This document provides an overview of hypothesis formulation in research methods in psychology. It defines a hypothesis as a tentative and testable statement about the possible relationship between two or more variables. It discusses the importance of formulating clear and testable hypotheses to guide research. The main types of hypotheses are the null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis. The document outlines considerations for formulating good hypotheses, such as operationalizing variables and reviewing relevant literature. Challenges in hypothesis formulation include a lack of theoretical frameworks or evidence. Errors in hypothesis testing can occur through faulty sampling, measurement, study design, or statistical analysis.

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Hypothesis Formulation
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Hypothesis Formulation >> Contents
Contents
1. What is a Hypothesis?
2. What is a Good Hypothesis?
3. What are the Types of Hypotheses?
4. How is a Hypothesis formulated?
10

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Hypothesis Formulation >> What is a Hypothesis
1. What is a Hypothesis
• Scientific inquiries start with the statement of a solvable problem. When the problem has been
stated, a tentative solution in the form of a testable proposition is offered by the researcher.
• Hypothesis gives direction and helps the researcher to interpret data
• To be useful, hypothesis should be stated in a way that it can be subjected to empirical testing.
• The researcher determines usefulness of the formulated hypothesis, and also suggests or finds
a way to test the hypothesis against empirical data
Hypothesis
• A tentative and testable statement about the possible relationship between two
or more events or variables under investigation
• ‘A testable statement of a potential relationship between two or more variables,
i.e. advanced as a potential solution to the problem’ (Mcguigan, 1990)
• ‘A conjectural statement of the relation between two or more variables’
(Kerlinger, 1973)

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Hypothesis Formulation >> What is Hypothesis
1.1. Importance of Hypothesis Formulation
It is useful to have a clear idea and vision about the hypothesis - the research question to be verified -
as it will direct the research and greatly help the interpretation of the results.
1. Prevents Research Problems
• Research which is not planned properly is often unable to meet the high criteria of empirical
validity and reliability – landing into problems.
• Formulating a simple, brief and clear scientific hypothesis, can prevent such problems from
happening.
2. Gives Direction to the Research Effort
• Accordingly to Goode and Hatt, ‘without’ hypothesis formulation the research is unfocussed, a
random empirical wandering. The facts which surface in the results cannot be interpreted and
given a clear meaning.
3. Links Theory and Investigation
• This leads to discovery of, and addition to knowledge
4. Brings Focus to Data Collection
• A specific hypothesis narrows the focus of the data collection effort, and
• Enables designing of a data collection procedure which can test the hypothesis

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Hypothesis Formulation >> What is a Good Hypothesis
2. What is a Good Hypothesis
Characteristics/Criteria of a Good Research Hypothesis
A good hypothesis is one which meets the following criteria to a large extent:
Good
Hypothesis
Conceptually
Clear
Testable
Related to
Extant Theory
Logically
United and
Comprehensive
Verifiable
Operationally
Usable

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Hypothesis Formulation >> What are the Types of Hypothesis
3. What are the Types of Hypothesis
• Theoretically, there is only one type of hypothesis on the basis of investigation that is, research
hypothesis
• However, depending on the conventions in scientific enquiries and wording used in the hypothesis
construction, hypotheses can be classified into several types like: universal hypotheses, existential
hypotheses, conceptual hypotheses etc.
• There are two important categories of Hypothesis:
Hypothesis
Null
Hypothesis
Alternative
Hypothesis
Directional
Hypothesis
Non-
Directional
Hypothesis
H0 asserts that there is no
true difference between
two population means
It represents researcher’s point of
view about the relationship
between the two variables

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Hypothesis Formulation >> What are the Types of Hypothesis
3.1. Null Hypothesis - H0
• It is a useful tool for testing the significance of difference, but it is of no scientific interest.
• Traditionally, H0 stated that there is zero relationship between terms of the hypothesis.
• Example:
− Schizophrenics do not differ from normal people with respect to digit span memory
− There is no relationship between intelligence and height.
• H0 is an important component of the decision making methods of inferential statistics.
• If the difference between the samples of means is found to be statistically significant, researcher
can reject H0.
• Acceptance of H0, indicates that differences are due to chance.
• H0 should always be specific hypothesis - it shouldn’t state about or approximately a certain value.
• H0 is often stated as: H0 : μvariable 1 = μvariable 2
− Thus, the null hypothesis is that the mean of the population of variable 1 is equal to the mean of
the population of variable 2.
Null
Hypothesis
H0 usually asserts that there is no true difference between two population means,
i.e., the difference between sample means is accidental and unimportant - arising out
of fluctuation of sampling and, by chance.

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Hypothesis Formulation >> What are the Types of Hypothesis
3.2. Alternative Hypothesis – H1 / Hα
• The researcher might hope that the sample data leads to acceptance of the alternative hypothesis
• It represents possibilities other than Null Hypothesis and indicates the nature of relationship.
• Alternative hypothesis is stated as: H1 : μvariable 1 (<, >, <=, >=, ?) μvariable 2
− H1 states that the mean of population of variable 1 is (<, >, <=, >=, ?) the mean of population of
variable 2
Types of Alternative Hypotheses
Alternative
Hypothesis
It specifies the values that represent the researcher’s point of view about the
relationship and its nature, and typically, holds true according to him/her
Alternative
Hypothesis
Directional
Hypothesis
Non-
Directional
Hypothesis
Researcher predicts the direction
in which the relationship between
the population means will vary
Researcher just predicts that
the two groups will differ, not
which group will be higher
Non-Directional Hypothesis
The null and alternative
hypothesis are stated as
follows:
H0 : μvariable 1 = μvariable 2
H1 : μvariable 1 ? μvariable 2
Thus, null hypothesis is that
means of group 1 and group 2
are equal. The alternative
hypothesis is that the mean of
group 1 does not equal the
mean of group 2.

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Hypothesis Formulation >> What is Hypothesis Formulation
4. What is Hypothesis Formulation
The scientific method involves the following process:
• In some cases additional hypothesis may be formulated after collection of data, but they
should be tested on a new set of data and not on the old set which suggested it.
• Usually the hypothesis is derived from the problem statement – the question about human
behaviour that often interests a researcher because of personal reasons
• But, it is critical that the researcher brings methodological criteria to bear on the selection of the
hypothesis to be tested. In other words, Good hypothesis are made, not born.
• Example: research on the effect of reward on learning. Analyses of past research indicated that the
two variables are positively related. This idea needs to be converted into a testable statement - the
hypothesis. Like, the rewarded subjects require lesser number of trials to learn the lesson than the
subjects who are not rewarded
Observation
Hypothesis
Formulation
Hypothesis
Testing.
Hypothesis
Formulation
It is a creative task involving a lot of thinking, imagination and innovation, where
the researcher frames the hypothesis in a positive and substantive form, to guide the

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Hypothesis Formulation >> What is Hypothesis Formulation
4.1. How is Hypothesis Formulated
• Reichenbach (1938) made a distinction between the two processes found commonly in any
hypothesis formulation task: context of discovery, and, context of justification.
− Context of Discovery: Hypotheses is ‘discovered’ from earlier research findings, existing theories
and personal observations, and experience.
− A scientist is concerned with the context of justification in the development of a hypothesis.
− He never uses raw ideas or thoughts in the formulation of a hypothesis. Rather, he rationally/
logically reconstructs his ideas or thoughts and draws some justifiable inferences from them.
− When a scientist reconstructs his thoughts and communicates them in the form of a hypothesis to
others, he uses the context of justification - he extensively as well as intensively surveys a mass of
data, abstracts them, tries to find out similarities among the abstracted data and finally makes a
generalisation or deduces a preposition in the form of a hypothesis.

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Considerations in Hypothesis Formulation
19
Hypothesis Formulation >> What is Hypothesis Formulation
4.2. Considerations in Hypothesis Formulation
• The literature leads a researcher to expect a
certain relationship. Hypothesis is a statement
assumed to be true, for the purpose of testing
its validity.
• As suggested by Russell and Reichenbach
(1947), the hypotheses should be stated in the
logical form on the general implications. A
hypothesis can be put in the form of an if-then
statement; if A is true then B should follow.
• Example: verbal development theory of
amnesia states that childhood amnesia is
caused by the development of language.
− To test this theory, the researcher can make
a hypothesis, that if the lack of verbal ability
is responsible for childhood amnesia, then the
children should not be able to verbally recall
events usually words that they did not know
at the time of events
Expected relationship or differences
between variables
Operational definition of variable
Literature should be reviewed
before hypotheses formulation

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Hypothesis Formulation >> What is Hypothesis Formulation
4.3. Difficulties in Hypotheses Formulation
A researcher might face three major difficulties in formulating a good hypothesis:
Unavailability of
theoretical
frameworks and
evidences
Lack of knowledge
of theoretical
frameworks and
evidences
Lack of awareness of
scientific research
techniques

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Hypothesis Formulation >> What are the errors in Hypothesis Testing
5. What are the errors in Hypothesis Testing
Factors that can lead to incorrect conclusions about a Hypothesis
Common Errors in Hypothesis Testing
1
Faulty sampling
procedure
2
Inaccurate data
collection
method
3
Faulty study
design
4
Inappropriate
statistical
methods
5
Drawing
Incorrect
conclusions
Type I Error
• Rejection of a null
hypothesis when it is true.
Type II Error
• Acceptance of a null
hypothesis when it is false.

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