This document discusses strain gauges and how they are used to measure strain. It begins with definitions of strain and strain gauges. It then describes how strain gauges work by converting mechanical deformation into a change in electrical resistance. The document outlines various grid patterns for strain gauges and discusses their installation and use in Wheatstone bridge circuits. It also describes how instrumentation amplifiers are used to amplify the small output signals from strain gauges and how microcontrollers can integrate the measurement system and perform calculations. Applications and examples of taking strain measurements are provided at the end.
Strain gauges are devices used to measure deformation or strain in an object. They work by converting mechanical motion due to strain into an electrical signal. Strain gauges contain a fine wire or foil arranged in a grid pattern that is bonded to a test specimen. Any deformation of the specimen causes a change in the electrical resistance of the strain gauge grid. This resistance change is measured using a Wheatstone bridge circuit to determine the amount of strain.
The document provides details about three experiments conducted using instrumentation and control systems lab equipment:
1. The first experiment investigates strain gauges and how metal foil gauges can be used to measure strain. A linear relationship was observed between position and output voltage.
2. The second experiment uses a Wheatstone bridge circuit to determine the value of an unknown resistor. The measured value matched closely with the theoretical value.
3. The third experiment studies a linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) and how it can convert mechanical displacement into an electrical output signal. Graphs of AC and DC output versus core position showed the expected linear relationship.
This document discusses signal conditioning, which involves processing sensor output signals to prepare them for the next stage of a measurement system. Common issues with raw sensor outputs are low amplitude, noise, and incorrect voltage/current form. Signal conditioning circuits are used to amplify, filter, convert, and isolate signals to meet requirements. Processes like amplification, filtering, attenuation, linearization, and bridge completion are described. Signal conditioning is necessary to convert sensor outputs into a form that can be accurately measured, processed, transmitted, and stored in digital systems.
Sphere gaps can be used to measure high voltages up to 2500 kV. They work by measuring the sparkover voltage between two conductive spheres. The standard diameters for the spheres are between 6.25 cm to 200 cm. Various factors like humidity, temperature, and pressure can influence the sparkover voltage. Sphere gaps are accurate to within 3% for measurements if the spacing between the spheres is less than half the sphere diameter.
This document discusses the design of CRT displays, including deflection and high voltage systems. It covers scanning methods, deflection principles using magnetic coils, and types of displays like stroke and raster. Vertical and horizontal deflection circuits are described, along with high voltage flyback systems. Details are provided on vertical deflection principles, power amplifiers, retrace boosters, centering, and ramp generators.
This document provides instructions for experiments to be conducted in an electrical and electronic measurements laboratory. It includes 12 experiments such as using various meters and bridges to measure resistance, insulation resistance, power, power factor, and calibrating instruments. Specific experiments include using a voltmeter and ammeter to measure medium resistances, using a Megger to measure insulation resistance, using two wattmeters to measure power in a three-phase system, and using Kelvin's double bridge to measure low resistances. Procedures and connections for each experiment are described.
This document describes the design of a programmable gain linear pulse amplifier based on energy spectrum analysis. It uses a quasi-Gaussian CR-RC-CR shaping circuit structure with non-volatile digital potentiometers and precision operational amplifiers. This allows for multistage gain changes, low temperature drift, good pulse linearity, and stronger anti-jamming ability. The amplifier is used to amplify and filter nuclear detector output signals for analysis in multichannel spectrometers.
Direct Torque Control of A 5-Phase Induction Motorijsrd.com
In this paper an effective direct torque control (DTC) for a 5-phase induction motor with sinusoidal distributed windings is developed. First by coordinate transformation, the converter/motor models are represented by two independent equivalent d-q circuit models; and the 5- phase VSI input are decoupled into the torque producing and non-torque producing harmonics sets. Then with the torque production component of the induction motor model, the space vector modulation (SVM) can be applied to the fivephase induction motor DTC control, resulting in considerable torque ripple reduction over the lookup table method. Based on the decoupled system model, the current distortion issue due to lack of back EMF for certain harmonics is analysed. Two equally effective SVM schemes with the harmonic cancellation effect are introduced to solve this problem. To analyse the DTC control torque ripple, an insightful perspective (also applicable to 3-phase analysis) is introduced to predict the torque ripple pattern evolution with changing motor speed and stator flux angular position. Therefore the switching sequence for lowest torque ripple can be determined and rearranged online.
Strain gauges are devices used to measure deformation or strain in an object. They work by converting mechanical motion due to strain into an electrical signal. Strain gauges contain a fine wire or foil arranged in a grid pattern that is bonded to a test specimen. Any deformation of the specimen causes a change in the electrical resistance of the strain gauge grid. This resistance change is measured using a Wheatstone bridge circuit to determine the amount of strain.
The document provides details about three experiments conducted using instrumentation and control systems lab equipment:
1. The first experiment investigates strain gauges and how metal foil gauges can be used to measure strain. A linear relationship was observed between position and output voltage.
2. The second experiment uses a Wheatstone bridge circuit to determine the value of an unknown resistor. The measured value matched closely with the theoretical value.
3. The third experiment studies a linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) and how it can convert mechanical displacement into an electrical output signal. Graphs of AC and DC output versus core position showed the expected linear relationship.
This document discusses signal conditioning, which involves processing sensor output signals to prepare them for the next stage of a measurement system. Common issues with raw sensor outputs are low amplitude, noise, and incorrect voltage/current form. Signal conditioning circuits are used to amplify, filter, convert, and isolate signals to meet requirements. Processes like amplification, filtering, attenuation, linearization, and bridge completion are described. Signal conditioning is necessary to convert sensor outputs into a form that can be accurately measured, processed, transmitted, and stored in digital systems.
Sphere gaps can be used to measure high voltages up to 2500 kV. They work by measuring the sparkover voltage between two conductive spheres. The standard diameters for the spheres are between 6.25 cm to 200 cm. Various factors like humidity, temperature, and pressure can influence the sparkover voltage. Sphere gaps are accurate to within 3% for measurements if the spacing between the spheres is less than half the sphere diameter.
This document discusses the design of CRT displays, including deflection and high voltage systems. It covers scanning methods, deflection principles using magnetic coils, and types of displays like stroke and raster. Vertical and horizontal deflection circuits are described, along with high voltage flyback systems. Details are provided on vertical deflection principles, power amplifiers, retrace boosters, centering, and ramp generators.
This document provides instructions for experiments to be conducted in an electrical and electronic measurements laboratory. It includes 12 experiments such as using various meters and bridges to measure resistance, insulation resistance, power, power factor, and calibrating instruments. Specific experiments include using a voltmeter and ammeter to measure medium resistances, using a Megger to measure insulation resistance, using two wattmeters to measure power in a three-phase system, and using Kelvin's double bridge to measure low resistances. Procedures and connections for each experiment are described.
This document describes the design of a programmable gain linear pulse amplifier based on energy spectrum analysis. It uses a quasi-Gaussian CR-RC-CR shaping circuit structure with non-volatile digital potentiometers and precision operational amplifiers. This allows for multistage gain changes, low temperature drift, good pulse linearity, and stronger anti-jamming ability. The amplifier is used to amplify and filter nuclear detector output signals for analysis in multichannel spectrometers.
Direct Torque Control of A 5-Phase Induction Motorijsrd.com
In this paper an effective direct torque control (DTC) for a 5-phase induction motor with sinusoidal distributed windings is developed. First by coordinate transformation, the converter/motor models are represented by two independent equivalent d-q circuit models; and the 5- phase VSI input are decoupled into the torque producing and non-torque producing harmonics sets. Then with the torque production component of the induction motor model, the space vector modulation (SVM) can be applied to the fivephase induction motor DTC control, resulting in considerable torque ripple reduction over the lookup table method. Based on the decoupled system model, the current distortion issue due to lack of back EMF for certain harmonics is analysed. Two equally effective SVM schemes with the harmonic cancellation effect are introduced to solve this problem. To analyse the DTC control torque ripple, an insightful perspective (also applicable to 3-phase analysis) is introduced to predict the torque ripple pattern evolution with changing motor speed and stator flux angular position. Therefore the switching sequence for lowest torque ripple can be determined and rearranged online.
The document discusses various types of meters used to measure voltage and current in DC and AC circuits. It describes DC ammeters, which use shunt resistors to measure higher currents beyond the range of the meter movement. Multi-range ammeters use multiple shunts and a range switch to extend the measurement range. DC voltmeters use a series resistor called a multiplier to limit the current through the meter movement. Multi-range voltmeters similarly use multiple multipliers and a range switch. AC meters rectify the input voltage before measuring to obtain the average value using a DC meter. Instrument transformers like current transformers and potential transformers are used to safely measure high currents and voltages in power systems.
A simulator to reproduce fast rise-up noises which are generated when switching ON / OFF electric current on the inductive load.
It can be used for performance evaluation of electronic equipment upon reproduction of line noises which are intruded to the power supply lines or induced noises onto the telecommunication lines.
The document describes the Impulse Noise Simulator INS-S220. Key points:
- It can simulate high frequency noise such as that generated by switches or electric motors. This allows evaluation of electronic devices' noise resistance.
- The pulse width and repetition cycle can be adjusted, allowing tests with different pulse characteristics. Narrow pulses contain less energy but their fast transients still impact circuits.
- Using semiconductor relays instead of mercury improves pulse stability and allows more quantitative testing compared to older models.
- Settings are simplified through button operation rather than complex cable connections. This reduces setup time and errors.
- Various optional accessories allow different types of noise injection tests on electronic equipment under test.
This document discusses voltage, current, resistance and power measurements using analog instruments. It describes the operating principles of moving coil meters for measuring DC current and voltage. A moving coil meter consists of a coil suspended in a magnetic field that deflects proportional to the current or voltage. Higher current and voltage ranges are achieved using shunt and multiplier resistors. The document also covers resistance measurement using an ohmmeter, and compares analog and digital instruments.
Study of Low Voltage Cascode Current Mirror with Enhance Dynamic Rangeijsrd.com
The current mirror is one of most common building blocks both in analog and mixed mode VLSI circuits and the performance of analog structures largely depends on their characteristics. The current mirror can be used as an active element and as a biasing circuit. In this paper we study about the current mirror, cascode current mirror and different low voltage current mirror topology and study the literature survey. After that we study, analysis and design of convention Level shifted low voltage current mirror and TSPICE simulation technology. Presented analysis low voltage current mirror input –output characteristic, high output swing capability and wide input -output swing capabilities, suitable for low voltage operation and minimum power dissipation.
This document provides information about integrated circuit voltage regulators, including:
1) It defines an IC voltage regulator as an integrated circuit that regulates an unregulated input voltage to provide a constant, regulated output voltage.
2) It classifies IC voltage regulators as either linear or switching regulators, and also as fixed voltage, adjustable voltage, positive voltage, or negative voltage regulators.
3) It provides examples of common IC voltage regulators like the 7805 and LM317, and explains how they regulate voltage.
1) The document is a lab manual for an Electrical Engineering measurement lab course. It details 10 experiments involving measuring devices like oscilloscopes, multimeters, and bridges.
2) The first experiment involves studying oscilloscopes, their working principles, and different types of probes. Block diagrams and features of oscilloscopes are described.
3) Power factor is defined as the ratio between real power and apparent power. A power factor meter and phase shifter circuit are explained along with calculations for power factor correction by adding a capacitor.
A novel four wire inverter system using SVPWM technique for ups applicationsIRJET Journal
This document describes a novel four-wire inverter system using space vector pulse width modulation (SVM) technique for uninterruptible power supply (UPS) applications. It introduces the concept of SVM for four-wire voltage source inverters. A four-wire inverter provides a neutral connection for three-phase four-wire systems to handle neutral current from unbalanced or non-linear loads. The SVM technique approximates the reference voltage vector during each sampling interval using the three nearest inverter switching state vectors. Simulation results using MATLAB/Simulink analyze the performance of the four-wire SVM inverter under different loading conditions in terms of total harmonic distortion.
Design and Implementation of Schmitt Trigger using Operational AmplifierIJERA Editor
This document describes the design and implementation of a Schmitt trigger circuit using an operational amplifier. A Schmitt trigger is a comparator that detects when a voltage crosses a reference level and has two stable output states. It is useful for conditioning signals. The circuit was designed using an op-amp IC μA-741 to generate a rectangular output waveform from a sinusoidal input. Simulation and experimental results matched and showed the output transitioning at upper and lower threshold points with hysteresis. The Schmitt trigger provides noise immunity and converts analog signals to digital waveforms needed for digital circuits.
Webinar Slides: Measurements and Analysis for Switched-mode Power Designsteledynelecroy
This webinar covers the measurements of interest for designers of switched-mode power conversion circuits and devices. With the goal of high efficient and reliable designs, we review the acquisition of voltage and current, their relationship in switched-mode power conversion circuits.
We review specific power circuit performance areas including the analysis of power device switching losses, conduction losses, dynamic on-resistance, control loop response, power quality, conducted emissions, best practices for probing power circuits, and power rail integrity measurements.
This document presents a new voltage sag compensation scheme that uses a pulse width modulation (PWM) switched autotransformer. The proposed scheme aims to maintain the rated voltage at critical load terminals during voltage sag events. It consists of an IGBT switch and autotransformer connected in series with the load. During normal operation, the thyristors bypass the compensator and supply power directly to the load. During a sag, the IGBT is controlled by PWM pulses to inject the missing voltage and regulate the load voltage. Simulation results in MATLAB/Simulink show the performance of the three-phase compensator under different sag and swell conditions. The proposed approach has fewer switching devices and good compensating capability compared to other common compensators.
Strain gauge load cells work by measuring the strain on an object using electrical resistance strain gauges. When force is applied, the strain gauges experience a change in resistance which is measured by a Wheatstone bridge circuit to produce an electrical output signal proportional to the applied load. The most common type of load cell uses a full Wheatstone bridge configuration with four strain gauges to maximize sensitivity. Proper design considers uniform strain distribution and protection of the gauges. Sources of error include loading errors and environmental effects, which can be compensated for in the design and signal conditioning.
good for studentgood for studentgood for studentgood for studentgood for studentgood for studentgood for studentgood for studentgood for studentgood for studentgood for studentgood for studentgood for studentgood for studentgood for studentgood for student
1. The Kelvin bridge is a modified Wheatstone bridge used to accurately measure low resistances. It accounts for contact resistance by using four-terminal connections.
2. In a Kelvin bridge, the unknown resistance is connected between two potential terminals to directly measure its value, independent of contact resistance at the current terminals.
3. The bridge balances when the galvanometer is connected to a point between the potential terminals that divides the lead resistance into two equal parts, nullifying its effect on the measurement.
The document discusses different types of DC to AC converters known as inverters. It describes the operation of voltage source inverters that can generate square wave output voltage by varying the DC link voltage or use pulse width modulation (PWM) to vary both amplitude and frequency while controlling harmonics. PWM techniques like natural sampling and regular sampling are explained. The document also covers half-bridge inverters, three-phase inverters, and issues like shoot through faults and dead time that are addressed in practical inverters.
The document discusses different types of DC to AC converters known as inverters. It describes the operation of voltage source inverters that can generate square wave or sinusoidal outputs using pulse width modulation techniques. PWM allows control over the output voltage amplitude while pushing harmonics to higher frequencies for easier filtering. The document also introduces half-bridge inverters, three-phase inverters, and discusses performance parameters and harmonic analysis of inverter outputs.
This document discusses various types of sensors including potentiometers, linear variable differential transformers (LVDTs), and strain gauges. It provides details on their construction, operation, and applications. It focuses on strain gauges, explaining their resistive principle, common usages, application process, Wheatstone bridge configurations, temperature compensation, and different configurations for measuring traction and bending forces.
SSC JE Measurements - wifistudy (1).pdfVibhugoyal6
This document provides a crash course on the SSC-JE exam, including two sample questions:
1. A multiple choice question with four answer options about sources of energy.
2. A matching question with four items to be matched to letters about load curves, tidal power generation, non-conventional power generation methods, and solar cells.
It then discusses error analysis in measurement and types of errors like random error, systematic error, gross error, environmental error, instrumental error, observational error, and limiting error. Composite errors in addition, multiplication, and powers are also covered.
1. The document describes a simulation of floating resistors of different values that are used as feedback in an OTA band pass filter structure.
2. The simulated floating resistances show good agreement between theoretical and simulated circuit values.
3. A band pass response is observed in the tunable frequency range from the bias current, with a designed quality factor.
1) A new coreless transformer design is presented that can measure voltage at medium voltage levels for power quality applications. It has high linearity, galvanic isolation, and a wide frequency range.
2) The transformer output voltage is proportional to the derivative of the input voltage. An integrator must be used to obtain an output voltage proportional to the input voltage.
3) Simulations and laboratory tests showed the transformer accurately measures voltage signals up to 15kV with deviations below 1% and is immune to noise due to its derivative behavior and use of an integrator.
Flow Through Pipe: the analysis of fluid flow within pipesIndrajeet sahu
Flow Through Pipe: This topic covers the analysis of fluid flow within pipes, focusing on laminar and turbulent flow regimes, continuity equation, Bernoulli's equation, Darcy-Weisbach equation, head loss due to friction, and minor losses from fittings and bends. Understanding these principles is crucial for efficient pipe system design and analysis.
The document discusses various types of meters used to measure voltage and current in DC and AC circuits. It describes DC ammeters, which use shunt resistors to measure higher currents beyond the range of the meter movement. Multi-range ammeters use multiple shunts and a range switch to extend the measurement range. DC voltmeters use a series resistor called a multiplier to limit the current through the meter movement. Multi-range voltmeters similarly use multiple multipliers and a range switch. AC meters rectify the input voltage before measuring to obtain the average value using a DC meter. Instrument transformers like current transformers and potential transformers are used to safely measure high currents and voltages in power systems.
A simulator to reproduce fast rise-up noises which are generated when switching ON / OFF electric current on the inductive load.
It can be used for performance evaluation of electronic equipment upon reproduction of line noises which are intruded to the power supply lines or induced noises onto the telecommunication lines.
The document describes the Impulse Noise Simulator INS-S220. Key points:
- It can simulate high frequency noise such as that generated by switches or electric motors. This allows evaluation of electronic devices' noise resistance.
- The pulse width and repetition cycle can be adjusted, allowing tests with different pulse characteristics. Narrow pulses contain less energy but their fast transients still impact circuits.
- Using semiconductor relays instead of mercury improves pulse stability and allows more quantitative testing compared to older models.
- Settings are simplified through button operation rather than complex cable connections. This reduces setup time and errors.
- Various optional accessories allow different types of noise injection tests on electronic equipment under test.
This document discusses voltage, current, resistance and power measurements using analog instruments. It describes the operating principles of moving coil meters for measuring DC current and voltage. A moving coil meter consists of a coil suspended in a magnetic field that deflects proportional to the current or voltage. Higher current and voltage ranges are achieved using shunt and multiplier resistors. The document also covers resistance measurement using an ohmmeter, and compares analog and digital instruments.
Study of Low Voltage Cascode Current Mirror with Enhance Dynamic Rangeijsrd.com
The current mirror is one of most common building blocks both in analog and mixed mode VLSI circuits and the performance of analog structures largely depends on their characteristics. The current mirror can be used as an active element and as a biasing circuit. In this paper we study about the current mirror, cascode current mirror and different low voltage current mirror topology and study the literature survey. After that we study, analysis and design of convention Level shifted low voltage current mirror and TSPICE simulation technology. Presented analysis low voltage current mirror input –output characteristic, high output swing capability and wide input -output swing capabilities, suitable for low voltage operation and minimum power dissipation.
This document provides information about integrated circuit voltage regulators, including:
1) It defines an IC voltage regulator as an integrated circuit that regulates an unregulated input voltage to provide a constant, regulated output voltage.
2) It classifies IC voltage regulators as either linear or switching regulators, and also as fixed voltage, adjustable voltage, positive voltage, or negative voltage regulators.
3) It provides examples of common IC voltage regulators like the 7805 and LM317, and explains how they regulate voltage.
1) The document is a lab manual for an Electrical Engineering measurement lab course. It details 10 experiments involving measuring devices like oscilloscopes, multimeters, and bridges.
2) The first experiment involves studying oscilloscopes, their working principles, and different types of probes. Block diagrams and features of oscilloscopes are described.
3) Power factor is defined as the ratio between real power and apparent power. A power factor meter and phase shifter circuit are explained along with calculations for power factor correction by adding a capacitor.
A novel four wire inverter system using SVPWM technique for ups applicationsIRJET Journal
This document describes a novel four-wire inverter system using space vector pulse width modulation (SVM) technique for uninterruptible power supply (UPS) applications. It introduces the concept of SVM for four-wire voltage source inverters. A four-wire inverter provides a neutral connection for three-phase four-wire systems to handle neutral current from unbalanced or non-linear loads. The SVM technique approximates the reference voltage vector during each sampling interval using the three nearest inverter switching state vectors. Simulation results using MATLAB/Simulink analyze the performance of the four-wire SVM inverter under different loading conditions in terms of total harmonic distortion.
Design and Implementation of Schmitt Trigger using Operational AmplifierIJERA Editor
This document describes the design and implementation of a Schmitt trigger circuit using an operational amplifier. A Schmitt trigger is a comparator that detects when a voltage crosses a reference level and has two stable output states. It is useful for conditioning signals. The circuit was designed using an op-amp IC μA-741 to generate a rectangular output waveform from a sinusoidal input. Simulation and experimental results matched and showed the output transitioning at upper and lower threshold points with hysteresis. The Schmitt trigger provides noise immunity and converts analog signals to digital waveforms needed for digital circuits.
Webinar Slides: Measurements and Analysis for Switched-mode Power Designsteledynelecroy
This webinar covers the measurements of interest for designers of switched-mode power conversion circuits and devices. With the goal of high efficient and reliable designs, we review the acquisition of voltage and current, their relationship in switched-mode power conversion circuits.
We review specific power circuit performance areas including the analysis of power device switching losses, conduction losses, dynamic on-resistance, control loop response, power quality, conducted emissions, best practices for probing power circuits, and power rail integrity measurements.
This document presents a new voltage sag compensation scheme that uses a pulse width modulation (PWM) switched autotransformer. The proposed scheme aims to maintain the rated voltage at critical load terminals during voltage sag events. It consists of an IGBT switch and autotransformer connected in series with the load. During normal operation, the thyristors bypass the compensator and supply power directly to the load. During a sag, the IGBT is controlled by PWM pulses to inject the missing voltage and regulate the load voltage. Simulation results in MATLAB/Simulink show the performance of the three-phase compensator under different sag and swell conditions. The proposed approach has fewer switching devices and good compensating capability compared to other common compensators.
Strain gauge load cells work by measuring the strain on an object using electrical resistance strain gauges. When force is applied, the strain gauges experience a change in resistance which is measured by a Wheatstone bridge circuit to produce an electrical output signal proportional to the applied load. The most common type of load cell uses a full Wheatstone bridge configuration with four strain gauges to maximize sensitivity. Proper design considers uniform strain distribution and protection of the gauges. Sources of error include loading errors and environmental effects, which can be compensated for in the design and signal conditioning.
good for studentgood for studentgood for studentgood for studentgood for studentgood for studentgood for studentgood for studentgood for studentgood for studentgood for studentgood for studentgood for studentgood for studentgood for studentgood for student
1. The Kelvin bridge is a modified Wheatstone bridge used to accurately measure low resistances. It accounts for contact resistance by using four-terminal connections.
2. In a Kelvin bridge, the unknown resistance is connected between two potential terminals to directly measure its value, independent of contact resistance at the current terminals.
3. The bridge balances when the galvanometer is connected to a point between the potential terminals that divides the lead resistance into two equal parts, nullifying its effect on the measurement.
The document discusses different types of DC to AC converters known as inverters. It describes the operation of voltage source inverters that can generate square wave output voltage by varying the DC link voltage or use pulse width modulation (PWM) to vary both amplitude and frequency while controlling harmonics. PWM techniques like natural sampling and regular sampling are explained. The document also covers half-bridge inverters, three-phase inverters, and issues like shoot through faults and dead time that are addressed in practical inverters.
The document discusses different types of DC to AC converters known as inverters. It describes the operation of voltage source inverters that can generate square wave or sinusoidal outputs using pulse width modulation techniques. PWM allows control over the output voltage amplitude while pushing harmonics to higher frequencies for easier filtering. The document also introduces half-bridge inverters, three-phase inverters, and discusses performance parameters and harmonic analysis of inverter outputs.
This document discusses various types of sensors including potentiometers, linear variable differential transformers (LVDTs), and strain gauges. It provides details on their construction, operation, and applications. It focuses on strain gauges, explaining their resistive principle, common usages, application process, Wheatstone bridge configurations, temperature compensation, and different configurations for measuring traction and bending forces.
SSC JE Measurements - wifistudy (1).pdfVibhugoyal6
This document provides a crash course on the SSC-JE exam, including two sample questions:
1. A multiple choice question with four answer options about sources of energy.
2. A matching question with four items to be matched to letters about load curves, tidal power generation, non-conventional power generation methods, and solar cells.
It then discusses error analysis in measurement and types of errors like random error, systematic error, gross error, environmental error, instrumental error, observational error, and limiting error. Composite errors in addition, multiplication, and powers are also covered.
1. The document describes a simulation of floating resistors of different values that are used as feedback in an OTA band pass filter structure.
2. The simulated floating resistances show good agreement between theoretical and simulated circuit values.
3. A band pass response is observed in the tunable frequency range from the bias current, with a designed quality factor.
1) A new coreless transformer design is presented that can measure voltage at medium voltage levels for power quality applications. It has high linearity, galvanic isolation, and a wide frequency range.
2) The transformer output voltage is proportional to the derivative of the input voltage. An integrator must be used to obtain an output voltage proportional to the input voltage.
3) Simulations and laboratory tests showed the transformer accurately measures voltage signals up to 15kV with deviations below 1% and is immune to noise due to its derivative behavior and use of an integrator.
Flow Through Pipe: the analysis of fluid flow within pipesIndrajeet sahu
Flow Through Pipe: This topic covers the analysis of fluid flow within pipes, focusing on laminar and turbulent flow regimes, continuity equation, Bernoulli's equation, Darcy-Weisbach equation, head loss due to friction, and minor losses from fittings and bends. Understanding these principles is crucial for efficient pipe system design and analysis.
Impartiality as per ISO /IEC 17025:2017 StandardMuhammadJazib15
This document provides basic guidelines for imparitallity requirement of ISO 17025. It defines in detial how it is met and wiudhwdih jdhsjdhwudjwkdbjwkdddddddddddkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwioiiiiiiiiiiiii uwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwhe wiqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq gbbbbbbbbbbbbb owdjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjj widhi owqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq uwdhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhwqiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiw0pooooojjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjj whhhhhhhhhhh wheeeeeeee wihieiiiiii wihe
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Prediction of Electrical Energy Efficiency Using Information on Consumer's Ac...PriyankaKilaniya
Energy efficiency has been important since the latter part of the last century. The main object of this survey is to determine the energy efficiency knowledge among consumers. Two separate districts in Bangladesh are selected to conduct the survey on households and showrooms about the energy and seller also. The survey uses the data to find some regression equations from which it is easy to predict energy efficiency knowledge. The data is analyzed and calculated based on five important criteria. The initial target was to find some factors that help predict a person's energy efficiency knowledge. From the survey, it is found that the energy efficiency awareness among the people of our country is very low. Relationships between household energy use behaviors are estimated using a unique dataset of about 40 households and 20 showrooms in Bangladesh's Chapainawabganj and Bagerhat districts. Knowledge of energy consumption and energy efficiency technology options is found to be associated with household use of energy conservation practices. Household characteristics also influence household energy use behavior. Younger household cohorts are more likely to adopt energy-efficient technologies and energy conservation practices and place primary importance on energy saving for environmental reasons. Education also influences attitudes toward energy conservation in Bangladesh. Low-education households indicate they primarily save electricity for the environment while high-education households indicate they are motivated by environmental concerns.
Digital Twins Computer Networking Paper Presentation.pptxaryanpankaj78
A Digital Twin in computer networking is a virtual representation of a physical network, used to simulate, analyze, and optimize network performance and reliability. It leverages real-time data to enhance network management, predict issues, and improve decision-making processes.
Blood finder application project report (1).pdfKamal Acharya
Blood Finder is an emergency time app where a user can search for the blood banks as
well as the registered blood donors around Mumbai. This application also provide an
opportunity for the user of this application to become a registered donor for this user have
to enroll for the donor request from the application itself. If the admin wish to make user
a registered donor, with some of the formalities with the organization it can be done.
Specialization of this application is that the user will not have to register on sign-in for
searching the blood banks and blood donors it can be just done by installing the
application to the mobile.
The purpose of making this application is to save the user’s time for searching blood of
needed blood group during the time of the emergency.
This is an android application developed in Java and XML with the connectivity of
SQLite database. This application will provide most of basic functionality required for an
emergency time application. All the details of Blood banks and Blood donors are stored
in the database i.e. SQLite.
This application allowed the user to get all the information regarding blood banks and
blood donors such as Name, Number, Address, Blood Group, rather than searching it on
the different websites and wasting the precious time. This application is effective and
user friendly.
Accident detection system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
The Rapid growth of technology and infrastructure has made our lives easier. The
advent of technology has also increased the traffic hazards and the road accidents take place
frequently which causes huge loss of life and property because of the poor emergency facilities.
Many lives could have been saved if emergency service could get accident information and
reach in time. Our project will provide an optimum solution to this draw back. A piezo electric
sensor can be used as a crash or rollover detector of the vehicle during and after a crash. With
signals from a piezo electric sensor, a severe accident can be recognized. According to this
project when a vehicle meets with an accident immediately piezo electric sensor will detect the
signal or if a car rolls over. Then with the help of GSM module and GPS module, the location
will be sent to the emergency contact. Then after conforming the location necessary action will
be taken. If the person meets with a small accident or if there is no serious threat to anyone’s
life, then the alert message can be terminated by the driver by a switch provided in order to
avoid wasting the valuable time of the medical rescue team.
Supermarket Management System Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
Supermarket management is a stand-alone J2EE using Eclipse Juno program.
This project contains all the necessary required information about maintaining
the supermarket billing system.
The core idea of this project to minimize the paper work and centralize the
data. Here all the communication is taken in secure manner. That is, in this
application the information will be stored in client itself. For further security the
data base is stored in the back-end oracle and so no intruders can access it.
An In-Depth Exploration of Natural Language Processing: Evolution, Applicatio...DharmaBanothu
Natural language processing (NLP) has
recently garnered significant interest for the
computational representation and analysis of human
language. Its applications span multiple domains such
as machine translation, email spam detection,
information extraction, summarization, healthcare,
and question answering. This paper first delineates
four phases by examining various levels of NLP and
components of Natural Language Generation,
followed by a review of the history and progression of
NLP. Subsequently, we delve into the current state of
the art by presenting diverse NLP applications,
contemporary trends, and challenges. Finally, we
discuss some available datasets, models, and
evaluation metrics in NLP.
Sri Guru Hargobind Ji - Bandi Chor Guru.pdfBalvir Singh
Sri Guru Hargobind Ji (19 June 1595 - 3 March 1644) is revered as the Sixth Nanak.
• On 25 May 1606 Guru Arjan nominated his son Sri Hargobind Ji as his successor. Shortly
afterwards, Guru Arjan was arrested, tortured and killed by order of the Mogul Emperor
Jahangir.
• Guru Hargobind's succession ceremony took place on 24 June 1606. He was barely
eleven years old when he became 6th Guru.
• As ordered by Guru Arjan Dev Ji, he put on two swords, one indicated his spiritual
authority (PIRI) and the other, his temporal authority (MIRI). He thus for the first time
initiated military tradition in the Sikh faith to resist religious persecution, protect
people’s freedom and independence to practice religion by choice. He transformed
Sikhs to be Saints and Soldier.
• He had a long tenure as Guru, lasting 37 years, 9 months and 3 days
2. Pinank Shah
Overview of Topics
What is Strain?
What is Strain Gauge?
Operation of Strain Gauge
Grid Patterns
Strain Gauge Installation
Wheatstone bridge
Instrumentation Amplifier
Embedded system and Strain Gauge
Strain Measurement System
Applications of a Strain Gauge
3. Pinank Shah
What is Strain ?
Strain is the amount of deformation of a body due to an applied
force. More specifically, strain (e) is defined as the fractional
change in length.
Strain can be positive (tensile) or negative (compressive).
Although dimensionless, strain is sometimes expressed in units
such as in./in. or mm/mm.
In practice, the magnitude of measured strain is very small.
Therefore, strain is often expressed as microstrain (me), which is
e x 10-6.
4. Pinank Shah
What is a Strain Gauge ?
Strain Gauge is a device used to measure
deformation (strain) of an object.
Strain gauges have been developed for the
accurate measurement of strain
Fundamentally, all strain gauges are
designed to convert mechanical motion into
an electronic signal.
5. Pinank Shah
Schematic View Of Strain Gauge
The gauge shown here is primarily sensitive
to strain in the X direction, as the majority of
the wire length is parallel to the X axis.
Solder Tags -
for
attachment of
wires.
Insulated backing
Gauge, wire / foil approx. 0.025 mm thick
X
Y
6. Pinank Shah
Strain Gauge
The name "bonded gauge" is given to strain
gauges that are glued to a larger structure
under stress (called the test specimen).
7. Pinank Shah
Gage Length
Gage length is an
important consideration
in strain gage selection
The gage length is the
dimension of the active
grid as measured inside
the grid end loops.
The gage length
(GGG ) ranges from
0.008 in (0.2 mm) to 4
in (100 mm).
8. Pinank Shah
Strain Gauge Operation
This schematic shows
how the strain gauge
resistance varies with
strain (deformation).
On applying a force a
change in resistance
takes place.
Tension causes
resistance increase.
Compression causes
resistance decrease.
+
-
9. Pinank Shah
Grid Pattern
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Uniaxial Gage with a single grid for measuring strain in the grid
direction .
Biaxial Rosettes Gage with two perpendicular grids used to
determine principal strains when their directions are known.
Three-Element Rosettes Gage with three independent grids in three
directions for ascertaining the principal strains and their directions.
Shear Patterns Gage having two chevron grids used in half-bridge
circuits for direct indication of shear strains (difference in normal
strains) .
10. Pinank Shah
Strain Gauge Installation
The Strain Gauge is bonded to the specimen
under test, only after the following:
cleaning the surface using a degreaser
cleaning it again with a conditioner solution (mild
acid that accelerates the cleaning process)
neutralizing by applying a base (neutralizes any
chemical reaction introduced by the Conditioner)
finally bonding it with a super glue.
The Strain Gauge has 2 leads which exhibit
variation in resistance when strain is applied.
11. Pinank Shah
The bonded metallic strain gauge
The metallic strain gauge consists of a
very fine wire or metallic foil arranged in
a grid pattern.
The grid pattern maximizes the amount
of metallic wire or foil subject to strain in
the parallel direction.
The grid is bonded to a thin backing,
called the carrier, which is attached
directly to the test specimen.
The strain experienced by the test
specimen is transferred directly to the
strain gauge, which responds with a
linear change in electrical resistance.
Gauge factor is defined as:
12. Pinank Shah
Measuring Circuits
In order to measure strain with a bonded resistance
strain gauge, it must be connected to an electric
circuit that is capable of measuring the minute
changes in resistance corresponding to strain
Strain gauge is connected in a Wheatstone bridge
circuit
A strain gauge bridge circuit indicates measured
strain by the degree of imbalance
It provides an accurate measurement of that
imbalance
13. Pinank Shah
Wheatstone Bridge
In Figure, if R1, R2, R3, and
Strain gauge are equal, and a
voltage, VIN, is applied
between points A and C, then
the output between points B
and D will show no potential
difference.
However, if R4 is changed to
some value which does not
equal R1, R2, and R3, the
bridge will become unbalanced
and a voltage will exist at the
output terminals.
The variable strain sensor has
resistance Rg, while the other
arms are fixed value resistors.
14. Pinank Shah
Wheatstone Bridge
The sensor, however, can occupy one, two,
or four arms of the bridge, depending on the
application.
The total strain, or output voltage of the
circuit (Vout) is equivalent to the difference
between the voltage drop across R1 and R4,
or Rg.
It is given by Vout = Vcd – Vcb
15. Pinank Shah
Wheatstone Bridge Working
The bridge is considered balanced when R1/R2 =
Rg/R3 and, therefore, VOUT equals zero.
Any small change in the resistance of the sensing
grid will throw the bridge out of balance, making it
suitable for the detection of strain.
A small change in Rg will result in an output voltage
from the bridge.
If the gage factor is GF, the strain measurement is
related to the change in Rg as follows:
16. Pinank Shah
Problem - Low Level Output
The output of a strain gauge circuit is a very low-level voltage
signal
The low level of the signal makes it particularly susceptible to
unwanted noise from other electrical devices.
Capacitive coupling caused by the lead wires' running too close
to AC power cables or ground currents are potential error
sources in strain measurement.
Other error sources may include magnetically induced voltages
when the lead wires pass through variable magnetic fields,
parasitic (unwanted) contact resistances of lead wires, insulation
failure, and thermocouple effects at the junction of dissimilar
metals.
The sum of such interferences can result in significant signal
degradation.
17. Pinank Shah
Solution
Shielding: Most electric interference and noise problems can be
solved by shielding.
A shield around the measurement lead wires will intercept
interferences and may also reduce any errors caused by
insulation degradation.
Shielding also will guard the measurement from capacitive
coupling.
If the measurement leads are routed near electromagnetic
interference sources such as transformers, twisting the leads will
minimize signal degradation due to magnetic induction.
By twisting the wire, the flux-induced current is inverted and the
areas that the flux crosses cancel out.
For industrial process applications, twisted and shielded lead
wires are used almost without exception.
18. Pinank Shah
Instrumentation Amplifier
The variation in voltage at the output of the bridge is in
the range of millivolts. It needs to be amplified in order to
calculate precise value of strain.
Vout
+V1
+V2
10K
500 ohms
10K
10K
10 K 10K
10K
-Vcc
+vcc
+Vcc
+Vcc
-Vcc
-Vcc
2
3
6
6
3
2
2
3
+
+
-
-
+
-
6
Instrumentation
Amplifier
19. Pinank Shah
Features of Instrumentation Amplifier
Differential inputs helps in accurate voltage transfer
High CMRR.
Low offset voltage: 50uv max.
Variable Gain.
The gain of the instrumentation amplifier is given by
Av = 1 + (2 * R2) / Rg where R2 is 10 K ohms fixed
resistor and Rg is the gain select resistor
Three 741 Op-amps are used to build the circuit for
instrumentation amplifier.
20. Pinank Shah
Instrumentation Amplifier and
Microcontroller Integration
The output of the
instrumentation amplifier is
connected to the M16C/62P
microcontroller.
The ADC, converts the o/p into
digital value and the voltage
read in is displayed on the
LCD display available on
M16CSKP board.
A_D converter input port no.
10_3 is used
The A_D converter is
configured to read in the
analog value after every 1
second and is set to convert at
a resolution of 10 bits for better
precision.
21. Pinank Shah
Strain Measurement System
Consists Of:
Test Specimen-piece of
metal
Strain gauge-placement of
the Strain Gauge on the
specimen is very crucial for
precise measurement of the
strain
Wheatstone bridge
Instrumentation Amplifier
Microcontroller M16C/62P
22. Pinank Shah
Software execution
The software performs the following calculation on the digital value:-
The value read in is converted into digital and is available in one
of the registers of the microcontroller. The ADC resolution is
selected as 10 bit. The step size thus becomes 48.8 mV.
Multiply it by 48.8 mV to get the actual analog voltage
Divide the analog voltage by 24(gain of the amplifier).
Vo / Vex = (Gauge Factor * E )/2 where E is the strain in micro
strain.
E = (Vo *2 / Gauge Factor * Vex )
= Vo / ((1.03)*(4V)) [Gauge Factor = 2.06] [Vex = 4volts]
= Vo / 4.12 [Vo is the output of the Bridge]
Divide the value by 4.120
This gives the value of the strain.
Value of the strain displayed on the LCD is refreshed every 1
second.
23. Pinank Shah
Readings
Results:
Under no strain condition:
Vout = 2.20volts (output of the instrumentation amplifier)
E = 0.91 micro strain.
Bend the test specimen both ends downwards (Elongation effect
on the Gauge)
Vout = 2.28volts (output of the instrumentation amplifier)
E = 0.94 micro strain.
Bend the test specimen both ends upwards (Compression effect
on the Gauge)
Vout = 2.16volts (output of the instrumentation amplifier)
E = 0.89 micro strain.
24. Pinank Shah
Features Of Strain Measurement System
This system is very compatible and is cost
effective.
The microcontroller used has many other
features like UART interface which can be
utilized to transfer the strain readings to a
PC.
Upcoming Project:
- A multi strain measurement system (SMS)
- Making SMS wireless
25. Pinank Shah
Block Diagram Of Strain Gauge Array
Measurement System
v
2..
3..
1.
8.
0
0
0
Sensor Bridge
Instrumentation
Amplifier
Analog multiplexer Renasas M16/C
Haccom HAC
UM96
Radio
Sensor Bridge
Instrumentation
Amplifier
Sensor Bridge
Instrumentation
Amplifier
Sensor Bridge
Instrumentation
Amplifier
v
Haccom HAC UM96
Radio
Renasas M16/C PC
v
v
v
v
26. Pinank Shah
Ultra Low Power Data Radio Module
Ultra low power transmission – 10 mW
transmission power
High anti-interference and low BER (Bit
error Rate)
Long transmission distance
Multi-channel-the standard radio module
configuration provides 8 channels
Low power consumption and sleeping
function -receiving, current is <30mA,
transmitting current is <40mA, and sleep
current is <20uA.
High reliability, small and light
27. Pinank Shah
Strain Gauge Array Measurement System
The advanced strain measurement system
accumulates the data from all the widespread
gauges, processes the collected data, enables
wireless transmission of collected information to the
remote Data Acquisition System.
With the combination of low power microprocessors,
flexible software operating modes this system is
optimized for very low power operation, while
permitting high speed data logging and wireless
communication capabilities.
28. Pinank Shah
Applications of Strain gauge
In load cells for weighbridges,
scales, vehicles and in medical
and educational applications.
For monitoring structures such
as bridges and buildings.
In research and development
applications, including
automotive, aerospace,
medical, process, oil and gas,
and power generation.
Virtually every other sector of
industry.