CHANGE AND DEVELOPMENT IN RURAL SOCIETY_ PLUS TWO SOCIOLOGY- CHAPTER 11.pptxJunaidPattambi
PLUS TWO CHAPTER 11-
Transformation of Rural Society
an increase in the use of agricultural labour as cultivation became more intensive; a shift from payment in kind (grain) to payment in cash; a loosening of traditional bonds or hereditary relationships between farmers or landowners and agricultural workers (known as bonded labour);
Rural development is a dynamic process, which is mainly concerned with the rural areas. These include agricultural growth, putting up of economic and social infrastructure, fair wages as also housing and house sites for the landless, village planning, public health, education and functional literacy, communication etc.
Improving the quality of life of the rural population. To improve the infrastructure of the rural areas. To reduce unemployment by providing opportunities for employment. To provide clean water, education facilities, electricity and proper communication.
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Social stratification is a kind of social differentiation whereby a society groups people into socioeconomic strata, based upon their occupation and income, wealth and social status, or derived power.
CHANGE AND DEVELOPMENT IN RURAL SOCIETY_ PLUS TWO SOCIOLOGY- CHAPTER 11.pptxJunaidPattambi
PLUS TWO CHAPTER 11-
Transformation of Rural Society
an increase in the use of agricultural labour as cultivation became more intensive; a shift from payment in kind (grain) to payment in cash; a loosening of traditional bonds or hereditary relationships between farmers or landowners and agricultural workers (known as bonded labour);
Rural development is a dynamic process, which is mainly concerned with the rural areas. These include agricultural growth, putting up of economic and social infrastructure, fair wages as also housing and house sites for the landless, village planning, public health, education and functional literacy, communication etc.
Improving the quality of life of the rural population. To improve the infrastructure of the rural areas. To reduce unemployment by providing opportunities for employment. To provide clean water, education facilities, electricity and proper communication.
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Social stratification is a kind of social differentiation whereby a society groups people into socioeconomic strata, based upon their occupation and income, wealth and social status, or derived power.
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Westernization (US) or Westernisation (UK), also Europeanization/Europeanisation or occidentalization/occidentalisation (from the Occident), is a process whereby societies come under or adopt a Western culture in areas such as industry, technology, politics, economics, lifestyle, law, norms, mores, customs, traditions,
Topic of Sociology, Introduction and theories, evolutionary theory, THEORIES, Evolutionary theory , Cyclic theory, Functional theory and conflict theory, Processes of Social change, discovery, invention, diffusion, Factors of Change, Resistance and acceptance and consequences
Define the concept social change
Theories of social change
Discuss the characteristics of social change
Discuss the following sources of social change
Cultural innovation
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this ppt will help you to understand the concept of marginalization . The pictures, comic strip, questions etc. will help you to learn more efficiently.
Sociology is the systematic and scientific study of human social life. Sociologists study people as they form groups and interact with one another. The groups they study may be small, such as married couples, or large, such as a subculture of suburban teenagers. Sociology places special emphasis on studying societies, both as individual entities and as elements of a global perspective.
The above given presentation is about the Urban Society.
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Westernization (US) or Westernisation (UK), also Europeanization/Europeanisation or occidentalization/occidentalisation (from the Occident), is a process whereby societies come under or adopt a Western culture in areas such as industry, technology, politics, economics, lifestyle, law, norms, mores, customs, traditions,
Topic of Sociology, Introduction and theories, evolutionary theory, THEORIES, Evolutionary theory , Cyclic theory, Functional theory and conflict theory, Processes of Social change, discovery, invention, diffusion, Factors of Change, Resistance and acceptance and consequences
Define the concept social change
Theories of social change
Discuss the characteristics of social change
Discuss the following sources of social change
Cultural innovation
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this ppt will help you to understand the concept of marginalization . The pictures, comic strip, questions etc. will help you to learn more efficiently.
Sociology is the systematic and scientific study of human social life. Sociologists study people as they form groups and interact with one another. The groups they study may be small, such as married couples, or large, such as a subculture of suburban teenagers. Sociology places special emphasis on studying societies, both as individual entities and as elements of a global perspective.
The above given presentation is about the Urban Society.
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Human Behavior and the Social Environment I
Human Behavior and the
Social Environment I
SUSAN TYLER
U N I V E R S I T Y O F A R K A N S A S L I B R A R I E S
F AY E T T E V I L L E , A R
Human Behavior and the Social Environment I by Susan Tyler is licensed under a
Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License,
except where otherwise noted.
All content CC BY-NC-SA unless otherwise noted.
Contents
Introduction 1
Attributions 6
Part I. The Person in Environment
Chapter 1: How We Use Our Expectations 25
Part II. The Biopsychosocial Dimension
Chapter 2: Lifespan Theories 79
Part III. The Sociocultural Dimension
Chapter 3: Theoretical Perspectives 105
Chapter 4: The Elements of Culture 120
Part IV. The Social Change Dimension
Chapter 5: Social Categorization & Stereotyping 161
Chapter 6: In-group Favoritism & Prejudice 191
Chapter 7: Reducing Discrimination 210
Chapter 8: Racial & Ethnic Inequality 233
Part V. Pre-Pregnancy & Prenatal Development
Chapter 9: Heredity, Prenatal Development, &
Birth
Heredity 280
Prenatal Development 291
Birth 320
279
Part VI. Development in Infancy & Toddlerhood
Chapter 10: Physical Development in Infancy &
Toddlerhood
347
Chapter 11: Cognitive Development in Infancy &
Toddlerhood
387
Chapter 12: Psychosocial Development in Infancy
& Toddlerhood
Infant Emotions 429
Forming Attachments 433
425
Part VII. Development in Early Childhood
Chapter 13: Physical Development in Early
Childhood
465
Chapter 14: Cognitive Development in Early
Childhood
502
Chapter 15: Psychosocial Development in Early
Childhood
551
Part VIII. Development in Middle Childhood
Chapter 16: Physical Development in Middle
Childhood
603
Chapter 17: Cognitive Development in Middle
Childhood
630
Chapter 18: Psychosocial Development in Middle
Childhood
690
Part IX. Development in Adolescence
Chapter 19: Physical Development in Adolescence 733
Chapter 20: Cognitive Development in
Adolescence
763
Chapter 21: Psychosocial Development in
Adolescence
786
Part X. Development in Early Adulthood
Chapter 22: Physical Development in Early
Adulthood
815
Chapter 23: Cognitive Development in Early
Adulthood
861
Chapter 24: Psychosocial Development in Early
Adulthood
897
Part XI. Development in Middle Adulthood
Chapter 25: Physical Development in Middle
Adulthood
959
Chapter 26: Cognitive Development in Middle
Adulthood
1023
Chapter 27: Psychosocial Development in Middle
Adulthood
1064
Part XII. Development in Late Adulthood
Chapter 28: Physical Development in Late
Adulthood
1135
Chapter 29: Cognitive Development in Late
Adulthood
1197
Chapter 30: Psychosocial Development in Late
Adulthood
1245
Additional Resources 1299
Adopt this book! 1302
Why do people do the things they do?
That’s what we are here to find out – Human Behavior and the
Social Environment (HBSE) – How do they connect? How does it
shape us? Why do we thi ...
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The best Careers in Sociology updated 2023 doc 8.docxintel-writers.com
Careers in sociology
offer a wide range of opportunities for individuals interested in studying and understanding human society and social behavior. Here is a discussion on the various career paths within sociology:
Research and Academia: Many sociologists pursue careers in research and academia. They work as professors, researchers, and scholars in universities, colleges, and research institutions. They conduct research, publish academic papers, and contribute to the knowledge and understanding of sociological theories and concepts.
Applied Sociology: Applied sociologists utilize their knowledge and skills to address social issues and provide practical solutions. They work in diverse settings such as government agencies, non-profit organizations, consulting firms, and social service agencies. Applied sociologists may focus on areas like community development, social policy, program evaluation, or social advocacy.
Social Services and Human Resources: Sociologists can find rewarding careers in social services and human resources sectors. They work in roles such as social workers, counselors, program managers, or human resource specialists. Sociological knowledge helps them understand the dynamics of social problems, develop intervention strategies, and create inclusive and equitable workplaces.
Market Research and Data Analysis: Sociologists with expertise in research methods and data analysis can find opportunities in market research firms and organizations. They conduct consumer research, analyze data, and provide insights into consumer behavior, social trends, and market dynamics. Their sociological perspective helps in understanding the social factors that shape consumer choices and preferences.
Policy Analysis and Advocacy: Sociologists can contribute to policy development and advocacy work. They analyze social issues, evaluate policy effectiveness, and make recommendations for social change. Sociologists working in this field often collaborate with government agencies, think tanks, advocacy groups, and public policy organizations.
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Co-operative lifestyle - Invitation to come back to RochdaleRyszard Stocki
Co-operatives are organizations that, by definition, adhere to a certain set of values and principles. The values were first formulated in Rochdale, where the first co-operative was founded. These values and principles, as any values and principles, should permeate the lifestyles of all those who identify with them. Individuals' exposure to these values and principles will vary between worker co-ops and other types of co-ops. While members of a co-operative bank or consumer coop may only visit once a week, in a worker co-op, people are exposed to the co-operative values for 8 hours a day. Geof Cox noted on LinkedIn that as such, worker co-ops may be considered a "lifestyle business".
Unlike values, lifestyle can easily be measured. Marketing specialists in the USA or Canada may quite reliably identify your lifestyle if you give them your postal code; doctors can conjecture it from seeing you for just a few seconds. Sociologists may deduce how you live from your taste - i.e. aesthetic choices. We simultaneously expose our lifestyle and are exposed, continuously, to the lifestyle of others. Some lifestyles spread like viruses creating a pandemic of consumerism. However, these product-based lifestyles are in complete opposition to the person-oriented lifestyle of: “self-help, self-responsibility, democracy, equality, equity, solidarity, honesty, openness, social responsibility and caring for others.” Indeed, to follow the co-operative lifestyle seems more difficult now than it was in Rochdale times.
One of the first and more important reasons is related to our mobility and flexibility. In 1980, futurist Alvin Toffler predicted that as our society's work patterns become increasingly individualized, it would lead to greater social isolation due to a reduction in common "off-work" time (e.g. Sunday church services, evenings at the pub, community gatherings).
Toffler observes that we structure relationships differently now; rather than spending a lifetime getting to know our neighbours in a small village, we might meet and make new friends every week; and yet, we also drift apart more quickly - as we move on to a new sports team, a new job, a new city of residence. This shortening of the duration of our relationships has impacted many aspects of our everyday life - including our relationship to co-operatives. Now, people follow work, and not the other way round. The Rochdale pioneers did not dream about the challenges a community-based business has to face today.
In slide 7 I show the complexity of a modern lifestyle. I would like to investigate to what degree an individual's lifestyle impacts the functioning of a worker co-op. I am conducting a participatory research project of co-operative lifestyles today. I would like to invite co-operatives and their members not just to fill in questionnaires, but work together on developing them, in a true participatory approach.
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June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
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Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
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The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
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Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
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The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
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Introducing Sociology >> Terms, Concepts and their use in Sociology >> Contents
Contents
1. Why does Sociology need a special set of terms?
2. Social Collectivities, their nature and types
3. Groups
4. Social Stratification
5. Status, Role and Prestige
6. Social Control
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1. Why does Sociology need a special set of terms?
We are so well acquainted with the social
institutions that surround us that we
cannot see them clearly and precisely
Peter L. Berger
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Introducing Sociology >> Terms, Concepts and their use in Sociology >> Why the terms
1. Why does Sociology need a special set of terms?
Concepts are not fixed frozen entities. They often change with time.
Shared
Understanding
• The colloquial
meaning of words
is often unclear and
imprecise making it
difficult to use them
technically.
• A clear meaning
has to be assigned
to the terms for
scientific use.
Background
• Terms and
concepts tell us the
‘story’ of their
development, and
so, of the field, in a
concise way
Tools
• Terms and
concepts are the
tools that help us
understand reality,
for sociologists
society is the
reality.
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Introducing Sociology >> Terms, Concepts and their use in Sociology >> Contents
Contents
1. Why does Sociology need a special set of terms?
2. Social Collectivities, their nature and types
3. Groups
4. Social Stratification
5. Status, Role and Prestige
6. Social Control
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Introducing Sociology >> Terms, Concepts and their use in Sociology >> Social Collectivities
2. Social Collectivities, and their nature
• A defining feature of human life is that humans interact,
communicate and construct social collectivities.
• If we look at comparative studies and history, it is clear that:
1. Human Groups and Collectivities exist in every society irrespective
of the period and region to which they belong
2. Types of groups and collectivities are different in different
societies
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Introducing Sociology >> Terms, Concepts and their use in Sociology >> Types of Collectivities
2.1. Types of Collectivities
Aggregate
• A collection of people who are in
the same place at the same
time. They share no definite
connection with one another.
Quasi Group
• An aggregate or combination,
which lacks structure or
organisation, and whose
members may be unaware/less
aware, of the existence of
groupings.
• Ex: social classes, status, age
and gender groups.
• Quasi groups may become
social groups in time and in
specific circumstances. They
may be infused with a sense of
“we” feeling. Example: people of
‘India’ developed an identity as
a collective group over the
course of its freedom struggle,
due to their shared destiny.
Social Group
• A collection of continuously
interacting persons within a
given society, with common
interest, culture, values and
norms.
• Characteristics
• Persistent interaction to
provide continuity
• A stable pattern of these
interactions
• Members identify with other
members – he/she is
conscious of the group itself
and its own set of rules, rituals
and symbols
• Shared interest
• Acceptance of common norms
and values
• A defined social structure -
pattern of regular and
repetitive interactions between
individuals or groups.
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Introducing Sociology >> Terms, Concepts and their use in Sociology >> Contents
Contents
1. Why does Sociology need a special set of terms?
2. Social Collectivities, their nature and types
3. Groups
4. Social Stratification
5. Status, Role and Prestige
6. Social Control
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3. Terms and Concepts in Sociology
Sociology
Groups
Primary vs.
Secondary
Community vs.
Society
In-Groups vs.
Out-Groups
Reference
Group
Peer Groups
Social
Stratification
Caste
Class
Status and Role
Introducing Sociology >> Terms, Concepts and their use in Sociology >> Classification of Social Groups
Types of Groups
Sociologists and social
anthropologists have
categorised groups usually
by contrasting the manner
in which people form groups
in traditional and small scale
societies to that of modern
and large scale societies.
They were influenced by the
difference between close,
intimate, face-to-face
interaction in traditional
societies and impersonal,
detached, distant interaction
in modern societies
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Introducing Sociology >> Terms, Concepts and their use in Sociology >> Classification of Social Groups
3.1. Primary vs. Secondary Social Groups
The categorisation of groups based on their importance to
the individual. Some groups tend to influence many aspects
of our lives and bring us into personal association with others.
Primary Group
• A small group of people
• Intimate and face-to-face
association and co-operation.
• Person-oriented
• Members of primary groups
have a sense of belonging.
• Ex: family, village and groups
of friends.
Secondary Groups
• Relatively large in size
• Maintain formal and
impersonal relationships
• Goal-oriented
• Ex: schools, offices, hospitals,
students’ associations etc.
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Introducing Sociology >> Terms, Concepts and their use in Sociology >> Classification of Social Groups
3.2. Community vs. Society/Association
• Categorisation of groups by comparing the old traditional and
agrarian way of life with the new modern and urban one in terms of
their different and contrasting social relationships and lifestyles
• This approach dates back to writings of classical sociologists.
‘Community’
• Refers to human relationships that
are highly personal, intimate and
enduring, those where a person’s
involvement is considerable if not
total, as in the family, with real
friends or a close-knit group.
‘Society’ or ‘Association’
• Refers to everything opposite of
‘community’, in particular the
apparently impersonal, superficial
and transitory relationships of
modern urban life.
• We make contracts or agreements
rather than getting to know one
another.
• Commerce and industry require a
more calculating, rational and self-
interesting approach to one’s
dealings with others.
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Introducing Sociology >> Terms, Concepts and their use in Sociology >> Classification of Social Groups
3.3. In-Groups vs. Out-Groups
Ingroup
• Marked by a sense of
belonging.
• This feeling separates ‘us’ or
‘we’ from ‘them’ or ‘they’.
• Ex: Children belonging to a
particular school may form an
‘in-group’ as against those
who do not belong to the
school.
Out-group
• One to which the members of
an ingroup do not belong.
• The members of an out-group
can face hostile reactions
from the members of the in-
group.
• Ex: Migrants
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Introducing Sociology >> Terms, Concepts and their use in Sociology >> Classification of Social Groups
3.4. Reference Groups and Peer Groups
• The groups an individual may look up to, and
aspire to be like, and whose lifestyles he/she
emulates
• We do not belong to our reference groups, but
we identify ourselves with that group
• They are important sources of information
about culture, lifestyle, aspiration and goal
attainments.
Reference Groups
• They are a kind of primary group, usually
formed between individuals who are either of
similar age or who are in a common
professional group
• Peer pressure refers to the social pressure
exerted by one’s peers regarding what one
ought to do or not.
Peer Groups
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Introducing Sociology >> Terms, Concepts and their use in Sociology >> Contents
Contents
1. Why does Sociology need a special set of terms?
2. Social Collectivities, their nature and types
3. Groups
4. Social Stratification
5. Status, Role and Prestige
6. Social Control
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4. Terms and Concepts in Sociology
Sociology
Groups
Primary vs.
Secondary
Community vs.
Society
In-Groups vs.
Out-Groups
Reference
Group
Peer Groups
Social
Stratification
Caste
Class
Estate
Slavery
Introducing Sociology >> Terms, Concepts and their use in Sociology >> Social Stratification
Social Stratification
• It refers to the existence of
structural inequalities between
different groups of people in
society, in terms of their access to
material or symbolic rewards.
• Inequality of power and
advantage is central for
sociology, because of its crucial
place in the organisation of
society
• Opportunities for health, longevity,
security, educational success,
fulfilment in work and political
influence are all unequally
distributed in systematic ways.
• Historically four basic systems of
stratification have existed in
human societies: caste, class,
estate, and slavery.
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Introducing Sociology >> Terms, Concepts and their use in Sociology >> Social Stratification
4.1. Caste
• In a caste stratification system an individual’s position totally
depends on the status attributes ascribed by birth rather than on
life achievements.
• In traditional India, different castes formed a hierarchy of social
precedence. Each position in the caste structure was defined in terms
of its purity or pollution relative to others.
• The traditional system is generally conceptualised in terms of the
four fold varna of Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. In
reality there are innumerable occupation-based caste groups,
called jatis.
• With the advent of modern society and democracy in India things
are changing, practices such as endogamy and ritual avoidance of
contact have seen a gradual decline forced by the new realities,
however, the discrimination continues to persist.
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Introducing Sociology >> Terms, Concepts and their use in Sociology >> Social Stratification
4.2. Class
• Marxist Theory
− Social classes are defined by their relation to the means of production.
− Are the groups owners of means of production such as land or factories, or do
they own nothing but their labour?
• Weber
− Life-chances: refers to the rewards and advantages afforded by market capacity.
− Inequality, might be based on economic relations. But, it could also be based on
prestige or on political power.
• Functionalist Theory
− General presupposition of functionalism - no society is “classless” or unstratified
− Social inequality or stratification is an unconsciously evolved device by which
societies ensure that the most important positions are deliberately filled by the
most qualified persons
• Compared to the caste system, the modern class system is open and
achievement-based.
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Introducing Sociology >> Terms, Concepts and their use in Sociology >> Contents
Contents
1. Why does Sociology need a special set of terms?
2. Social Collectivities, their nature and types
3. Groups
4. Social Stratification
5. Status, Role and Prestige
6. Social Control
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5. Terms and Concepts in Sociology
Sociology
Status
Status set
Status sequence
Ascribed vs.
Achieved status
Role
Role-taking
Role-playing
Role Conflict
Role
Stereotyping
Prestige
Introducing Sociology >> Terms, Concepts and their use in Sociology >> Status and Role
Status vs. Role
• A status is simply a position in
society or in a group.
• Every society and every group
has many such positions and
every individual occupies many
such positions.
• Status is thus a social position
with defined rights and duties
assigned to these positions.
• Status has many norms of
conduct as well as certain
responsibilities and prerogatives.
• Role is the behavioural or
dynamic aspect of status.
Status is occupied, roles are
played.
• A status is an institutionalised
role – one that is regularised,
standardised and formalised in
the society at large or in any of
the specific associations of
society.
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Introducing Sociology >> Terms, Concepts and their use in Sociology >> Status and Role
5.1. Status
Status Set • Multiple statuses occupied by an individual in a modern society
• Ex: a son to a father, is a customer to a seller, a passenger to a cab driver, a patient to a
doctor, a brother to a sister
Status
Sequence
• Individuals attain different status in succession or sequence at various stages of life.
• Ex: a son today, becomes a father tomorrow, and grandfather after that.
Prestige • Every status is accorded certain rights and values. Values are attached to the social
position, rather than to the person who occupies it or to his/her performance or to
his/her actions.
• The kind of value attached to the status or to the office is called prestige.
• Ideas of what occupation is prestigious varies across societies and across periods
Ascribed Status
• a social position, which a person occupies
because of birth, or assumes involuntarily
• bases for the status are age, caste, race,
kinship etc.
• Simple and traditional societies are marked
by ascribed status.
Achieved Status
• a social position which a person occupies
voluntarily by personal ability,
achievements, virtues and choices.
• bases for the status are educational
qualifications, income, professional expertise
etc.
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Introducing Sociology >> Terms, Concepts and their use in Sociology >> Status and Role
5.2. Role
Role taking
and
Role playing
• People perform their roles according to social expectations, i.e. role taking and role
playing.
• A child learns to behave according to how her behaviour is seen and judged by others.
Role Conflict • Role conflict is the incompatibility among roles corresponding to one or more status.
• It occurs when contrary expectations arise from two or more roles.
• Ex: a woman’s role as a mother vs. her role as a professional
Role
Stereotyping
• a process of reinforcing some specific role for some member of the society
• Ex: gender-based roles
Socialisation
and Roles
• Social roles and status are often wrongly seen as fixed and unchanging. It is felt that
individuals learn the expectations that surround social positions in their particular culture
and perform these roles largely as they have been defined.
• Through socialisation, individuals internalise social roles and learn how to carry them out.
This view, however, is mistaken. It suggests that individuals simply take on roles, rather
than creating or negotiating them.
• Socialisation is the process through which humans exercise agency - they are not
simply passive subjects waiting to be instructed or programmed. Individuals come to
understand and assume social roles through an ongoing process of social interaction.
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Introducing Sociology >> Terms, Concepts and their use in Sociology >> Contents
Contents
1. Why does Sociology need a special set of terms?
2. Social Collectivities, their nature and types
3. Groups
4. Social Stratification
5. Status, Role and Prestige
6. Social Control
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Introducing Sociology >> Terms, Concepts and their use in Sociology >> Social Control
6. Social Control
Social
Control
The social process that leverages various means - techniques and
strategies, to regulate the behaviours of recalcitrant or unruly individuals
or groups
Functional Perspective
• Social control refers to:
1. the use of force to regulate the
behaviour of the individual and groups
and
2.enforcing of values and patterns for
maintaining order in society.
• Social control here is directed to:
1. restrain deviant behaviour of individuals
or groups, and
2. mitigate tensions and conflicts among
individuals and groups to maintain
social order and social cohesion.
• Social control, is therefore, seen as
necessary to stability in society.
Conflict Theorists’ Perspective
• Social control is a mechanism to impose
the social control of dominant social
classes on the rest of society.
• Stability is seen as the writ of one section
over the other
• Law is seen as the formal writ of the
powerful and their interests on society.
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Introducing Sociology >> Terms, Concepts and their use in Sociology >> Social Control
6.1. Formal vs. Informal Social Control
Formal Social Control
• Codified, systematic, and
other formal mechanism of
control
• There are agencies and
mechanisms of formal social
control, such as law and the
state.
• In a modern society, formal
mechanisms and agencies of
social control are emphasised.
Informal Social Control
• Personal, unofficial and
uncodified.
• Methods of informal social
control include smiles, making
faces, body language, frowns,
criticism, ridicule, laughter etc.
Their use can vary even within
the same society.
• In day to day life they are
quite effective.
• Agencies of informal social
control include family, religion,
kinship, etc.
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Introducing Sociology >> Terms, Concepts and their use in Sociology >> Social Control
6.2. Sanction and Deviance
Deviance • Modes of action which do not conform to the norms or
values held by most of the members of a group or
society.
• What is regarded as ‘deviant’ is as widely varies according
to the norms and values prevalent in the specific culture
and subculture.
• Ideas of deviance are challenged and change from one
period to another.
Sanction • A mode of reward or punishment that reinforces socially
expected forms of behaviour.
• Rewards are used to enforce good and expected
behaviour.
• Negative sanctions are used to enforce rules and to
restrain deviance.
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