This presentation was given to Mr. Wasif Ali Waseer lecturer Sociology at UMT,Lahore by the students of Sociology in the class of Environmental Sociology.Topic presented was Emile Durkheim As Environmental Sociologist
This presentation was given to Mr. Wasif Ali Waseer lecturer Sociology at UMT,Lahore by the students of Sociology in the class of Environmental Sociology.Topic presented was Emile Durkheim As Environmental Sociologist
This version of the book is current as of: April 10, 2010. The current version of this book can be found at http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Sociology
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Chapter 7 SummaryCHAPTER SUMMARY
Contemporary Integrative Theories
This chapter describes theoretical efforts to integrate macro-level theories that deal with the structures and institutions of society with micro-level theories of everyday life. These integrative theories aim to overcome the limitations of either approach by balancing our understanding that individuals are free to interpret, influence, and act with our understanding of organizational and institutional constraints, power, and social reproduction. Richard Emerson’s exchange theory, Anthony Giddens’s structuration theory, and Pierre Bourdieu’s theory of practice each take distinctive approaches to this central problem in social theory.
A More Integrated Exchange Theory
Building on the work of George Homans, Richard Emerson (1925-1983) asserted that power was central to exchange, that actors are not entirely rational, and that social relations and networks could be used to explain both micro- and macro-level phenomena. Emerson’s exchange theory focuses on the rewards and costs of social interaction and takes social structure as a variable dependent on exchange. The theory assumes that people act rationally within the context of situations, thereby allowing the situations to occur. It also assumes that as people become satiated with the rewards they obtain from a situation, those situations will be of declining importance to them. Last, it assumes that benefits obtained depend on the benefits of exchange.
According to Emerson, social structure is produced and reproduced through exchange mechanisms. The exchange network is a web of social relationships that involves a number of individuals or groups. All individuals and groups have opportunities to exchange with others. These relationships interrelate with one another to form network structure. Each exchange relationship is embedded in a larger exchange network.
In exchange theory, power is defined as the potential cost that one actor can induce another to accept. Dependency is the potential cost that an actor is willing to accept within an exchange relationship. Mutual dependencies condition the nature of an interaction. When there is an imbalance of power and dependency between two actors, the one with more power and less dependence will have an advantage that can be used to collect rewards or distribute punishments. Exchange theorists argue that the relative power of an actor is determined by the position of an actor in an exchange network. The amount of dependence of the entire structure on the position will determine its power. This perspective can be used to examine both the social behavior of individuals and social structure. It can also be used to examine how changes in power-dependency at the micro-level affect macro-level phenomena and vice-versa.
Structuration Theory
Structuration theory focuses on the mutual constitution of structure and agency. Anthony Giddens (1938- ) argues that structure an.
Social change is an alteration in the social order of a society. Social change may include changes in nature, social institutions, social behaviours, or social relations.
1. STRUCTURATION THEORY
The Positivist Structuralist –Interactionism juxtaposition is
characterised by...
1. Giddens claims that this juxtaposition is dead because most sociologists apply both theories
and methods. Consequently there is a duality of structure (they are simply two sides of the
same coin – structure and action are not separate) this is because...
For example
a) Language
b) Anti school subcultures – eg Willis
c) Transgressive gender identities
Consequently, Structure does not
exist without Action
2. Agency reproduces structure because of the
existence of:
a. RULES
b. RESOURCES
Eg the existence of social, educational, economic and cultural capital affects parentocracy and
reproduces social class inequalities. This almost makes Giddens like a Neo-Marxist lite’?) because...
2. For Giddens,
structural
change
happens
because people
are
knowledgeable
about the social
world and have
their own
motivations
and meanings
This is because the GLOBALISED LATE MODERN society we now life in has
helped people to become more REFLEXIVE, enabling them to change their e.g.
Giddens theories of family relationships (plastic sexuality) – in other words
patriarchy is merely a resource some people draw on but does not have to be
reproduced, eg the new man, ladettes
So, for Giddens human behaviour is not DETERMINED as the Positivist-
structuralists argue, rather it is a product of RELATIVE CHOICE AND FREEDOM
Criticisms of Giddens focus on his OPTIMISM, eg his opinion that we can move from an exclusive to an
inclusive (communitarian) society.
1. Can individuals really change structure (Archer)?
2. Do individuals really have full control of all the
structural resources? (Archer)
3. Can you claim patriarchy or capitalism is just a
resource?
4. Habermas claims
that unconscious action does
support structure but can be changed
through direct political action – eg
slut walk
5. Structuration theory is not really a theory of change but just a description
of a version of reality (Craib)
6. But did heavily influence New Labour policies: Renew civil society –
make citizens active – aware not just of their rights but also of their duties and responsibilities
3. eg policies proposing the renewal of civil (communitarian) society through policy (citizenship,
people’s charters)