The document outlines key sociological concepts and research methods related to validity, ethics, reliability, and sampling in social research. It also discusses various theoretical perspectives on education, including functionalism, Marxism, feminism, and postmodernism, highlighting the roles of social factors in shaping educational outcomes and experiences. Additionally, it examines issues like cultural capital, material deprivation, and the impact of labeling on student performance.

3. KEY CONCEPTS
• -Validity=if data is genuine and measures what it claims to measure
• -Ethics=are issues of right and wrong
• -Reliability=if data is repeatable and produces similar results
• -Generalisability=data obtained from small scale can be applied to the
whole population
• -Representativeness=research is small scale and can be typical of the
rest of society
• -Objectivity=research must be impartial and unbiased

4. PRIMARY QUALITATIVE AND QUANTATIVE
RESEARCH METHODS
• Questionnaires- a list of questions, either on paper or increasingly online.
• Interviews- can be structured, semi-structured or unstructured.
• Focus groups- a group of people will be encouraged to discuss an issue with
the researcher present acting as a moderator.
• Observational methods- involves the researcher watching a group’s
behaviour in their usual setting.
• Positivists= quantative data
• Interpretivists= qualitative data

5. METHODOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO
RESEARCH
• Survey- large scale quantative study, data is collected by
questionnaires or structured interviews.
• Ethnographic methods- linked to participant observation.
• Longitudinal studies- observational research over a certain amount of
time.
• Methodological pluralism- use of more than one research method.
• Triangulation- sociologists use 2 different research methods.

6. SECONDARY RESEARCH METHODS
• Existing sociological research- literature review=summary of what is
already known & highlighting areas of debate or gaps in knowledge.
• Official statistics- are probably the most widely used secondary source in
sociological research.
• Documents;- meaning and motives of people.
• 1)letters
• 2)diaries
• 3)newspaper reports

7. SAMPLING
• REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLES;
• Sampling frame- list of all the members of the target population.
• Random- everyone has same chance of being picked.
• Stratified- the population is divided up, then each section is sampled.
• Systematic- having a system approach to selecting participants.
• Quota- the researcher calculates how many people from each group
and groups people based on characteristics.

8. SAMPLING
• NON-REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLES;
• Snowball- gatekeeper; introduces researcher; snowball gets bigger.
• Volunteer- self-selecting sample.
• Purpose- chose people suitable for the sample.
• Opportunity- people who are willing to take part.

9. SAMPLING
• Target population- the social group that the researcher is interested
in.
• Gatekeeper- if gaining access to the group is difficult, then a
gatekeeper is used as they are trusted and respected by the group.
• Access- before any research is undertaken the researcher needs to
access those under study.

10. ETHICAL ISSUES
• Deception- if the subjects are unaware or misled about it’s aims.
• Sensitivity- touch on aspects of personal life, crime, deviant
behaviour.
• Confidentially- protecting the information that is collected.
• Informed consent&vulnerability- agreement to take part.
• Anonymity/privacy- names of people, organisations and places aren’t
mentioned.
• Right to withdraw- linked to consent.
• Protection- information stays confidential & health and safety
regulations are said.

11. PRACTICAL ISSUES
• Operationalisation- before data can be collected, terms must be
defined.
• Choice of research- based on factors=personal influences, events,
trends in society, type of theory.
• Choice of target population- so the conclusions/data can be
generalised to this population.
• Access- need to be given permission to do research.
• Time- with more time a longitudinal study can be used; therefore can
investigate social change over time.
• Cost- with more money a larger sample can be used.

12. THEORIES OF RESEARCH
• Positivism
• Interactionalism
• Realism

13. POSITIVIST
This approach is associated with the work of Comte and Durkheim who wanted to create a ‘science of
society’. The other theories have developed in reaction to positivism. Positivism is based on the
assumption that there are ‘social facts’ waiting to be identified and studied; this requires quantative data.
Social facts are aspects of behaviour that can be seen, counted and measured. Whether or not they are
being studied, these social facts exist and they influence the behaviour of people in society.
For example, the age at what people get married might appear to be based on individuals and couples
making their own decision. Positivists argue that analysis of the evidence shows that there is an
identifiable pattern to age at marriage that most people conform to; there are social expectations about
marriage, part of societies culture, that influence decisions.
As data is collected, trends and patterns can be identified in these statistics; positivists seek to explain
these trends by reference to other trends and developments in society. The average age of marriage has
increased in the last 150 years or so. At the same time other changes have taken place: life expectancy has
increased, education lasts much longer for most people and there are more women in the workforce.
More importantly, there is a casual relationship between these social facts; eg=is one change bringing
about another? Questioning the data in this way mimics the scientific approach and the desire to find laws
which explain behaviour in the natural world.

14. INTERPRETIVIST
• This approach prefers to collect detailed accounts in words, that is qualitative data. This enables
the researcher to find out about peoples feelings, attitudes and experiences. Rather than
counting how many people get married or at what age, interpretivists would want to know why
people are getting married, what marriage means and how this meaning has changed. As
women’s roles have changed, does this affect how marriage is seen; do people have different
expectations of marriage in the 21st century compared to previous generations? They do not look
for casual relationships because they see human behaviour as different from the behaviour of
things in the natural world: humans consider what things mean and then decide to act.

15. REALISTS
• Realists argue that the best way to proceed is to recognise that both interpretivism and positivism
are useful and use the methods that are the most suitable for the issue that is being studied.
• If the research is investigating trends in the numbers of marriages, then it makes sense to refer to
official statistics. If the aim is to find out more about the experience and expectations of marriage
and how they’ve changed, then it is more appropriate to use interviews.
• The influence of the realist approach can be seen in research which makes use of methodological
pluralism and triangulation. Methodological pluralism recognises that no single approach has all
the answers to questions about society and understanding behaviour. Likewise, triangulation
research methods available to sociologists have both strengths and weaknesses. To fully
appreciate what is going on in society and to know how and why people behave as they do, it is
necessary to adopt a range of techniques.
• Realists suggest that the best approach to research is to recognise that both positivism and
interpretivism can be useful when studying society.

17. FUNCTIONALIST VIEW
• 4 functions of education system;
• 1)transmits culture to children through socialisation
• 2)bridges the gap between values of home and school. And people gain status on their efforts
• 3)provides a good and highly trained workforce (vocationalism)
• 4)Davis and Moore: education is meritocratic and sorts the most able for the best jobs
• Provides a ladder of opportunity for the best students to do well
• Only the best achieve
• Inequality in education is NECESSARY!

18. MARXIST VIEW
• Source of social inequality
• A tool of an unequal social system
• The inequality in educational opportunity socialises people into accepting that some people have more
access to power and wealth than others.
• Negative view of hidden curriculum
• Cultural capital
• Notice class differences in education
• Highlights the ideological role of formal education

19. FEMINIST VIEW
• Oppresses women/ girls
• Exists to socialise children into traditional gender patterns which lead to gender inequality
• Girls are disadvantaged
• Sexist curriculum
• Oakley: gendered language used in schools
• Kelly (1987): gendered roles in books
• Symbolic annihilation (invisibility of females in curriculum)
• Lack of positive role models
• Culley (1986): girls are made to feel uncomfortable in male subjects)

20. THE NEW RIGHT VIEW
• Gorard and Gerwitz: argue that middle classes can get their children into more desirable schools
• Main aims of the education system are;
• 1)encouraging competition
• 2)meeting needs of employers
• 3)improve educational standards for all children
• 4)equality of opportunity and encourage meritocracy
• 5)allow freedom of choice
• 6)the performance of a school and of teachers can be measured by success rates in exams
• Chubb and Moe: found that poor children in fee paying schools achieved better than state run schools

21. INTERACTIONALIST VIEW
• Labelling theory
• Self fulfilling prophecy
• Looks at relationships between teacher and pupils
• Looks at the impacts on pupils self esteem and self identity after labelling
• Working class are more vulnerable to teacher labelling
• Selection on the basis of ability can damage a child’s self-esteem

22. POSTMODERNIST VIEW
• Similar to interactionalist view but not critical of education system
• Teachers and pupils are ‘constructions of knowledge’
• Teachers pass on values to children
• We create an identity for ourselves
• All cultures are of equal values
• Knowledge
• Culture
• Societal values
• Identity and understanding

24. POSTMODERNIST&INTERACTIONALIST VIEWS
OF EDUCATION SYSTEM?
• Postmodernists= not critical, similar to interactionalists views,
teachers and pupils are ‘constructions of knowledge’, teachers pass
on values, we create our own sense of identity, knowledge, culture,
identity and understanding, societal values.
• Interactionalists= critical, working class are more vulnerable to
teacher labelling, self fulfilling prophecy, look at the impacts on
children’s self esteem and self identity from labelling, looks at
relationships between pupils and teacher, selection based on ability
can lower/damage self esteem and confidence.

25. FUNCTIONALIST, MARXIST, FEMINIST VIEW OF
HIDDEN CURRICULUM.
• FUNCTIONALISTS= support it as it teaches norms, values
(socialisation)
• MARXISTS= against the idea of hidden curriculum
(negative&oppressive)
• FEMINISTS= against (gender stereotyping)

26. WHY ARE CHINESE AND INDIANS OVER-
ACHIEVING?
• High expectations
• Role models
• Pressure
• Longer school days
• Better schools
• High labels
• Favourited
• Punished if don’t do well

27. FEMINISTS VIEWS OF EDUCATION; OAKLEY,
KELLY, MCCABE, CULLEY?
• OAKLEY= gendered language used in schools
• KELLY (1987)= gendered roles in books
• MCCABE (2014)= invisibility of females in curriculum
• CULLEY (1986)= girls are made to feel uncomfortable in male subjects

28. MARXIST- BOWLES AND GINTIS’ VIEW ON
EDUCATION?
• See’s schools as a mirror to society, so just like society is a hierarchy
with workers being oppressed by bosses, schools oppress children by
teachers and the education system.

29. MARXIST- ALTHUSSER AND ILLICH VIEW ON
EDUCATION?
• ALTHUSSER= argued that schools transmit capitalist ideology and the
education system is an Ideal State Apparatus that justifies capitalism.
• ILLICH= said that school kills creativity of children. And children learn
to accept authority without challenging it.

30. WHY ARE BOYS NOW UNDER- ACHIEVING?
• Lack of male role models as teachers
• Lower expectations
• Anti- school subcultures
• Laddishness
• Overly confident so don’t think they need to revise as much
• Un-organized and un-neat work
• Less male employment
• Peer pressure
• 90,000 boys didn't get any GCSE’s last year
• Boys are 4 times more likely than girls to get permently excluded

31. FEMINIST VIEW OF EDUCATION SYSTEM?
• Oppresses women
• Teaches inequality of the genders
• Girls are disadvantaged
• Sexist curriculum
• Lack of positive role models

32. WHAT WAS SUE SHARPES RESEARCH FOR
EDUCATION?
• In 1970 Sue Sharpe studied girls attitudes and found that girls are
focused on finding a husband and creating a family. When she did the
research again in 1990 she found that these social attitudes have
changed as girls demonstrated that they’re interested in their futures
and careers.

33. WHAT DID SUE SHARPE (1976) SAY ABOUT
GENDER DIFFERENCE IN EDUCATION?
• Suggests that gender differences at school reflect the creation of
gender identity.
• And this shows by the way boys and girls chose ‘masculine’ or
‘feminine’ subjects.

34. WHICH CHILDREN EXPERIENCE MATERIAL
DEPRIVATION?
• Single parent families
• Council house families
• Welfare state/ benefits
• Large house holds
• Poor families
• Family dept.
• Some ethnic minorities
• Workless families

35. WHO HAS A POSITIVE VIEW OF THE SELF
FULFILLING PROPHECY?
• JACOBSEN
• He argued that positive teacher labelling can lead to a self fulfilling
prophecy where the student believes their label and it comes true.

36. MARXIST VIEW OF THE EDUCATION SYSTEM?
• Source of social inequality
• Cultural capital
• A tool of an unequal social system
• Negative view of the idea of the hidden curriculum
• Class differences in education system
• Highlights the ideological role of formal education

37. FUNCTIONALIST VIEW OF EDUCATION
SYSTEM?
• Meritocratic
• Ladder of opportunity for the best students to do well
• Education system provides 4 functions:
• 1)vocationalism
• 2)transmits culture through process of socialisation
• 3)bridges the gap between family and school and gaining a status
• 4)Davis and Moore- education is meritocratic where the best students
get the best jobs and do the best
• Inequality in education is necessary!!

38. WHAT ARE THE 8 FUNCTIONS OF THE
EDUCATION SYSTEM?
• 1)vocationalism
• 2)allocate children into different social roles
• 3)children learn social value
• 4)help children become more active participants in society
• 5)to live healthy and productive lives
• 6)agency of secondary socialisation
• 7)provide opportunities for children
• 8)provide training in logical thinking

39. WHAT DID BALL (1981) AND GOOD ACRE (1986)
SAY ABOUT LABELLING AND SELF FULFILLING
PROPHECY?
• BALL (1981)= said that schools label/ stream children on the basis on
their behaviour rather than their ability.
• GOODACRE (1986)= found that working class children were under-
marked by teachers.

40. THE NEW RIGHT BELIEFS FOR SOCIAL
BEHAVOUR?
• Loss of grammar and high schools
• School discipline has gotten worse
• Lack of accountability
• New teaching methods involved active methods failed
• Teachers were forcing pupils into left wing beliefs
• Schools are wasting money

41. 3 POSTMODERNISTS THEORIES OF
RESEARCH?
• 1) TEACHERS AND CHILDREN CONSTRUCT KNOWLEDGE TOGETHER
• 2) CULTURES ARE OF EQUAL VALE
• 3)VALUES DEPEND ON CULTURE

42. INTERACTIONALISTS VIEWS OF EDUCATION?;
JONES+DIANA(2004), STARWORTH(1985),
FRANCIS, SEWELL+COARD(1980)
• 1) found that teachers praise boys more, making girls feel less valued.
• 2) found careers teachers offering strongly gendered advice.
• 3) found that boys were less positively labelled in schools.
• 4) said that teachers are racist to ethnic minorities.

43. PERCENTAGE OF PUPILS ACHIEVING 5+ A*-C
GCSE’S?;
• 1) Chinese= 74.4%
• 2) Indian= 72.9%
• 3) Bangladeshi= 61.3%
• 4) Black African= 56.8%
• 5) White British= 56.4%
• 6) Pakistani= 51.4%
• 7) Black Caribbean=47%

44. WHAT DOES STRAND (1999) SAY ABOUT THE
LINK BETWEEN ATTAINMENT AND ETHNICITY?
• Found that in primary and secondary schools in London, both black
and white children from disadvantaged backgrounds failed to make
the expected progress.
• However, Chinese and Indian pupils performed better than expected.

45. BERNSTEIN AND GILLIES (2005) RESEARCH
ABOUT CULTURAL DEPRIVATION?
• BERNSTEIN= suggests that working class families and their children rely on the restricted language
code.
• GILLIES= found that parents with high educational qualifications are more able to help/ influence their
knowledge to their children.

46. FUNCTIONALIST, MARXISTS AND
INTERACTIONALISTS VIEW ON CULTURAL
DIFFERENCES AS A CAUSE OF
UNDERATTAINMENT?
• FUNCTIONALISTS= working class are culturally deprived. The poor fail for reasons such as a lack of ambition
and to do with their own cultural values.
• MARXISTS= cultural issue is power and influence; working class isn’t deprived but just not highly viewed.
• INTERACTIONALISTS= teachers favour those pupils who are similar to them in terms of culture and class.

47. DEFINITION OF CULTURAL DEPRIVATION AND
CULTURAL CAPITAL?
• CULTURAL DEPRIVATION= working class is seen as inferior to middle class/middle class is superior.
• CULTURAL CAPITAL= working class culture isn’t valued. The middle class have access to social systems that
give them advantages.

48. POLICIES OR ORGANISATIONS THAT HAVE
TRIED TO HELP MATERIAL DEPRIVATION?
• Sure start
• Vocational education
• Specialist schools

49. RESEARCH OF ONS AND GOODMAN AND
GREGG FOR MATERIAL DEPRIVATION?
• ONS- CHILDREN HAVE A 7.5 HIGHER CHANCE OF UNDERATTAINMENT
IF THEIR FATHERS DID BAD/ FAILED IN SCHOOL.
• GOODMAN AND GREGG- FOUND THAT POOR FAMILIES HAVE LITTLE
SPACE FOR CHILDREN TO REVISE OR STUDY CAUSING
UNDERATTAINMENT.

50. WHY ARE GIRLS OVER-ACHIEVING?
• Women’s rights
• Higher expectations
• Mature earlier
• More job opportunities
• More pressure to do well
• Concentrate easier
• Neater and better work than boys
• More organised
• Care about their futures
• Understand the importance of exams
• Use their time wisely
• Contribute more in class

51. 9 MATERIAL FACTORS AFFECTING
ATTAINMENT?
• 1)lack of money to buy possessions
• 2)parents cant afford school books
• 3)no space to study at home
• 4)can’t afford computers or laptops
• 5)can’t afford tutors or extra help
• 6)poor housing can lead to illness
• 7)can’t afford resources
• 8)poor diet/ lack of nutrition
• 9)part time jobs taking away time to work and revise

52. HISTORICAL REASONS WHY WE EDUCATE
CHILDREN?
• CHILD LABOUR= protected from exploitation by employers when in
school
• VOCATIONALISM= children are taught things that lead to work
• PUBLIC HEALTH= children from poorer families can be offered
nutrition and encouraged a healthy lifestyle
• RELIGIOUS REASONS= if children read the bible it may teach them
moral behaviour

53. WHAT DID CONNOR ET AL (2001) FIND OUT
BEING SOCIALISED INTO POVERTY?
• Found that being born into poverty means that working class
students are less likely to want to go to uni than middle class students
because they’re more dept. conscious.

54. WHICH PERSPECTIVES ARE THE FOLLOWING
SOCIOLOGISTS FROM?;
• SUE SHARPE= feminist
• PARSONS= functionalist
• GIDDENS= postmodernist
• MURRAY= the new right
• WILLMOTT= functionalist
• BALL= interactionalist

55. WHAT ARE THE 8 FUNCTIONS OF THE
EDUCATION SYSTEM?
• 1)children learn social values
• 2)allocate children into different social roles
• 3)provide opportunities
• 4)vocationalism
• 5)help children become active participants in society
• 6)live healthy and productive lives
• 7)agency of secondary socialisation
• 8)provide training in logical thinking

56. WHY ARE BLACK CARIBBEAN PUPILS
UNDERACHIEVING?• Labelled negatively
• Racism
• High levels of pupils expelled
• Poverty
• Low income
• Restricted language code
• Lack of motivation
• Low expectations
• Lack of role models
• Anti school subcultures
• High levels of lone parent families
• Low self esteem
• Not favoured by teachers
• Curriculum is British focused
• Poor nutrition levels

57. WHICH CHILDREN EXPERIENCE MATERIAL
DEPRIVATION?
• Poor families
• Lone parent families
• Extended/ large families
• Welfare state/ benefit families
• Some ethnic minorities
• Family dept.

58. INTERACTIONALISTS VIEWS OF EDUCATION?
• 1)JONES AND DIANA(2004)= found that teachers praise boys more
making girls feel less valued.
• 2)STANWORTH(1985)= found that careers of teachers offer gendered
advice.
• 3)FRANCIS= found that boys are labelled less positively then girls.
• 4)SEWELL AND COARD(1980)= said teachers are racist towards some
ethnic minorities.

59. RESEARCH AND STUDIES SUPPORTING
LABELLING THEORY?
• BECKER(1971)- found teachers making educational judgements on
the basis of social class and appearance and favourited middle class
children.
• BALL(1981)- pupil behaviour was a factor in placing children into
ability streams in a comprehensive school.
• More recent research by BOALER(2002)- in Britain and the USA has
found students taught in mixed- ability classes out perform those
taught in streamed classes.

60. CRITICISMS OF LABELLING THEORY?
• The theory doesn’t actually explain why labels develop in the first
place.
• It states that once given a label, you act accordingly, but many pupils
(especially ethnic minority girls) challenged their label and decided to
prove their teachers wrong.
• By blaming teachers for pupils poor performance, it ignores the fact
that the pupils might just not have cared/tried.
• MARXISTS point out that it overlooks the importance of social
structures such as; class, racism and sexism in creating school
inequalities.

62. REALIST THEORY?
• Suggest that the best approach to research is to recognise that both
positivism and interpretivism can be useful when studying society.
• Methodological pluralism
• Triangulation
• Use methods that are most suitable for the issue being studied.

63. INTERPRETIVISTS THEORY OF RESEARCH?
• They want to know WHY, MEANS AND HOW
• Don’t look at casual relationships
• Prefers to collect detailed accounts in words
• QUALITATIVE DATA
• Researcher can find out about peoples feelings, attitudes and
experiences.

64. POSITIVIST THEORY OF RESEARCH?
• As data is collected, patterns and trends can be identified in these
statistics; positivists seek to explain these trends by other references
to other trends and development in society.
• QUANTATIVE DATA

65. DEFINITIONS OF?;
• DECEPTION- IF THE SUBJECTS ARE UNAWARE OR MISLED ABOUT IT’S AIMS
• SENSITIVITY- TOUCH ON ASPECTS OF PERSONAL LIFE/CRIME OR DEVIANT BEHAVIOUR
• CONFIDENTIALLY- PROTECTING THE INFO COLLECTED
• CONSENT/VULNERABLILITY- AGREEMENT TO TAKE PART
• ANONYMITY/PRIVACY- NAMES OF POPLE/ PLACES/ ORGANISATIONS ARENT MENTIONED
• RIGHT TO WITHDRAW- LINKED TO CONSENT
• PROTECTION- INFOR STAYS CONFIDENTIAL/ HEALTH AND SAFETY REGULATIONS ARE SAID

66. DEFINITIONS OF?;
• 1) SNOWBALL SAMPLE- gatekeeper introduces research and snowball
gets bigger
• 2)VOLUNTEER SAMPLE- self- selecting sample
• 3)PURPOSE SAMPLE- chose people suitable for the sample
• 4)OPPORTUNITY SAMPLE- people who are willing to take part

67. DEFINITIONS?;
• 1) VALIDITY= id data is genuine and measures what it claims to
measure
• 2)ETHICS= are issues of right and wrong
• 3)RELIABLILTY= if data is repeatable and produces similar results

68. DEFINITIONS?;
• 1)SAMPLING FRAME- a count/list of the target population.
• 2)RANDOM SAMPLING- everyone has an equal chance of being picked.
• 3)STRATIFIED SAMPLE- the population is divided and each section is
sampled.
• 4)SYSTEMATIC SAMPLE-a system approach to selecting participants.
• 5)QUOTA- researcher calculates how many people from each group and
each group is based on characteristics

69. DEFINITIONS?;
• 1) EXISTING SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH- literature review: summary of
what is already known + highlighting areas of debate or gaps in
knowledge.
• 2)OFFICIAL STATISTICS- are probably the most widely used secondary
source in sociological research.
• 3)DOCUMENTS- meaning and motives of people.

70. DEFINITIONS?;
• 1)SURVEY= large scale quantative study, data s collected by questionnaires or interviews.
• 2)ETHNOGRAPHIC METHODS= linked to participant observation.
• 3)LONGITUDINAL STUDIES= research over a long/certain period of time.
• 4)METHODOLOGICAL PLURALISM= use of more than one research method.
• 5)TRIANGULATION= sociologists use 2 different research methods.

71. DEFINITIONS?;
• 1)QUESTIONNAIRES- A LIST OF PREPARED QUESTIONS, EITHER ON PAPER OR INCREASED ONLINE.
• 2)INTERVIEWS- STRUCTURED OR UNSTRUCTURED OR EVEN SEMI-STRUCTURED.
• 3)FOCUS GROUPS- RESEARCHER ENCOURAGES A GROUP TO TALK ABOUT A PARTICULAR ISSUE
WITH THE RESEARCHER PRESENT ACTING AS A MODERATOR.
• 4)OBSERVATIONAL METHODS- OBSERVING OR THE RESEARCHER WATCHES THE BEHAVIOUR
OF A GROUP IN THEIR ‘NATURAL’ SETTING.

72. SAMPLING DEFINITIONS?;
• 1)TARGET POPULATION= who the researcher is aiming the research at/interested in.
• 2)GATEKEEPER= someone who is trusted and respected by the group.
• 3)ACCESS= before any research is undertaken, permission to access the group is required.

73. ETHICAL ISSUES?
• 1)deception
• 2)consent/ vulnerability
• 3)anonymous/privacy
• 4)protection
• 5)right to with-draw
• 6)sensitivity
• 7)confidentially

74. NON-REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLES?
• 1)SNOWBALL
• 2)VOLUNTEER
• 3)PURPOSE
• 4)OPPORTUNITY

75. REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLES?
• 1)SAMPLING FRAME
• 2)RANDOM
• 3)STRATIFIED
• 4)SYSTEMATIC
• 5)QUOTA

76. SECONDARY RESEARCH METHODS?
• 1)EXISTING SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
• 2)OFFICIAL STATISTICS
• 3)DOCUMENTS

77. METHODOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO
RESEARCH?
• 1)SURVEY
• 2)ETHNOGRAPHIC METHODS
• 3)LONGITUDINAL STUDIES
• 4)METHODOLOGICAL PLURALISM
• 5)TRIANGULATION

78. PRIMARY QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH METHODS?
• 1) QUESTIONNAIRES
• 2) INTERVIEWS
• 3)FOCUS GROUPS
• 4)OBSERVATIONAL METHODS

79. DEFINITIONS?;
• 1)GENERALISABILITY= DATA OBTAINED FROM SMALL SCALE GROUPS THAT CAN BE APPLIED TO
THE WHOLE POPULATION.
• 2)REPRESENTATIVENESS= RESEARCH IS SMALL SCALE AND CAN BE TYPICAL OF THE REST OF
SOCIETY.
• 3)OBJECTIVITY= RESEARCH MUST BE IMPARTIAL AND UN-BIASED.

80. WHAT ARE THE KEY PRACTICAL ISSUES?
• Choosing a research topic
• Choosing a target population
• Timescales
• Funding the research
• Operationalising concepts
• Negotiating access

81. NAME 3 FAMOUS LONGITUDINAL STUDIES?
• 1) Millennium cohort study-2000
• 2) British cohort study-1970
• 3) Child development study-1958

82. WHAT WAS EMILE DURKHEIMS RESEARCH?
• Emile used quantitative methods in his study on suicide in order to
discover whether suicide was a ‘social fact’.
• He used official statistics and analysed patterns and trends.
• This approach is positivist because it is scientific, so it can be used to
compare information.

83. ADVANTAGES OF QUESTIONNAIRES?
• Quick to collect data and to make
• Cheap
• Closed questioned answers can be quantified
• Large sample can be studied in a short amount of time
• Standardised- reliable
• Anonymous- more honest answers
• Revisiting the sample allows for the identification of change over time

84. DISADVANTAGES OF QUESTIONNAIRES?
• Respondents might not understand questions
• Cant go in to depth about answers
• Postal questionnaires have poor response rate
• Respondents may not interpret the questions or answers in the same
way as the researcher, eg= ‘poor’ may be have a worse meaning to
the researcher than the respondent
• Respondents may not be truthful/ honest because it may be an
embarrassing topic

85. ADVANTAGES OF STRUCTED INTERVIEWS?
• If respondent is unsure about something, perhaps the language in a
question, the interviewer can explain things
• Data is reliable
• Data can be collected more quickly
• The presence of the researcher can improve response rates

86. DISADVANTAGES OF STRUCTURED
INTERVIEWS?
• More time consuming than questionnaires
• Interviewer bias could take place
• A rigid schedule can limit the opportunity for the respondent to
explain or discuss their answers

87. ADVANTAGES OF UNSTRUCTURED
INTERVIEWS?
• No schedule allows in-depth discussion
• More ‘natural’ setting can encourage openness and honesty
• More valid
• Can answer in depth and in own words
• Face-to-face, so researcher can read their body language
• Open ended questions

88. DISADVANTAGES OF UNSTRUCTURED
INTERVIEWS?
• Time consuming
• Small groups studied
• Interviewer has to be highly skilled
• Analysing data is complicated and subjective
• Interviews are different= less reliable data
• Interviewer bias
• Respondents answer question in a way the researcher would want to here
• Ethnicity/age/gender of respondent and interviewer can affect nswers and
relationship

89. ADVANTAGES OF FOCUS GROUPS?
• Views and opinions can be explored in detail
• Group discussion can be more informative and revealing
• Quick answers
• More confident in a group
• Cheap
• The group members influence the discussion, perhaps introducing
ideas that the research might not have considered.

90. DISADVANTAGES OF FOCUS GROUPS?
• Group moderator needs to be highly skilled to keep the discussion
focused and not go off topic
• Some participants may feel awkward to speak/ share opinions in a
group setting
• Small groups are studied- not representative
• Unique focus groups- results not reliable
• Group member influence opinions of other- not valid
• Difficult to analyse/ generalise qualitative data

91. ADVANTAGES OF OVERT PARTICIPANT
OBSERVATION?
• The ethical issues of deception and obtaining consent are resolved.
• Researcher can ask questions openly without der of ‘giving the game
away’
• Record making and note- taking is easier= making data more accurate

92. DISADVANTAGES OF OVERT PARTICIPANT
OBSERVATION?
• Hawthorne effect is likely to occur
• The question of how far the researcher should become involved,
especially in deviant behaviour= have to think about the safety of the
researcher

93. ADVANTAGES OF OVERT NON-PARTICIPANT
OBSERVATION?
• It is easier to make a record of what is happening
• Ethical issues are resolved
• Researcher can openly ask questions
• Qualitative and quantative data is collected
• Researcher isn’t likely to be involved in behaving illegally

94. DISADVANTAGES OF OVERT NON-
PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION?
• In everyday life, we don’t expect those who are with us to be taking
notes= Hawthorne effect
• By remaining on the edge of a group, not joining in, then the
researcher isn’t fully experiencing their life= undermines the aim of
the research

95. WHY USE SECONDARY SOURCES?
• A literature review will indicate what sorts of questions have already
been asked about a topic and any aspects that have been
controversial or influential on the subject of debate.
• Time and money can be saved if the information needed already
exists and in the case of official statistics there may be more
information available than a sociologist could collect.
• If a study is concerned with social change, and comparing
contemporary society with the past, then it is inevitable that existing
sources have been explored.

96. HAWTHORNE EFFECT?
• The Hawthorne effect is when people behave differently if they know
they are being studied. This effects the validity of the data collected.
Some researchers argue that if a study lasts long enough, a
relationship of trust is created and over time everyone behaves more
or less ‘naturally’. In some circumstances, though, sociologists decide
to hide the fact that they are doing the research. This raises ethical
issues.

97. A FAMOUS EXAMPLE OF PARTICIPANT
OBSERVATION?
• While teaching in an approved school in Glasgow, James Patrick (not
his real name for safety’s sake) wanted to know more about the lives
and lifestyles of the young men who were sent there.
• He was introduced into a Glasgow Gang by ‘Tim’ who acted as a
gatekeeper and was able to smooth over any problems that Patrick’s
unfamiliarity with the gang’s behaviour may have caused.

98. PRIMARY DATA AND SECONDARY SOURCES?
• PRIMARY DATA has been collected by those who are using it; for
example, Jan Pahl used interviews to investigate how families made
decisions.
• SECONDARY DATA is information collected by others; a common
source is statistics collected by the Government such as the Census or
the British Household Panel survey. Other sources that can be
referred to include media content and contemporary letters and
diaries.

99. DATA?
• QUANTITIVE- positivists tend to favour quantative data, counting and
measuring aspects of social behaviour. Data of numbers.
• QUALITATIVE- interpretivists prefer qualitative data. Descriptive data
in words.

100. NEW TECHNOLOGIES AND RESEARCH?
• Many companies and research organisations gather quantitative data
online; one of the largest organisations is Survey Monkey and some
groups will actually pay participants for filling in surveys for marketing
purposes.
• There are many sources of data and research available in the UK. The
largest is possibly the ONS or government website.