human and social behavior and philosophical
assumptions about the nature, purposes and
premises of planning.
• Both the sociological and philosophical
assumptions of planning warrant thorough
examination.
TypologiesofPlanning
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Six types of planning theory
1) analytical-explanative
2) formal-explanative
3) procedural-explanative
4) analytical prescriptive
5) formal-prescriptive
6) procedural-prescriptive
TypologiesofPlanning
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Yiftachel‘sTypologyofplanningTheory
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Five types of planning
theories
• Social scientific
philosophy
• Social theory
• exogenous theory
• framing theory and
• indigenous theory
TypologiesofPlanning
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• This indicates broad approaches, such as
positivism, Marxism, idealism, or
phenomenology, seen by Allmendinger as
underlying different social theories.
• Consequently, a philosophical
understanding and perspective on social
science can reveal the foundations of
social theory.
• Some aspects of social theory appear very
similar and proponents of each may
appear to be arguing past each other or
about aspects that have little relevance.
One example of this is the understanding
of the relationship between structure and
agency within collaborative planning
theory.
SocialScientificPhilosophical
Understandings
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Two broad categories of social
theory exist:
• the ‘top-down’ approaches which
examine the structuring forces
upon individuals.
• the ‘bottom-up’ interpretative
understandings that emphasize
the reflective nature of
individuals and their ability to
choose.
SocialTheory
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• Exogenous theories include, for example,
theories of democracy, cognitive
psychology, regime and regulation theory,
implementation theory, central–local
relations, nationalism and a host of other
‘meso-level’ theoretical constructs.
• Exogenous theories do not provide a holistic
or general theoretical understanding of
society but focus instead on a particular
element of society.
• These are “meso-level” theories, that is, not
general theories of society, but focused on a
particular aspect of it; they are not
specifically concerned with planning, but are
relevant to it.
ExogenousTheory
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• Framing theories. These are comparable
to a paradigm or an epistemology and
cover planning “doctrine”. Allmendinger
considers the modern and postmodern
perspectives as the most abstract forms
of framing.
• Framing theory thus has a central role in
mediating or filtering exogenous theory,
social theory and social scientific
philosophical understandings.
• Framing theory refers to the process by
which people develop a particular
conceptualization of an issue or reorient
their thinking about an issue.
FramingTheories
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• These are planning-specific, derive from
the above forms of theory and are
politically and generally socially situated.
• Indigenous planning (or Indigenous
community planning) is an ideological
approach to the field of regional
planning where planning is done
by Indigenous people for Indigenous
communities.
• Indigenous planning theory cannot be
simply ‘read off’ from a combination of
other kinds of theoretical understanding in
a post-empirical perspective.
IndigenousPlanningTheory
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Four Major Planning
Theories
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• Philosophical Synthesis
• Rationalism
• Organizational
Development
• Empiricism

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• Philosophical synthesis
emphasizes a broad
approach to planning which
considers information on
social, economic and
ethical conditions as well
as the environmental
background of the
institution or organization
for which planning will be
undertaken.
Philosophical
Synthesis
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• Strategy is about making
choices (Porter, 1985).
Because the systematic
collection of relevant
information concerning the
organization’s environment is
at best an inexact science,
strategic managers are
inevitably left with varying
amounts of uncertainty
associated with each strategic
alternative they possess.
Philosophical
Synthesis
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• Rationalism looks at people
as a utility and defines
human relations in
instrumental terms.
• Rational planning models
assume a sequential,
observable cycle that
includes setting of goals,
determining objectives,
making plans, implementing
the plans, and reviewing
results.
Rationalism
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FOUR MAIN AREAS
• Strategic Analysis – can use PESTELI or
Porters 5 forces to analyze the external
environment whole SWOT analysis can
be used for corporate appraisal.
• Strategic Choice – models like NPV, IRR
and payback evaluation can be used to
choose when strategic option to take.
• Strategic Implementation – need to
consider policies and strategies to
implement for ALL areas of the
business.
• Strategy Evaluation and Control –
measuring the performance against the
objectives.
Rationalism
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Rationalism
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• The organizational
development approach
includes a human
relations approach to
innovation and change
in management style,
employee satisfaction,
decision-making
processes, and the
general health of the
organization.
Organizational
Development
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• Organizational
development (OD)
is an effort that focuses
on improving an
organization’s capability
through the alignment of
strategy, structure,
people, rewards, metrics,
and management
processes.
Organizational
Development
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• Empiricism acknowledges
the importance of studies
on system behavior by
public administrators,
economists and other
social scientists concerned
with planning theory.
• Empiricism is less
normative, less concerned
with planned social change,
and uses a positivistic
framework for analysis.
Empiricism
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• The empiricist approach believes
in certainty, in undeniable facts. It
believes that data collection and
information are vitally important to
make any decision.
• Empiricists work by reducing a
problem to a manageable size.
They then use the data that is
available (or collect some more
where needed) to define the
problem. That information should
then point out exactly what the
right solution is.
Empiricism
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Concepts of
Strategic Planning
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STRATEGICPLANNING
“Strategic planning helps
determine the direction and scope
of an organization over the long
term, matching its resources to its
changing environment and, in
particular, its markets, customers
and clients, so as to meet
stakeholder expectations.”
Johnson and Scholes, 1993
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• Strategic planning is a
systematic process of
envisioning a desired future,
and translating this vision
into broadly defined goals
or objectives and a
sequence of steps to
achieve them.
• Strategic planning looks at
the wider picture and is
flexible in choice of its
means.
STRATEGIC
PLANNING
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• Choices have to be made
based on a rationale and on
information, and a procedure
or planning method has to be
followed. Beyond making
decisions, 'strategic planning'
can and should be used to
interact with internal and
external stakeholders,
building understanding and
commitment.
DOWENEEDTOHAVE
STRATEGICPLAN?
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1.Create One, Forward-
Focused Vision
2.Draw Attention to
Biases and Flaws in
Reasoning
3.Track Progress Based
on Strategic Goals
BENEFITSOF
STRATEGICPLANNING
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• Strategy touches every
employee and serves as an
actionable way to reach your
company’s goals.
• By making everyone aware of
your company’s goals, how
and why those goals were
chosen, and what they can do
to help reach them, you can
create an increased sense of
responsibility throughout your
organization.
Create One, Forward-
Focused Vision
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• The decisions you make come
with inherent bias. Taking part in
the strategic planning process
forces you to examine and
explain why you’re making each
decision and back it up with data,
projections, or case studies, thus
combatting your cognitive biases.
• Combating biases in
strategic decision-
making requires effort and
dedication from your entire team,
and it can make your
organization’s strategy that much
stronger.
Draw Attention to
Biases and Flaws in
Reasoning
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• Having a strategic plan in place can
enable you to track progress toward
goals. When each department and
team understands your company’s
larger strategy, their progress can
directly impact its success, creating a
top-down approach to tracking Key
performance Indicators KPIs.
• It’s important to remember that even
though your strategy might be far-
reaching and structured, it must remain
agile. Be prepared to pivot your KPIs
as goals shift and communicate the
reasons for change to your
organization.
Track Progress Based
onStrategicGoals
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• The concept of planning
emerged out of the development
efforts and experiences of Third
World countries when they adopted
planning as the major instrument in
the pursuit of their economic and
social development.
• In the crafting of development
plans, socio-economic and
political development programs
are treated separately but are
integrated within the context of
national policies, aspirations and
goals.
Conceptsof
StrategicPlanning
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• Strategic planning is viewed as
zeroing in on decision-making,
information, and the future. Its
substance is concentrated on the
consideration of current decision
options based on available data and
taken in the light of their possible
effects and consequences over time.
• From the point of view of education
and social development, strategic
planning is considered as a set of
purposeful actions that influence an
organization in order to effect change.
It is also regarded as a methodology
aimed at future change of a present
situation.
Conceptsof
StrategicPlanning
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CONCEPTS OF STRATEGIC
PLANNING:
• an external orientation
• a holistic systematic approach
• a process for formulating plans,
objectives, strategies and
programs
• use of systematic methods in
the analysis of strategic
situation and alternatives
• a commitment to action and
• a knowledge of results
Conceptsof
StrategicPlanning
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Process of
Strategic Planning
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1.Determination of Mission
and Objectives
2. Environmental Analysis
3. Self-appraisal/ Self
Assessment
4. Strategic Decision-
making
5. Strategy Implementation
and Control
Processof
StrategicPlanning
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• Strategic planning starts with
the determination of the
mission for the organization.
• This answers the question-
Where do we want to get
to?
• Strategic planning is
concerned with an
organization’s long-term
relationship to its external
environment.
Determinationof
MissionandObjectives
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• In order to identify the opportunities
and threats, the external
environment of the organization is
analyzed. A list of important factors
likely to affect the organization’s
activities is prepared.
• In this stage, we establish our
present position what we
sometimes refer to as our “current
reality”.
• This answers the question- Where
are we now?
Environmental
Analysis
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• In the next step, the strengths
and weaknesses of the
organization are analyzed. Such
an analysis will enable the
enterprise to capitalize on its
strengths and to minimize its
weaknesses.
• Self appraisal is when a
organization looks into their
organization and sees what
works and what doesn’t. Self-appraisal
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• SWOT analysis is a widely used tool to formally
analyze the Strengths, Weaknesses,
Opportunities, Threats. Selected staff
stakeholders share ideas to complete the
analysis.
• PESTELI trends analysis. The external
environment can be further assessed by
breaking it down into what is happening
at Political, Economic, Social, Technological, E
nvironmental, Legal and Industry level, which
may be of relevance to the organization.
• Benchmarking is a procedure whereby an
organization compares its own performance in
specific areas with the performance of peer
institutions. In England the Atlas of Variation is
a helpful tool.
Self-appraisal
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SWOT ANALYSIS OF DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
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• Strategic alternatives are then
generated and evaluated. After
that, a strategic choice is made
to reduce the performance gap.
The organization must select the
alternative that is best suited to
its capabilities.
• This is especially important; it is
our carefully thought-through
'Route Map' to get us from where
we are now to our vision for the
Future. It will comprise a series
of detailed actions and steps that
we will take to help us to get to
“where we want to go”.
Strategic
Decision-Making
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• Once the strategy is determined, it must be
translated into tactical operational plans.
Programs and budgets are developed for
each function.
• Short term operational plans are prepared
to use the resources. Control should be
developed to evaluate performance as the
strategy is put into use.
• This answers the question- How will we
know when we have got there?
• To ensure that we do this effectively we
need to determine at the outset a number
of relevant Key Performance Indicators
(KPIs), these will be critically important
areas that we will monitor, measure and
assess as we roll-out our Plan.
Strategy
Implementationand
Control
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• It is especially in times of high
levels of change that strategic
planning places an organization in
a more agile state, a stated of
'preparedness', more attuned to
market and other external
conditions and therefore the better
prepared to flex or even
substantially change their strategic
thrusts and operational plans at
local as well as at higher levels
when fundamental, sometimes
structural economic, political and
social change occurs.
Conclusion
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“Remember your audience and your stakeholders when
performing your strategic planning. The result should be
a document that everyone involved in the planning
process understands and supports. If nothing else, it
should be user friendly and provide clear picture of the
organization and where it is heading”

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WYN-LOVE NATINO CAAMPUED-MPA STUDENT
DR. JOSEFINA B.BITONIO- PROFESSOR

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• [i] http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/
• [ii] http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/Healthcare/Secondarycare/
• [iii] http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publicationsandstatistics/Publications/
• [iv] Ashridge Mission Model, in Andrew Campbell and Sally Yeung, Creating a
Sense of Mission, Long Range Planning, Vol.24, No.4, pp10-20, 1991
• [v] Richard Koch, The Financial Times Guide to Strategy, FT Prentice Hall, 3rd edition 2006
• [vi] http://www.nice.org.uk/aboutnice/whoweare
• [vii]http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publicationsandstatistics/Publications/
• [viii] WHO European Centre for Health Policy and WHO Regional Office for Europes; see as well http://www.liv.ac.uk/ihia/,
• and http://www.who.int/hia/en/
• [ix] Public Health Resource Unit (PHRU), at http://www.phru.org.uk/~casp/
• [x] OECD – 2002b (Focus newsletter #13)
• [xi] European Commission, Project Cycle Management Guidelines, at http://ec.europa.eu/
• https://www.aesop-planning.eu/uploads/faludi-introducing-a-theory-of-planning.pdf
• Alexander, E.R. (1997) ‘A Mile or a Millimeter? Measuring the “Planning Theory– Practice Gap” ’ , Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 24: 3–6
• Alexander, E.R. and Faludi, A. (1996) ‘Planning Doctrine: Its Uses and Implications’, Planning Theory 16: 11–61.
• Allmendinger, P. (2001) Planning in Postmodern Times. London: Routledge.
• Faludi, A. (1973) Planning Theory. Oxford: Pergamon
• Yiftachel, O. (1989) ‘Towards a New Typology of Urban Planning Theories’, Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 16: 23–39
References:
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