This document discusses various tillage practices and soil solarization techniques for nematode management. It provides details on how summer plowing, deep plowing, and soil solarization can help reduce nematode populations in agricultural soils. Specifically, it summarizes research showing that 3-4 weeks of soil solarization led to over 90% reductions in root-knot nematode populations, improving crop yields and decreasing galling. Soil solarization involves covering moist soil with clear plastic sheeting during hot summer months to increase soil temperature and kill nematodes through heat and desiccation.

1. TILLAGE PRACTICES AND SOIL
SOLARIZATION FOR
NEMATODE MANAGEMENT
Vikas Bamel

2. India’s fast increasing population is
continually neutralizing any
agricultural gains and in all
probability would lead to import of
45 million tonnes
of food grains by 2030

3. AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION IS
ADVERSALLY AFFECTED BY
 INSECT-PESTS
 FUNGI
 BACTERIA
 VIRUSES
 RODENTS
 MITES
 PHYTOPARASITIC NEMATODES
 OTHERS

4. Table-2 Estimated crop losses due to important phytoparasitic nematodes in India.
Crop Nematode Estimated loss(%)
(Rs.)/avoidable yield
loss
Remarks
Wheat* Heterodera avenae Rs.40,000.000 Seshadri and
Dasgupta, 1980
Barley* “ Rs.40,000,000
Wheat Anguina tritici Rs.75,000,000 Paruthi and Bhatti,
1981
Coffee Pratylenchus coffeae Rs.20,000,000 Shashadri and Das-
gupta,1980
Okra Meloidogyne incognita 28.1 percent Reddy & Singh, 1981
Brinjal “ 33.7 percent “
Frenchbean “ 43.5% “
Cowpea “ 28.6% ”
Pea “ 20.0% “
Potato Globodera rostochensis Total failure of crop “
Rice Hirschmanniella oryzae
Hirschmanniella mucronata
30-87%
43%
Mathur and Prasad,
1972
Cotton Meloidogyne incognita 17.7 – 19.9% Jain et al.,1999
Cotton
Maize
Rotylenchulus reniformis
“
14.9
6.0
Palaniswamu and
Balasubramanian,
1961
Finger millet “ 4.8 “
Cowpea “ 13.2 “
Blackgram “ 8.7 “
Citrus Tylenchulus lsemipenetrans 15 Anon, 1971
Tobacco Meloidogyne incognita 50 Patel et al., 1986
Groundnut Meloidogyne arenaria 51 Anon., 1993
Maize Rotylenchulus reniformis 6 Palani swamy and
Balasubramania,
1981
Pigeonpea Heterodera cajani 14.2 Ramila Saxena and
Reddy, 1987
Rice Aphlenchoides besseyi 12.2 Sivakumar, 1988

5. NEMATODE MANAGEMENT
• NATURAL
• APPLIED
PROPHYLACTIC MEASURES
CULTURAL METHODS
PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL
BIOLOGICAL METHODS
HOST PLANT RESISTANCE
CHEMOTHERAPY
INM

6. • Prevention of spread by using nematode free
planting material
• Use of non-chemical, cultural and physical
control methods particularly crop rotation and
soil cultivation
• Use of BCA and soil amendments
• Host plant resistance(HPR)
FARMING PRACTICES FOR NEMATODE
MANAGEMENT

7. ESSENTIALS FOR SUCCESSFUL
NEMATODE MANAGAEMENT
• Racial composition of nematode
community
• Biology, host range, population dynamics
and rate of decline in absence of host
• Host status of adoptable crops
• Local agroclimatic conditions
• Economics

8. • Fallowing
• Flooding
• Time of planting
• Manuring and irrigation
• Cover crops/green manuring& organic amendments
• Antagonistic crops
• Trap crops
• Crop rotation
• Summer ploughing &summer solarization
CULTURAL& TILLAGE PRACTICES USED FOR
NEMATODE MANAGEMENT

9. • Soil type
• Local climate
• Crop husbandry practices
• Target nematode species or race involved
EFFICACY OF TILLAGE PRACTICES IN REDUCING
NEMATODE POPULATION IS DEPENDENT UPON

10. • Death of nematodes is due to
–starvation,
–desiccation and
–heat
FALLOWING AND SUMMER PLOUGHING

11. • Death due to
• starvation,
• asphyxiation and
• microbial decomposition products due to anaerobic
conditions
• Production of root exudates in rhizosphere
having nematicidal properties
FLOODING

12. • Disturbance of synchronization of time of
nematode activity and growth of plants
• Improvement in host tolerance and crop
yield
TIME OF PLANTING
MANURING AND IRRIGATION

13. • STIMULATION OF ACTIV ITIES OF NEMATOPHAGUS ORGANISMS
• METABOLITES OF THE MICROBES MAY BE TOXIC
• O.A. MAY ALTER SOIL TEMPERATURE, pH, OXYGEN AND NITROGEN
STATUS OF THE SOIL TO MAKE IT UNFAVOURABLE FOR NEMATODE
ACTIVITY
• O.A. MAY ALTER PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL AND MICROBIAL CONDITIONS OF
SOIL LEADING TO:
• Increase In Host Resistance To Invasionand Development
• Favourable Conditions For Rapid Root Development
• Unfavourable Osmotic Relations In Soil
• Heat And Nematoxic Gases Produced during Decomposition May Be
Toxic
ORGANIC AMENDMENTS

14. • Nematodes attracted and held in roots, not
allowed to mature (trap crops)
• Nematodes killed by action of root exudates or
not allowed to invade the plants due to repelling
effect of root exudates
TRAP AND ANTAGONISTIC CROPS

15. Naturally occurring toxic secretions (nematicidal compounds)
Plant Source Toxic secretions Nematodes tested
Tagetes erecta and others
(Marigold roots endodermis)
Thienyl compounds ά
terthienyl and bithienyl
Ditylenchus dipsaci Anguina tritici Globodera
rostochiensis Pratylenchus penetrans Meloidogyne sp.
and others
Helenium hybrid “Moerheim
Beauty”
Pentayne Pratylenchus penetrans and others
Carthamus tinctorius (Safflower
aerial parts)
Two unstable acetylenic
isomer triyne
Aphelenchoides besseyi
Milleria quinqueflora Iva
xanthiifolia Ambrosia
artemisifolia Ambrosia trifida
Schkuhria piñata Eriophyllum
caespitosum
Various dithioacetylenes Pratylenchus penetrans
Helenium hybrid “Moerheim
Beauty”
Methylbenzofuran Pratylenchus penetrans
Asparagus officinalis (root,
stem and leaves)
Asparaguisic acid (Plant
growth inhibitor)
Trichodorus christiei Paratrichodorus minor Globodera
rostochiensis Meloidogyne hapla Pratylenchus penetrans
Phytostigma venenosum
(Calabar bean)
Phytostigmine ( N-methyl
carbamate)
Systemic effect against Ditylenchus dipsaci (Cholinestrase
inhibitor)
Eragrostis curvula (root
exudates)
Ditydroxyphenol Pyrocatechol Meloidogyne sp. (Pectic enzyme inactivated)
Azadirachta indica (Margosa) Nimbidin Thionemon
Azadirachtin
Hoplolaimus indicus Helicotylenchu indicus Rotylenchulus
reniformis M. incognita

16. • Decrease in nematode population due to non-
availability of favourable host plant
• Production of root exudates in rhizosphere
having nematicidal properties
CROP ROTATION

17. • Destruction of left over host plants after harvest and
thereby preventing further reproduction of the
nematodes
• killing of nematodes by desiccation in the soil around the
root system and inside the roots
REMOVAL OR DESTRUCTION OF INFECTED
PLANTS

18. HARESSING OF SOLAR ENERGY UNDER
TROPICAL AND SUB-TROPICAL CONDITIONS
• SUMMER PLOUGHING
• DEEP SUMMER PLOUGHING
• SOIL SOLARIZATION

19. Effect of number of summer ploughings on the population build up of root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne javanica in tomato
(mean of four replicates)
Initial juvenile population
per 250 g soil before
ploughing
Initial juvenile population per
250 g soil at transplanting
Per cent decrease in
population over control
Final juvenile population per
250 g soil
Number of
ploughings
I UN Mean I UN Mean I UN Mean I UN Mean
0 (Control) 69.3
(8.3)
64.0
(8.0)
66.7
(8.2)
35.0
(5.9)
38.8
(6.2)
36.9
(6.0)
40.5 39.5 44.5 168.8
(12.9)
149.0
(12.1)
158.9
(12.1)
1 69.0
(8.2)
60.0
(7.7)
64.5
(7.9)
16.3
(4.0)
20.8
(4.5)
18.6
(4.3)
76.5 65.0 71.0 124.5
(11.0)
91.5
(9.6)
108
(18.3)
2 69.0
(8.2)
86.3
(9.3)
77.7
(8.8)
20.7
(4.5)
16.0
(4.0)
18.4
(4.3)
69.9 81.5 75.7 109.2
(1.04)
83.5
(7.6)
96.4
(9.0)
3. 69.3
(8.2)
74.5
(8.6)
78.7
(8.8)
3.0
(1.7)
2.3
(1.5)
2.7
(1.6)
95.7 97.2 96.5 122.0
(10.8)
34.5
(5.8)
78.3
(8.3)
Mean 69.3
(8.2)
74.5
(8.6)
18.8
(4.0)
19.5
(4.0)
72.9 70.9 131.1
(11.3)
89.6
(8.8)
Critical differences at
5% for
Ploughings NS (0.4) (1.0)
Type of seedlings NS NS (1.5)
Interaction NS NS NS
*Figures in parantheses are n transformed values.
I=Infected seedlings of tomato (average 21 galls/plant), M.javanica population in the nursery beds=176+5 jj/250 g soil.
UN=Infected seedlings of tomato.
Date of transplanting=August 17,1980.
Date of termination=December 14,1980.

20. Effect of summer ploughings on growth and yield of tomato infected (or uninfected) with Meloidogyne javanica (Mean of four
replicates)
30 DAT 45 DAT 60 DAT Yield per plot
(2.1x1.5m) (kg)
Per cent
increase in
yield in
transplanting
of UN over I
Final gall index
Number of
ploughings
I UN Mean I UN Mean I UN Mean I UN Mean I UN Mean
0 (Control) 14.6 26.6 20.6 27.6 36.7 32.2 38.7 46.7 42.7 5.4 5.7 5.6 5.6 4.6 4.0 4.3
1 13.0 25.8 19.4 27.5 37.4 32.5 36.3 45.4 40.9 4.9 5.6 5.3 14.3 3.6 2.8 3.2
2 15.8 23.2 19.5 31.6 39.0 35.3 37.2 43.9 40.0 5.5 6.3 5.9 14.5 3.4 2.3 2.9
3 15.3 23.2 19.3 25.6 38.9 32.3 42.7 47.2 45.0 4.9 7.6 6.3 55.1 3.1 2.0 2.6
Mean 14.7 24.7 28.0 38.0 38.7 45.8 5.2 6.3 21.2 3.7 2.8
Critical differences
(C.D.) at 5% level for
Ploughings NS NS NS NS 0.6
Type of
seedlings
1.1 1.8 NS 0.5 0.4
Interaction 2.2 NS 5.4 NS NS
I=Infected tomato seedlings.
UN=Uninfected tomato seedlings.
DAT=Days after transplanting.

21. Method of
polythene mulching
of
moist soil
in the
hottest period of year
for
conserving moisture
and
raising the temperature to moderately high levels for sufficient
periods
for
effective pest control
has been termed as
“polyethylene mulching” or “solar heating” or “soil
pasteurization” or “soil solarization”
SOIL SOLARIZATION

22. • Jain and Gupta (1996)
78.5 per cent reduction in M. javanicva
population in solarization compared to 73.3 per
cent reduction in summer ploughing
• Sharma and Nene (1990)
Solarization led to 93 per cent reduction in
population of different phytoparasitic
nematodes

23. INFLUENCE OF SUMMER SOLARIZATION ON POPULATION BEHAVIOUR OF
MELOIDOGYNE JAVANICA (1988-89)
(MEAN OF FOUR REPLICATGES)
TREATMENTS INITIAL NEMATODE
POPULATION PER
250g SOIL
BEFORE SOLARIZATION
PERCENT REDUCTION IN
NEMATODE POPULATION
OVER INITIAL LEVEL
AT SOWING TIME
M1 273.2 99.0
M2 217.7 96.8
M3 (CHECK) 240.5 80.0
C.D. AT 5 PER CENT
LEVEL
= NS
MAIN TREATMENTS :
M1 = ROOT KNOT NEMATODE INFE INFESTED FIELD LPLOUGHED AND
EXPOSED TO SUN FOR FOUR WEKS
M2 = ROOT KNOT NEMATODE INFESTED FIELD PLOUGHED AND
COVERED WITH POLYTHENE SHEET
M3 = NO PLOUGHING/COVERING

24. INFLUENCE OFSUMMER SOLARIZATION ON OKRA YIELD GROWN UNDER
MELOIDOGYNE JAVANICA INFESTED FIELD - (1988-89)
(MEAN OF FOUR REPLICATGES)
YIELD PER PLOT (Kg.)
TREATMENTS
TREATED UNTREATED MEAN
M1 4.3 4.0 4.2
M2 4.8 4.4 4.6
M3 (CHECK)
MEAN
3.7
4.3
3.0
3.8
3.4
C.D. AT 5 PER CENT
FOR
METHOD OF PLOUGHING = 0.4
TREATED/UNTREATED SEEDS = 0.4
INTERACTION = NS
OKRA SEDS TREATED WITH CARBOSULFON 50 @ 3% a.i. (w/w).
.

25. INFLUENCE OF SUMMER SOLARIZATION IN GALLING DUE TO THE
MELOIDOGYNE JAVANICA IN OKRA (1988-89)
(MEAN OF FOUR REPLICATGES)
ROOT KNOT INDEX ( 1 – 5 SCALE)
TREATMENTS
TREATED
SEEDS
UNTREATED
SEEDS
MEAN
M1 3.8 4.0 3.9
M2 2.6 3.9 3.3
M3 (CHECK) 4.0 4.8 4.4
MEAN 3.5 4.2
C.D. AT 5 PER CENT LEVEL FOR:
METHOD OF PLOUGHING = 0.6
TREATED/UNTREATED SEEDS = 0.5
INTERACTION = NS

26. ROLE OF SUMMER SOLARIZATION IN REDUCING ROOT KNOT
NEMATODE POPULATIONS
TREATMENTS
PER
CENT
POPULATION
IN
NEMATODE
POPULATION
SOLARIZATION NO SOLARIZATION

27. INFLUENCE OF SUMMER SOLARIZATION ON BRINJAL YIELD UNDER MELOIDOGYNE JAVANICA
INFESTED CONDITIONS (1987-88)
(MEAN OF THREE REPLICATES)
YIELD PER PLOT
(3.5 X 2.5 m)
(Kg.)
TREATMENTS INITIAL NEMATODE
POPULATION PER
250g SOIL BEFORE
SOLARIZATION
PERCENT REDUCTION IN
POPULATION OVER INITIAL
LEVEL AT
TRANSPLANTING T UT MEAN
M1 254.7 87.0 9.7 8.0 8.9
M2 247.8 94.9 8.8 8.2 8.5
M 3(CHECK) 228.0 77.6 7.4 6.3 6.9
MEAN 8.6 7.5
C.D. AT 5 PERCENT
FOR
= METHOD OF PLOUGHING = 0.9
TREATED/UNTREATED
NURSERY
= 0.8
INTERACTION = NS
MAIN TREATMENTS
M1 = ROOT KNOT NEMATODE INFESTED FIELD PLOUGHED AND EXPOSED TO SUN FOR 4 WEEKS
M2 = ROOT KNOT NEMATODE INFESTED FIELD PLOUGHED AND COVERED WITH POLYTHENE SHEED FOR 4 WEEKS
M3 = NO PLOUGHING/COVERING
SUB TREATMENTS
T = CARBOFURAN (USED @ 0.3g a.i./m
2
) TREATED NURSERY
UT = UNTREATED NURSERY

28. COMPARATIVE EFFICACY OF SOIL SOLARIZATION VIS-À-VIS NURSERY BED TREATMENT WITH CHEMICALS
FOR CONTROL OF ROOT-KNOT NEMATODE (M/ JAVANICA) IN TOMATO
INITIAL NEMATODE POPULATION IN THE NURSERY BEDS = 330 J2/250G SOIL
(MEAN OF THREE REPLICATES)
Treatment Shoot
Length
per plant
(cm)
Number of galls
Per 20 seedlings
At transplanting
Nematode
Population at
sowing time/
250cc soil
Per cent
decrease
In Nematode
Population
Over INP
Polythene mulching with clear LDPE (T1) 22.6 40.0 (2.4)* 24.9 (4.9)* 92.5
Polythene mulching with black LDPE (T2) 20.8 18.3(4.2) 41.7 (6.4) 87.4
Nursery beds treated with carbofuran
@ 0.2g a.i./m2
(T3)
20.9 18.0 (4.0) 58.3 (7.6) 82.3
Nursery beds treated with neem cake
@ 80g/m2
(T4)
27.3 38.7 (6.2) 91.6 (9.5) 72.5
Resistant-tomato nursery (Hisar-Lalit)
(T5)
21.5 3.0 (2.2) 119.3 (10.7) 63.8
Untreated Check (T6) 19.0 81.3 (9.0) 149.9 (12.2) 54.6
C.D. at 5% level 3.9 (1.9) (2.7)
 n- transformed values.

29. COMPARATIVE EFFICACY OF SOIL SOLARIZATION VIS-À-VIS NURSERY BED TREATMENT WITH CHEMICALS
FOR CONTROL OF ROOT-KNOT NEMATODE (M/ JAVANICA) IN TOMATO
INITIAL NEMATODE POPULATION (INP) IN THE NURSERY BEDS = 330 J2/250G SOIL
(MEAN OF THREE REPLICATES)
Treatment Yield per plant
(Kg)
Per cent increase
in yield over
check
Root-knot Index
(1-5 scale) at
harvest`
Polythene mulching with clear LDPE (T1) 4.8 71.4 2.5
Polythene mulching with black LDPE (T2) 4.4 57.1 2.6
Nursery beds treated with carbofuran
@ 0.2g a.i./m2
(T3)
3.9 39.3 2.6
Nursery beds treated with neem cake
@ 80g/m2
(T4)
3.6 28.6 3.2
Resistant-tomato nursery (Hisar-Lalit)
(T5)
4.4 57.1 1.5
Untreated Check (T6) 2.8 - 4.0
C.D. at 5 per cent level 1.0 0.7

30. Method of soil solarization
• Hottest month with minimum cloudy
weather
• Field thoroughly levelled
• Irrigation prior to laying of plastic film
• For medium textured soil single pre-
mulch irrigation is adequate

32. Choice of Mulching Material
• High Transparent polythene sheets
of 50-100 µm thickness are more
suitable
• Polyvinylchloride (PVC) sheets are
more effective than polythene
sheets

33. Effectiveness of S S depends on
• Period of solarization available
• Soil characteristics (Thermal
conductivity, chemical composition
and moisture content of soil)
• Type of mulching material
• Thermal sensitivity of target organism
• Available time in cropping system for
solarization

34. Principles of Soil Solarization
• Accumulation of heat in polyethylene
mulched soil by transmission of short
wave solar radiation but prevention of loss
of long wave radiation from soil
• Due to elimination of evaporation and
greenhouse effect of polyethylene
mulching, there is rise in temperatures
which helps in killing of nematodes
Contd…..

36. • A high soil moisture content is maintained,
which improves the thermal conductivity of
the soil
• There is increase in the microbial activities
and resultsin accumulation of gases, some
of which are toxic and release of mineral
ions, some of which are toxic to nematodes,
while others serve as nutrients or induce
resistance in subsequent crops
Contd.

37. • Prolonged exposure to high temp. causes
increased mortality or weakens the
pathogens, rendering them more vulnerable
to antagonists, and reduces their infectivity
and longevity.
• The water vapour condensing on the
polyethylene sheet in the form of
planoconvex droplets reduces heat loss and
also may concentrate the solar radiation.
Contd.

38. • Soil solarization results in concomitant
control of weeds and other pathogens,
some of which form disease complexes
with phytonematodes.

39. Effect of soil solarization on physico-chemical
properties and plant growth
• SS leads to appreciable increase in soil
organic matter, nitrate and ammonium,
nitrogen, calcium, magnesium and EC
of the soil.
• Chemical properties viz., total nitrogen,
available nitrogen, P and K were
increased in solarized soil which
imparts tolerance in plants against
phytonematodes
contd.

40. • Physical properties viz., soil porosity,
water holding capacity is improved.
Hence better plant growth due to
• Release of soluble plant nutrients
• Growth regulatory substances
• Destruction of phytotoxic substances
• Eliminationn of minor pathogens
• Stimulation of beneficial micro-organisms.

41. SS + chemotherapy
SS + host plant resistance
SS + other effective cultural practices
Soil Solarization as a component of INM.

42. EVALUATION OF SOLARIZATION AND NEEM CAKE APPLICATION IN THE MANAGEMENT OF ROOT-KNOT
NEMATODE (MELOIDOGYNE JAVANICA) AND YIELD OKRA.
Initial Nematode population in the field = 201 j2/250g soil
Nematode population at sowing time in solarized plots = 42 j2/250 g soil
(79.1 percent reduction over INP)
Nematode population at sowing time as non-solarized plots = 66 j2/250 g soil
(67.1 percent reduction over INP)
Yield per plot
(kg)
Percent
increase
over
check
Root-knot index at
harvest
Treatments
S NS Mean S NS Mean
TS + NC @ 100 kg/ha 8.5 6.5 7.5 53 3.1 3.7 3.4
TS + NC @ 200 kg/ha 10.4 9.2 9.8 100 2.7 3.2 2.9
US + NC @ 100 kg/ha 7.1 6.9 7.0 42.8 3.7 3.4 3.5
US + NC @ 200 kg/ha 8.5 7.2 7.9 61.2 3.8 3.5 3.6
Treated seeds (Carbosulfan)
@ 3.0 per cent a.i. (w/w) alone
7.3 4.5 5.9 20.4 3.7 3.9 3.8
Untreated Seeds alone (check) 5.9 3.9 4.9 - 4.3 4.8 4.5
Mean 8.0 6.4 - 3.5 3.7
C.D. at 5 percent for
Main Treatment: NS NS
Sub Treatment: 1.0 0.4
Interaction NS NS.

43. INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT OF
ROOT KNOT NEMATODE IN BRINJAL
TREATMENT COMBINATION OF
SUMMER SOLARIZATION + CARBOFURAN
TREATED NURSERY
64.0 PER CENT HIGHER YIELD AND 95 PER CENT
REDUCTION IN NEMATODE POPULATION

44. SUMMER SOLARIZATION +
CARBOSULFAN TREATED SEEDS +
NEEM CAKE AT SOWING IN OKRA
RECORDED
50 PER CENT HIGHER YIELD
AND
76 PER CENT REDUCTION IN
NEMATODE POPULATION

45. Advantages of soil Solarization
• Simultaneous control of pathogenic fungi,
some bacteria, soil insects, mites, weeds and
PPN.
• Better plant growth through modification of
physico-chemical properties of soil.
• Eco-friendly approach and no hazards to
humans and livestock
• Farmer’s can easily adopt it after a brief
demonstration particularly under nursery
raising area.

46. Disadvantages
• It can not be recommended for cool
climate with poor radiation
• Irrigation prior to solarization becomes
limiting factor sometimes
• Quality and cost of film is a limiting
factor
• Due to longer periods of SS there is
loss of summer crops and economic
returns/ unit area

47. Futuristic Approaches
• Need to determine the applicability,
timing and economics of solarization
• There is need for conducting detailed
studies on effect of SS on pests,
pathogen, non-target soil microflora
and microfauna
• Detailed investigations on effect of SS
on soil physico-chemical
characteristics