سلسلة محاضرات البحث العلمي مقدمة من مؤسسة علماء مصر http://www.egyptscholars.org/researchcourse

1. Islam
Hussein
Webinar
II
–
ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research

2. Thanks
to
Egypt
Scholars
2

3. Thanks
to
Amr
AbdulZahir
&
ESA’s
camera
3

4. 4
“If
I
have
seen
further;
it
is
by
standing
on
the
shoulders
of
giants.”
―
Sir
Isaac
Newton

5. 5
Research
!

6. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
Outline
I. What
is
research?
II. Hallmarks
of
research
III. The
scientific
method
IV. Research
proposal
/
report
6

7. 7
Research
Avenue

8. 8
“If
I
knew
what
I
was
doing,
it
wouldn't
be
called
REsearch”.
–
Albert
Einstein

9. 9
h?p://chartsbin.com/view/1124

10. Objective
behind
this
lecture
10

11. 11

12. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
What
is
research?
• Research
is
simply
the
process
of
finding
solutions
to
problems
after
a
thorough
study
and
analysis.
• It
comprises
a
series
of
well-­‐thought-­‐out
and
carefully
executed
steps
that
are
designed
with
the
goal
of
finding
an
answer
to
a
certain
question.
• So,
the
1st
step
in
any
research
is
to
identify
as
clearly
and
specifically
as
possible
a
problem
that
needs
to
be
resolved.
• Once
a
problem
is
clearly
defined,
we
can
gather
information,
do
experiments
if
necessary
and
analyze
the
data
to
come
up
with
a
decision/solution.
12

13. 13
“Science,
in
the
very
act
of
solving
problems,
creates
more
of
them”.
–
Abraham
Flexner

14. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
Basic
Vs.
Applied
research
• Basic:
when
the
solution
to
a
research
problem
has
no
apparent
application
to
any
practical
problem
in
the
world,
but
only
is
to
generate
a
body
of
knowledge
to
satisfy
the
scholarly
interest
of
the
researcher
• Applied:
when
the
solution
to
a
research
problem
does
have
practical
consequences
e.g.
a
disease
needs
therapy
• People
value
both
types
of
research
• The
pursuit
of
knowledge
for
its
own
sake
to
know
more
and
understand
better
is
one
humanity’s
highest
calling
14

15. 15

16. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
The
10
hallmarks
of
scientific
research
1. Driver
of
all
innovation
2. Moves
very
fast
3. Purposeful
4. Rigorous
5. Hypothesis-­‐driven
6. Reproducible
7. Precision
and
confidence
8. Objectivity
9. Universal
10. Heritable
16

17. 1-­‐
Driver
of
all
innovation
17

18. 18
“I
believe
in
innovaDon
and
that
the
way
you
get
innovaDon
is
you
fund
research
and
you
learn
the
basic
facts.”
–
Bill
Gates

19. 2-­‐
Moves
very
fast
19

20. 20
“Student:
Dr.
Einstein,
Aren't
these
the
same
quesDons
as
last
year's
physics
final
exam?
Dr.
Einstein:
Yes,
but
this
year
the
answers
are
different.”
―
Albert
Einstein

21. 21
✔
✖

22. 22
“Research
is
formalized
curiosity.
It
is
poking
and
prying
with
a
purpose.”
–
Zora
Hurston

23. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
4-­‐
Rigorous
• has
a
good
theoretical
base
and
a
carefully
designed
methodology
23

24. 5-­‐
Hypothesis-­‐driven
24

25. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
6-­‐
Reproducible
• Reproducibility
demonstrates
that
our
hypotheses
have
not
been
supported
merely
by
chance,
but
are
reflective
of
the
truth
25

26. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
7-­‐
Precision
&
confidence
• We
are
unable
to
study
the
whole
universe,
and
have
to
base
our
findings
on
a
sample
that
we
draw
from
the
universe
• Research
should
be
designed
in
a
manner
that
ensures
that
your
findings
are
as
close
to
reality
as
possible
• Precision
=
the
closeness
of
the
findings
to
“reality”
based
on
a
sample
• Confidence
=
the
probability
that
your
estimations
are
correct.
Can
you
confidently
claim
that
95%
of
the
time
your
results
will
be
true
and
there
is
only
a
5%
chance
of
our
being
wrong?
• Significance
level
of
0.05
(p
=
0.05)
26

27. 27

28. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
8-­‐
Objective
• The
conclusions
drawn
should
be
based
on
the
facts
derived
from
actual
data,
and
not
on
our
own
subjective
opinions
or
emotional
values
28

29. 29
"In
science,
there
are
no
beliefs.
We
either
know,
or
we
are
in
the
process
of
knowing,
or
we
admit
we
don't
as
yet
know."
–
David
Campbell

30. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
9-­‐
Universal
• The
wider
the
range
of
applicability
of
the
solutions
generated
by
research,
the
more
useful
the
research
is
to
the
users
30

31. 31
“There
is
no
naDonal
science
just
as
there
is
no
naDonal
mulDplicaDon
table;
what
is
naDonal
is
no
longer
science”.
–
Anton
Chekhov

32. 10-­‐
Heritable
32

33. 33
“Science
is
the
one
human
acDvity
that
is
truly
progressive.
The
body
of
posiDve
knowledge
is
transmiRed
from
generaDon
to
generaDon.”
―
Edwin
Hubble

34. 34

35. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
Definition
of
research
• Scientific
research
pursues
a
step-­‐by-­‐step,
logical,
organized,
and
rigorous
approach
(a
scientific
method)
to
find
a
solution
to
a
problem.
35

36. Scientific
method
36

37. 37
“The
real
purpose
of
the
scienDfic
method
is
to
make
sure
that
Nature
hasn’t
misled
you
into
thinking
you
know
something
you
don’t
actually
know.”
–
Robert
M.
Pirsig

38. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
The
scientific
method
involves
7
steps:
1. Make
an
observation/identify
a
broad
problem
area
2. Define
the
problem
statement
that
includes
the
general
objective(s)
and
research
question(s)
3. Gather
information/literature
search
4. Make
a
guess/develop
hypotheses
5. Define
methodology
and
do
the
experiment
6. Data
collection
and
analysis
7. Data
interpretation/make
conclusions
38

39. 1-­‐
Make
an
observation
39

40. 40
“Men
love
to
wonder,
and
that
is
the
seed
of
science.”
–
Ralph
Waldo
Emerson

41. 41
"‫الشعب‬‫املصري‬‫محب‬‫للبحث‬‫العلمي‬
‫بطبعه‬- "‫إبن‬‫أشمون‬

42. 2-­‐
Define
your
problem
statement
and
formulate
a
research
question
42

43. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
The
process
of
addressing
a
practical
problem
typically
looks
like
this:
• Practical
problem:
virus
causes
disease
• Research
question:
how
can
I
stop
it
from
causing
disease?
• Research
problem:
I
don’t
know
if
there
is
a
chemical
compound
that
can
do
this
job
for
me
and
I
need
to
find
a
way
to
screen
compounds
• Research
answer:
compound
X
is
effective
• Application:
treat
disease
43

44. Steps
for
addressing
a
problem
44
PracDcal
problem
Research
quesDon
Research
problem
Research
answer

45. 45
“The
scienDst
is
not
a
person
who
gives
the
right
answers,
he's
one
who
asks
the
right
quesDons.”
―
Claude
Lévi-­‐Strauss

46. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
Practical
Vs.
Research
problem
• A
practical
problem:
a
condition
in
the
world
that
makes
us
unhappy
because
it
costs
us
time,
money,
pain,
etc.
=
A
problem
that
a
normal
person
tries
to
avoid
• A
research
problem:
incomplete
knowledge
=
A
problem
that
a
researchers
would
seek
out
or
invent
if
necessary!
If
he
has
no
research
problem
to
work
on,
he
has
no
job!
46

47. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
What
is
a
problem
statement?
• A
problem
statement
addresses
both
the
“why”
(the
specific
aim
or
purpose
of
the
study)
and
the
“what”
(the
central
research
question
or
a
set
of
questions)
of
the
research
• There
are
three
key
criteria
for
a
good
problem
statement;
it
should
be:
a) relevant
b) feasible
c) interesting
47

48. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
A
problem
statement
is
relevant
if:
1. Nothing
is
known
about
a
topic;
you
will
have
to
prove
that
your
claim
is
right!
2. Much
is
known
about
the
topic,
but
the
knowledge
is
scattered
and
not
integrated
3. Much
research
on
the
topic
is
available,
but
the
results
are
(partly)
contradictory
48

49. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
A
problem
statement
is
feasible
if:
• You
are
able
to
answer
the
research
questions
within
the
restrictions
of
the
research
project
(time,
money
and
know-­‐
how)
• Carve
out
a
research
question
that
you
can
answer!
• Bear
in
mind
that
no
one
can
solve
a
problem
in
a
10-­‐page
paper;
your
paper
will
help
us
better
understand
the
problem
and
gets
us
closer
to
a
solution!
49

50. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
Why
your
problem
statement
should
be
interesting?
• Research
is
a
time-­‐consuming
process
and
you
will
go
through
many
ups
and
downs
before
you
present
the
final
version
of
your
research
report
• It
is
therefore
vital
that
you
are
genuinely
interested
in
the
problem
statement
you
are
trying
to
answer,
so
that
you
can
stay
motivated
throughout
the
entire
research
process
50

51. 51
“Research
is
to
see
what
everyone
else
has
seen,
but
thinking
what
no
one
else
has
thought.”
―
Albert
Szent-­‐Gyorgyi

52. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
Formulate
a
strong
problem
statement
• Start
by
asking:
so
what?
What
makes
this
research
worth
doing?
Why
should
my
research
question
grab
the
attention
of
my
audience?
• You
can
work
toward
a
problem
statement
in
3
steps:
1. Name
your
topic:
I
am
trying
to
learn
about/study
2. Add
a
question
(to
yourself):
! I
am
studying
….
because
I
want
to
find
out
how
or
why
3. Motivate
your
question
(to
others):
! The
answer
to
my
question
will
solve
a
problem
that
is
significant
to
a
wider
community
of
readers
! If
this
problem
was
left
unresolved
=
trouble
52

53. 3-­‐
Gather
information/Literature
search
53

54. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
What
is
literature?
• Literature
–
the
body
of
knowledge
available
to
you
or
what
is
already
known
and
written
down
that
is
relevant
to
your
research
project.
• A
literature
review
is
a
process
that
involves
the
identification
of
published
work
on
the
topic
of
interest,
the
evaluation
of
this
work
in
relation
to
the
problem,
and
the
documentation
of
this
work.
54

55. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
Examples
for
resources
• Journal
articles
• Text
books
• Theses
• Conference
proceedings
• Academic
databases
• Government
or
business
reports
• Encyclopedia
(in
print,
not
Wikipedia!)
• Internet
55

56. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
Be
extra
cautious
when
using
the
internet!
• Internet
is
unregulated!
• You
can
obtain
material
that
can
help
you
in
formulating
your
research
question,
but
very
hard
to
find
reliable
sources
for
serious
research!
• Always
prefer
a
printed
source,
unless
it
is
an
online
journal
or
supplement.
• Google
scholar
can
help
you
with
academic
literature.
56

57. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
Criteria
for
selecting
sources:
• Screen
your
sources
for
reliability
• Is
it
relevant
to
your
hypothesis?
• Is
it
published
by
a
reputable
press?
• Peer-­‐reviewed?
• Author
reputable?
• Source
up-­‐to-­‐date?
57

58. 58
“As
a
scienDst
I
have
come
to
learn
that
informaDon
is
only
as
valuable
as
its
source.”
―
Dan
Brown

59. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
3
uses
for
resources:
1. Read
for
a
problem:
if
you
are
having
trouble
formulating
a
research
problem
or
question.
Look
for
inspiration.
Look
for
gaps
in
knowledge,
unresolved
issues
or
new
lines
of
research.
2. Read
for
an
argument:
when
you
see
how
other
researchers
address
similar
problems,
you
can
learn
how
to
address
yours
too.
3. Read
for
evidence:
find
data
that
you
can
use
to
support
your
claim.
59

60. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
A
literature
review
ensures
that:
1. Put
your
research
into
context
2. You
do
not
run
into
the
risk
of
“reinventing
the
wheel”
3. You
look
at
your
problem
from
several
angles
4. You
didn’t
miss
an
important
variable
5. You
know
the
research
methods
60

61. Don’t
reinvent
the
wheel!
61

62. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
Read
critically!
• You
don’t
have
to
agree
with
the
conclusions
in
a
source!
• Don’t
accept
a
claim
just
because
it
is
mentioned
in
a
paper
published
in
a
respected
journal,
particularly
if
the
claim
isn’t
well
supported.
People
can
sometimes
misinterpret
their
own
data!
• Look
for
weaknesses
in
other
researchers
arguments;
yes
nobody
is
prefect!
• Get
the
context
right!
62

63. Plagiarism
63

64. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
Plagiarism
• This
is
the
worst
thing
that
can
happen
to
a
researcher!
• Deliberate
plagiarism
is
a
crime!
64

65. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
Unintentional
plagiarism
• Sometimes
it
is
done
in
good
faith,
out
of
carelessness,
or
out
of
ignorance
when
you
are
not
sure
about
what
to
cite,
how
and
when
65

66. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
Plagiarism
defined
• You
plagiarize,
intentionally
or
not,
when
you
use
someone
else’s
words,
arguments
or
ideas
without
giving
credit
to
that
person,
misleading
your
readers
to
think
that
those
words
or
ideas
are
yours
66

67. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
Resist
the
temptation!
• In
today’s
information
age,
copying
and
pasting
information
from
online
sources
into
your
own
research
paper
has
become
very
simple
67

68. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
Quote
or
paraphrase
• You
can
use
the
exact
words
if
you
are
making
a
quote
(between
quotation
marks),
otherwise
you
must
summarize/
paraphrase
only
after
those
words
have
filtered
through
your
own
understanding
of
them,
then
cite
the
source
• Quote
when:
the
specific
words
of
your
source
matter
• Paraphrase
when:
you
are
more
interested
in
the
findings/data
than
in
how
your
source
expressed
them
68

69. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
4-­‐
Hypothesis
development
• A
hypothesis
can
be
defined
as
a
tentative,
yet
testable,
statement,
which
predicts
what
you
expect
to
find
in
your
empirical
data.
• A
scientific
hypothesis
must
meet
two
requirements:
testable
and
falsifiable.
• By
testing
the
hypotheses,
it
is
expected
that
solutions
can
be
found
to
correct
the
problem
encountered.
69

70. 70
“No
great
discovery
was
ever
made
without
a
bold
guess.”
―
Sir
Isaac
Newton

71. 5-­‐
Define
methodology
&
do
the
experiment
71

72. 72

73. 73
“Highly
organized
research
is
guaranteed
to
produce
nothing
new.”
―
Frank
Herbert

74. 74
“An
expert
is
a
person
who
has
made
all
the
mistakes
that
can
be
made
in
a
very
narrow
field.”
―
Niels
Bohr

75. 6-­‐
Data
collection
and
analysis
75

76. 76
“An
experiment
is
a
quesDon
which
science
poses
to
Nature,
and
a
measurement
is
the
recording
of
Nature's
answer.”
–
Max
Planck

77. 77
“Measure
what
can
be
measured,
and
make
measurable
what
cannot
be
measured.”
―
Galileo
Galilei

78. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
7-­‐
Data
interpretation
/
Make
conclusions
• Decide
whether
your
hypothesis
is
supported
or
not
by
the
results.
• Hypotheses
that
are
not
supported
allow
you
to
refine
your
theory
by
thinking
about
why
they
were
not
supported.
You
can
then
test
your
refined
theory
in
future
research.
78

79. 79
“A
hypothesis
can
never
be
confirmed;
there
is
always
a
possibility
that
future
research
will
show
that
it
is
false.
Hence,
failing
to
falsify
a
hypothesis
does
not
prove
that
hypothesis:
it
remains
provisional
unDl
it
is
disproved”.
–
Karl
Popper

80. 80

81. 81

82. The
research
cycle
82

83. Somebody
has
to
pay
the
bill!
83

84. 84
“Research
is
four
things:
brains
with
which
to
think,
eyes
with
which
to
see,
machines
with
which
to
measure
and,
fourth,
money.”
–
Albert
Szent-­‐Gyorgyi

85. Need
funding?
Present,
Propose
&
Publish!
The
P-­‐word
85

86. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
Research
proposal
• Before
any
research
study
is
undertaken,
there
should
be
an
agreement
between
the
person
who
authorizes
the
study
and
the
researcher
as
to
the
problem
to
be
investigated,
the
methodology
to
be
used,
the
duration
of
the
study,
and
its
cost.
• This
ensures
that
there
are
no
misunderstandings
or
frustrations
later
for
either
party.
• This
is
usually
accomplished
through
a
research
proposal,
which
the
researcher
submits
and
gets
approved
by
the
sponsor,
who
issues
a
letter
of
authorization
to
proceed
with
the
study.
86

87. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
Structure
of
a
research
proposal
1. A
working
title
2. Background
of
the
study
3. The
problem
statement:
a) The
purpose
of
the
study
b) Research
questions
4. The
scope
of
the
study
5. The
relevance
of
the
study
6. The
research
design:
a) Type
of
study
–
exploratory
or
descriptive
b) Data
collection
methods
c) The
sampling
design
d) Data
analysis
7. Time
frame
of
the
study
8. The
budget
9. References
87

88. Publish
your
paper!
88

89. 89

90. YOU
WILL
FEEL
LIKE
90

91. 91

92. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
Create
a
role
for
your
reader
• Your
research
is
of
very
little
value
if
nobody
reads
it!
• Writing
a
research
report
is
like
thinking
in
print,
but
from
the
point
of
view
of
your
readers
• You
are
silently
conversing
with
others
when
you
read
their
work
• People
will
judge
you
when
they
read
your
work
• A
thoughtful
writer
has
in
advance
also
judged
his
readers,
especially
what
they
know
and
what
they
need
to
know
92

93. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
Writer’s
role
• People
don’t
read
research
reports
just
for
fun!
Encourage
them
to
read
yours!
• Typically
one
of
3
offers
should
be
made:
– I
have
found
something
really
interesting
– I
have
found
a
solution
to
a
practical
problem
important
to
you
– I
have
found
an
answer
to
a
question
important
to
you
93

94. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
Research
argument
• We
always
think
of
an
argument
as
an
exchange
of
opinions
that
usually
results
in
a
dispute
• Research
argument
however
isn’t
an
exchange
of
opinions;
it
is
your
attempt
to
state
the
facts
and
make
claims
in
your
attempt
to
find
the
best
answer
to
a
hard
question
• In
short,
it
is
your
answer
to
the
question:
why
should
I
believe
you?
• Expect
that
people
will
question
each
element
of
your
research,
not
to
knock
it
down,
but
to
help
you
find
and
understand
a
truth
you
can
share
94

95. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
Why
do
you
need
a
good
research
argument?
• You
have
reached
a
tentative,
but
reasonably
specific
answer
to
your
research
question
and
it
is
for
you
now
to
convince
people!
• You
should
have
a
list
of
reasons
that
support
your
claim
and
evidence
to
support
those
reasons,
and
some
idea
about
the
questions
and
objections
that
might
get
raised
95

96. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
What
is
a
research
argument?
• In
research
report,
you
make
a
claim,
back
it
with
reasons
based
on
evidence,
acknowledge
and
respond
to
other
views,
and
sometimes
explain
your
principles
of
reasoning
• Typically,
you
must
ask
yourself
the
following
questions:
– What
claim
I
am
trying
to
make
here?
– What
reasons
do
I
have
to
support
my
claim?
– What
evidences
do
I
have
to
support
those
reasons?
– Did
I
acknowledge
alternative
explanations/deficiencies/objections?
– What
principle
did
I
use
to
justify
connecting
my
reasons
to
my
claim?
96

97. Structure
of
an
argument
97
CLAIM
I
claim
that
REASON
Because
of
these
reasons
EVIDENCE
Which
I
base
on
this
evidence
I
acknowledge
quesDons,
objecDons
and
alternaDves

98. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
Claim
• A
claim
is
an
answer
to
your
research
question
• A
strong
claim
should
be:
– Specific:
brief
specific
language
and
clear
logic
(vague
claim
=
vague
argument)
– Significant:
• Your
audience
will
judge
the
significance
of
your
claim
by
measuring
the
degree
to
which
it
asks
them
to
change
what
they
already
think
• Your
claim
can
simply
ask
your
audience
to
accept
new
information
about
a
subject
already
studied
• Or
it
may
ask
the
entire
research
community
to
change
one
of
its
deepest
beliefs
(expect
resistance)!
98

99. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
Reasons
and
evidence
• In
a
casual
conversation,
we
usually
support
a
claim
with
just
a
reason
and
don’t
ask:
what
evidence
do
you
have?
• Reliable
evidence
is
what
your
audience
can
accept
as
a
solid
proof
evident
from
your
results
(mostly
quantitative
data
or
images)
• Rejecting
evidence
=
rejecting
the
whole
argument
• Reasons
state
why
YOU
think
your
audience
should
accept
your
claim
• Audience
will
look
for
the
smallest
flaw
in
your
evidence.
Therefore,
it
has
to
be
sufficient,
reported
as
accurately
and
precisely
as
possible!
99

100. 100
“In
God
we
trust;
all
others
must
bring
data.”
―
Edwards
Deming

101. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
Think
about
your
audience!
• If
you
plan
your
argument
around
ONLY
claims,
reasons
and
evidences,
your
readers
will
think
that
your
argument
is
weak/naïve
• Since
your
audience
are
not
setting
next
you
while
you
are
drafting
your
argument,
you
have
to
imagine
them
asking
questions
• It
is
only
when
you
respond
to
those
imagined
questions
and
objections,
your
argument
becomes
factual
101

102. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
Acknowledging
and
responding
to
alternatives
• A
thoughtful
audience
will
not
accept
a
claim
just
because
you
back
it
up
with
your
reasons
and
your
evidence
• They
will
question
every
part
of
your
argument
• Unless
they
think
exactly
like
you,
which
is
very
unlikely,
they
may
interpret
your
evidence
differently
or
draw
a
different
conclusion
from
the
same
evidence
• They
may
reject
your
claim
or
think
that
your
reasons
are
not
relevant
to
your
claim
and
can’t
support
it
or
they
may
come
up
with
alternative
claims
that
you
didn’t
consider
• You
have
to
anticipate
as
many
of
these
questions
as
possible,
and
then
acknowledge
and
respond
to
most
of
them
102

103. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
Your
audience
will
question:
1. The
intrinsic
soundness
of
your
argument
such
as
the
clarity
of
your
claim,
the
relevance
of
your
reasons
and
the
quality
of
your
evidence
2. They
may
ask
you
to
consider
alternatives,
a
different
way
of
framing
the
problem,
evidence
you
haven’t
considered
or
a
different
conclusion
103

104. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
Tips
on
handling
objections
• You
know
your
argument
too
well
and
believe
in
it
too
much
• Read
your
argument
as
if
you
are
someone
who
has
a
lot
at
stake
in
a
different
solution
• Don’t
be
easy
with
yourself
on
this
because,
believe
me,
your
audience
will
not!
• Try
to
diffuse
as
many
concerns
as
possible
before
facing
your
audience
• If
you
use
a
questionable
evidence
to
support
your
claim,
acknowledge
that
upfront
• Don’t
ignore
weaknesses/alternatives
hoping
that
people
will
not
notice
• Increase
your
credibility
by
acknowledging
all
weaknesses
in
your
argument/disagreement
with
any
previously
published
studies
104

105. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
More
tips
• Acknowledge
questions
that
you
couldn’t
answer
• “Further
research
will
show”
isn’t
a
bad
thing
to
say!
• Turn
a
weakness/deficiency
into
a
hypothesis
for
future
testing
• Nothing
is
enough!
• Finding
enough
strong
evidence
of
high
quality
to
make
a
solid
case
is
rare
if
ever
possible!
• Truth
is
always
complicated,
sometimes
ambiguous
and
slippery
• Readers
will
respect
you
and
your
argument
when
you
bring
their
voices
into
your
report
by
acknowledging
their
objections
• Even
the
minimal
response
will
give
a
reason
for
accepting
your
claim
even
if
not
fully
105

106. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
Good
news:
most
questions
are
predictable!
• Why
have
you
defined
the
problem
in
that
way?
Do
you
think
there
is
a
problem
here
at
all?
• What
kind
of
solution
are
you
proposing?
Is
it
feasible?
Will
it
cost
less
to
implement
than
the
cost
of
the
problem
itself?
Will
it
create
a
bigger
problem
than
the
one
it
solves?
Why
is
it
better
than
others?
• Have
you
stated
your
claim
clearly
and
specifically?
Well,
I
can
think
of
exceptions
and
limitations
already!
106

107. ES
Series
on
Scientific
Research
More
questions
• Your
evidence
is
not
sufficient;
I
would
like
to
see
more
data/experiments!
(the
most
common
objection)
• Is
your
evidence
accurate;
your
numbers
don’t
add
up
or
your
error
bars
are
too
big!
• Your
evidence
isn’t
precise;
what
do
you
mean
by
“many”?
Give
me
some
hard
numbers!
• Your
evidence
isn’t
representative;
you
didn’t
get
data
from
(sampling)!
I
don’t
see
any
pattern
there!
• Your
stuff
isn’t
up
to
date!
107

108. Truth
will
prevail!
108

109. 109
“Science
is
a
way
of
thinking
much
more
than
being
a
body
of
knowledge.”
―
Carl
Sagan

110. Recommended
reading
110

111. Recommended
video
lecture
111
h?p://youtu.be/PHSrlUQMkks

112. 112