This document discusses two approaches to developing management information systems (MIS): the system development life cycle and prototyping. The system development life cycle includes planning, analysis, design, implementation, and support phases. Prototyping involves creating an initial prototype, getting user feedback, and revising the prototype. There are different types of prototyping such as throwaway, evolutionary, and incremental. The document also covers advantages and disadvantages of each approach.

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Different Approaches to Development of
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Category: System Development Approaches
There are two basic approaches for development of MIS :
a) System development life cycle : The system development life cycle have
following steps of development :
i) Systems Planning
ii) Systems Analysis
iii) Systems Design
iv) Systems Implementation
v) Systems Operation and Support (System Maintenance)

2. b) Prototyping : Prototyping is the process of creating an incomplete model of the
future full-featured system, which can be used to let the users have a first idea of the
completed program or allow the clients to evaluate the program.
Advantages :
i) The designer and implementer can obtain feedback from the users early in the project
development.
ii) The client and the contractor can compare that the developing system matches with
the system specification, according to which the system is built.
iii) It also gives the engineer some idea about the accuracy of initial project estimates
and whether the deadlines can be successfully met.
The process of prototyping involves the following steps :
i) Identify basic requirements.
ii) Develop initial prototype.
iii) Review : The customers, including end-users, examine the prototype and provide
feedback for additions or changes.
iv) Revise and Enhance the Prototype : Using the feedback both the specifications
and the prototype can be improved. If changes are introduced then a repetition of steps
3 and 4 may be needed.
Types of prototyping : System prototyping are of various kinds. However, all the
methods are in some way based on two major types of prototyping :

3. Throwaway Prototyping : Throwaway or Rapid Prototyping refers to the creation
of a model that will eventually be discarded rather than becoming part of the finally
delivered system. After preliminary requirements gathering is accomplished, a simple
working model of the system is constructed to visually show the users what their
requirements may look like when they are implemented into a finished system. The
most obvious reason for using Throwaway Prototyping is that it can be done quickly.
Evolutionary Prototyping : Evolutionary Prototyping (also known
as Breadboard Prototyping) is quite different from Throwaway Prototyping. The
main goal when using
Evolutionary Prototyping is to build a very good prototype in a structured manner so
that we can refine it or make further changes to it. The reason for this is that the
Evolutionary prototype, when built, forms the heart of the new system, and the
improvements and further requirements will be built on to it. It is not discarded or
removed like the Throwaway Prototype. When developing a system using Evolutionary
Prototyping, the system is continually refined and rebuilt.
Incremental Prototyping : The final product is built as separate prototypes. At the
end the separate prototypes are merged in an overall design.
Advantages of Prototyping :
i) Reduced Time and Costs : Prototyping can improve the quality of
requirements and specifications provided to developers. Early determination of what
the user really wants can result in faster and less expensive software.
ii) Improved and Increased User Involvement : Prototyping requires user
involvement and allows them to see and interact with a prototype; allowing them to
provide better and more complete feedback and specifications. Since users know the

4. problem better than anyone, the final product is more likely to satisfy the users desire
for look, feel and performance.
Disadvantages of Prototyping :
i) Insufficient Analysis : Since a model has to be created, developers will not
properly analyse the complete project. This may lead to a poor prototype and a final
project that will not satisfy the users.
ii) User Confusion of Prototype and Finished System : Users can begin to think
that a prototype, intended to be thrown away, is actually a final system that merely
needs to be finished or polished. Users can also become attached to features that were
included in a prototype for consideration and then removed from the specification for a
final system.
iii) Excessive Development Time of the Prototype : A key property to prototyping
is the fact that it is supposed to be done quickly. If the developers forget about this fact,
they will develop a prototype that is too complex.
iv) Expense of Implementing Prototyping : The start up costs for building a
development team focused on prototyping may be high. Many companies have to train
the team for this purpose which needs extra expenses.
Different Approaches To Development Of MIS
Different System Development Stages? Explain In Detail
Waterfall Model
What Are The Different Stages Of System Investigation? Explain
Stages Of Development Of MIS
What Are The Different System Development Stages? Discuss
Each Of Them Briefly

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6. Management information
system
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article has multiple issues. Please
help improve it or discuss these issues on
the talk page.
This article's tone or style may not reflect
the encyclopedic tone used on
Wikipedia. (November 2012)
This article needs additional citations for
verification. (November 2012)
A management information system (MIS) provides
information that organizations need to manage themselves
efficiently and effectively.[1]
Management information
systems are typically computer systems used for managing
five primary components: hardware, software,data
(information for decision making), procedures
(design,development and documentation), people (individuals,
groups, or organizations),. Management information systems
are distinct from other information systems, in that they are
used to analyze and facilitate strategic and operational
activities.[2]
Academically, the term is commonly used to refer
to the study of how individuals, groups, and organizations
evaluate, design, implement, manage, and utilize systems to

7. generate information to improve efficiency and effectiveness
of decision making, including systems termed decision
support systems, expert systems, and executive information
systems.[2]
Most business schools (or colleges of business
administration within universities) have an MIS department,
alongside departments of accounting, finance, management,
marketing, and sometimes others, and grant degrees (at
undergrad, masters, and PhD levels) in MIS.
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
2 History
3 Types and Terminology
4 Advantages
5 Enterprise applications
6 Developing Information Systems
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
[edit]Overview
This section does
not cite any references or
sources. Please help improve this
section by adding citations to reliable
sources. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed. (November

8. 2012)
This section may contain original
research. Please improve
it by verifying the claims made and
adding inline citations. Statements
consisting only of original research may
be removed. (November 2012)
A management information system gives the business
managers the information that they need to make decisions.
Early business computers were used for simple operations
such as tracking inventory, billing, sales, or payroll data, with
little detail or structure.[3]
Over time, these computer
applications became more complex, hardware storage
capacities grew, and technologies improved for connecting
previously isolated applications. As more data was stored and
linked, managers sought greater abstraction as well as
greater detail with the aim of creating significant management
reports from the raw, stored data. Originally, the term "MIS"
described applications providing managers with information
about sales, inventories, and other data that would help in
managing the enterprise. Over time, the term broadened to
include: decision support systems, resource
management and human resource management, enterprise
resource planning (ERP),enterprise performance
management (EPM), supply chain
management (SCM), customer relationship
management (CRM), project management and database
retrieval applications.

9. [edit]History
Kenneth and Jane Laudon identify five eras of MIS evolution
corresponding to the five phases in the development
of computing technology: 1) mainframe and minicomputer
computing, 2) personal computers, 3) client/server networks,
4) enterprise computing, and 5) cloud computing.[4]
The first era (mainframe and minicomputer) was ruled by IBM
and their mainframe computers; these computers would often
take up whole rooms and require teams to run them - IBM
supplied the hardware and the software. As technology
advanced, these computers were able to handle greater
capacities and therefore reduce their cost. Smaller, more
affordable minicomputers allowed larger businesses to run
their own computing centers in-house.
The second era (personal computer) began in 1965 as
microprocessors started to compete with mainframes and
minicomputers and accelerated the process of decentralizing
computing power from large data centers to smaller offices. In
the late 1970s minicomputer technology gave way to personal
computers and relatively low cost computers were becoming
mass market commodities, allowing businesses to provide
their employees access to computing power that ten years
before would have cost tens of thousands of dollars. This
proliferation of computers created a ready market for
interconnecting networks and the popularization of the
Internet.
As technological complexity increased and costs decreased,
the need to share information within an enterprise also grew—
giving rise to the third era (client/server), in which computers
on a common network access shared information on a server.
This lets thousands and even millions of people access data

10. simultaneously. The fourth era (enterprise) enabled by high
speed networks, tied all aspects of the business enterprise
together offering rich information access encompassing the
complete management structure.
The fifth era (cloud computing) is the latest and employs
networking technology to deliver applications as well as data
storage independent of the configuration, location or nature of
the hardware. This, along with high
speed cellphone and wifi networks, led to new levels of
mobility in which managers access the MIS remotely with
laptops, tablet PCs, and smartphones.
[edit]Types and Terminology
The terms Management Information
System (MIS), information system, Enterprise Resource
Planning (ERP), and information technology management are
often confused. Information systems and MIS are broader
categories that include ERP. Information
technology management concerns the operation and
organization of information technology resources independent
of their purpose.
Most management information systems specialize in
particular commercial and industrial sectors, aspects of the
enterprise, or management substructure.
Management information systems (MIS), produce fixed,
regularly scheduled reports based on data extracted and
summarized from the firm’s underlying transaction
processing systems[5]
to middle and operational level
managers to identify and inform structured and semi-
structured decision problems.

11. Decision Support Systems (DSS) are computer program
applications used by middle management to compile
information from a wide range of sources to support
problem solving and decision making.
Executive Information Systems (EIS) is a reporting tool that
provides quick access to summarized reports coming from
all company levels and departments such as accounting,
human resources and operations.
Marketing Information Systems (MIS) are Management
Information Systems designed specifically for managing
the marketing aspects of the business.
Office Automation Systems (OAS) support communication
and productivity in the enterprise by automating work flow
and eliminating bottlenecks. OAS may be implemented at
any and all levels of management.
School Information Management Systems (SIMS) cover
school administration,and often including teaching and
learning materials.
Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) facilitates the flow of
information between all business functions inside the
boundaries of the organization and manage the
connections to outside stakeholders.[6]
[edit]Advantages
The following are some of the benefits that can be attained for
different types of management information systems.[7]
Companies are able to highlight their strengths and
weaknesses due to the presence of revenue reports,
employees' performance record etc. The identification of
these aspects can help the company improve their
business processes and operations.

12. Giving an overall picture of the company and acting as a
communication and planning tool.
The availability of the customer data and feedback can help
the company to align their business processes according to
the needs of the customers. The effective management of
customer data can help the company to perform direct
marketing and promotion activities.
[edit]Enterprise applications
Enterprise systems—also known as enterprise resource
planning (ERP) systems—provide integrated software
modules and a unified database that personnel use to plan,
manage, and control core business processes across
multiple locations. Modules of ERP systems may include
finance, accounting, marketing, human resources,
production, inventory management, and distribution.
Supply chain management (SCM) systems enable more
efficient management of the supply chain by integrating the
links in a supply chain. This may include suppliers,
manufacturers, wholesalers, retailers, and final customers.
Customer relationship management (CRM) systems help
businesses manage relationships with potential and current
customers and business partners across marketing, sales,
and service.
Knowledge management system (KMS) helps
organizations facilitate the collection, recording,
organization, retrieval, and dissemination of knowledge.
This may include documents, accounting records,
unrecorded procedures, practices, and skills.

13. [edit]Developing Information Systems
"The actions that are taken to create an information system
that solves an organizational problem are called system
development".[8]
These include system analysis, system
design, computer programming/implementation, testing,
conversion, production and finally maintenance. These
actions usually take place in that specified order but some
may need to repeat or be accomplished concurrently.
Conversion is the process of changing or converting the old
system into the new. This can be done in three basic ways,
though newer methods (prototyping, Extreme Programming,
JAD, etc.) are replacing these traditional conversion methods
in many cases:
Direct cut – The new system replaces the old at an
appointed time.
Pilot study -– Introducing the new system to a small portion
of the operation to see how it fares. If good then the new
system expands to the rest of the company.
Phased approach – New system is introduced in stages.
[edit]See also
Enterprise Information System
Bachelor of Computer Information Systems
Business intelligence
Business performance management
Business rule
Corporate governance of information technology
Data mining
Predictive analytics

14. Purchase order request
Enterprise architecture
Enterprise planning system
Management by objectives
Online analytical processing
Online office suite
Real-time Marketing
[edit]References
1. ^ http://www.occ.gov/publications/publications-by-
type/comptrollers-handbook/mis.pdf
2. ^ a b
O’Brien, J (1999). Management Information Systems –
Managing Information Technology in the Internetworked
Enterprise. Boston: Irwin McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-112373-3.
3. ^ Lucey, Terry (2005). Management Information Systems.
London: Thomson. p. 336. ISBN 978-1-84480-126-8.
4. ^ Laudon, Kenneth C.; Laudon, Jane P. (2009).Management
Information Systems: Managing the Digital Firm (11 ed.).
Prentice Hall/CourseSmart. p. 164.
5. ^ Transaction processing systems (TPS) collect and record
the routine transactions of an organization. Examples of such
systems are sales order entry, hotel reservations, payroll,
employee record keeping, and shipping.
6. ^ Bidgoli, Hossein, (2004). The Internet Encyclopedia, Volume
1, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 707.
7. ^ Pant, S., Hsu, C., (1995), Strategic Information Systems
Planning: A Review, Information Resources Management
Association International Conference, May 21–24, Atlanta.
8. ^ Laudon, K.,&Laudon, J. (2010). Management information
systems: Managing the digital firm. (11th ed.). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

15. [edit]External links
Computer and Information Systems Managers (U.S.
Department of Labor)
Index of Information Systems Journals
MIS Web sites (Bournemouth University)
MIS Links (University of York)
Executive Information Systems: Minimising the risk of
development
Categories:
Business software
Decision theory
Information systems
Information technology management
Management systems
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18. Systems development life-
cycle
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see SDLC (disambiguation).
Model of the Systems Development Life Cycle
The systems development life cycle (SDLC), or software
development process in systems engineering, information
systems and software engineering, is a process of creating or
altering information systems, and the models
and methodologies that people use to develop these systems.
In software engineering, the SDLC concept underpins many
kinds of software development methodologies. These
methodologies form the framework for planning and
controlling the creation of an information
system:[1]
the software development process.

19. Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
2 History
3 Systems development phases
o 3.1 System analysis
o 3.2 Design
o 3.3 Testing
o 3.4 Operations and maintenance
o 3.5 Evolution
4 Systems analysis and design
5 Object-oriented analysis
6 Systems development life cycle
o 6.1 Management and control
o 6.2 Work breakdown structured organization
o 6.3 Baselines in the SDLC
o 6.4 Complementary to SDLC
7 Strengths and weaknesses
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
[edit]Overview
The Systems development life cycle (SDLC) is a process
used by a systems analyst to develop an information system,
training, and user (stakeholder) ownership. The SDLC aims to
produce a high quality system that meets or exceeds
customer expectations, reaches completion within time and
cost estimates, works effectively and efficiently in the current

20. and planned Information Technology infrastructure, and is
inexpensive to maintain and cost-effective to enhance.[2]
Computer systems are complex and often (especially with the
recent rise of service-oriented architecture) link multiple
traditional systems potentially supplied by different software
vendors. To manage this level of complexity, a number of
SDLC models or methodologies have been created, such as
"waterfall"; "spiral"; "Agile software development"; "rapid
prototyping"; "incremental"; and "synchronize and stabilize".[3]
SDLC can be described along spectrum of agile to iterative to
sequential. Agile methodologies, such as XP and Scrum,
focus on lightweight processes which allow for rapid changes
along the development cycle. Iterative methodologies, such
as Rational Unified Process and dynamic systems
development method, focus on limited project scope and
expanding or improving products by multiple iterations.
Sequential or big-design-up-front (BDUF) models, such
as Waterfall, focus on complete and correct planning to guide
large projects and risks to successful and predictable
results[citation needed]
. Other models, such as Anamorphic
Development, tend to focus on a form of development that is
guided by project scope and adaptive iterations of feature
development.
In project management a project can be defined both with
a project life cycle (PLC) and an SDLC, during which slightly
different activities occur. According to Taylor (2004) "the
project life cycle encompasses all the activities of the project,
while the systems development life cycle focuses on realizing
the product requirements".[4]
SDLC (systems development life
cycle) is used during the development of an IT project, it
describes the different stages involved in the project from the

21. drawing board, through the completion of the project. SDLC is
software development
[edit]History
The systems life cycle (SLC) is a methodology used to
describe the process for building information systems,
intended to develop information systems in a very deliberate,
structured and methodical way, reiterating each stage of
the life cycle. The systems development life cycle, according
to Elliott & Strachan & Radford (2004), "originated in the
1960s, to develop large scale functional business systems in
an age of large scale business conglomerates. Information
systems activities revolved around heavy data
processing and number crunching routines".[5]
Several systems development frameworks have been partly
based on SDLC, such as the structured systems analysis and
design method (SSADM) produced for the UK
government Office of Government Commerce in the 1980s.
Ever since, according to Elliott (2004), "the traditional life
cycle approaches to systems development have been
increasingly replaced with alternative approaches and
frameworks, which attempted to overcome some of the
inherent deficiencies of the traditional SDLC".[5]
[edit]Systems development phases
This section needs additional citations
for verification. Please help improve
this article by adding citations to
reliable sources. Unsourced material
may

22. be challenged and removed. (September
2010)
The System Development Life Cycle framework provides a
sequence of activities for system designers and developers to
follow. It consists of a set of steps or phases in which each
phase of the SDLC uses the results of the previous one.
A Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) adheres to
important phases that are essential for developers, such
as planning, analysis, design, and implementation, and are
explained in the section below.It include evaluation of present
system, information gathering, feasibility study and request
approval. A number of system development life cycle (SDLC)
models have been created: waterfall, fountain, spiral, build
and fix, rapid prototyping, incremental, and synchronize and
stabilize. The oldest of these, and the best known, is
the waterfall model: a sequence of stages in which the output
of each stage becomes the input for the next. These stages
can be characterized and divided up in different ways,
including the following:[6]
Preliminary Analysis: The objective of phase 1 is to
conduct a preliminary analysis, propose alternative
solutions, describe costs and benefits and submit a
preliminary plan with recommendations.
Conduct the preliminary analysis: in this step, you need
to find out the organization's objectives and the nature
and scope of the problem under study. Even if a problem
refers only to a small segment of the organization itself
then you need to find out what the objectives of the
organization itself are. Then you need to see how the
problem being studied fits in with them.

23. Propose alternative solutions: In digging into the
organization's objectives and specific problems, you may
have already covered some solutions. Alternate
proposals may come from interviewing employees,
clients , suppliers, and/or consultants. You can also study
what competitors are doing. With this data, you will have
three choices: leave the system as is, improve it, or
develop a new system.
Describe the costs and benefits.
Systems analysis, requirements definition:
Defines project goals into defined functions and
operation of the intended application. Analyzes
end-user information needs.
Systems design: Describes desired features and
operations in detail, including screen layouts,
business rules, process diagrams, pseudocode and
other documentation.
Development: The real code is written here.
Integration and testing: Brings all the pieces
together into a special testing environment, then
checks for errors, bugs and interoperability.
Acceptance, installation, deployment: The final
stage of initial development, where the software is
put into production and runs actual business.
Maintenance: What happens during the rest of the
software's life: changes, correction, additions,
moves to a different computing platform and more.
This is often the longest of the stages.

24. In the following example (see picture) these stage of
the systems development life cycle are divided in ten
steps from definition to creation and modification of IT
work products:
The tenth phase occurs when the system is disposed of and the
task performed is either eliminated or transferred to other
systems. The tasks and work products for each phase are
described in subsequent chapters.[7]
Not every project will require that the phases be
sequentially executed. However, the phases are
interdependent. Depending upon the size and
complexity of the project, phases may be combined or
may overlap.[7]

25. [edit]System analysis
The goal of system analysis is to determine where the
problem is in an attempt to fix the system.This step
involves breaking down the system in different pieces
to analyze the situation, analyzing project goals,
breaking down what needs to be created and
attempting to engage users so that definite
requirements can be defined.
[edit]Design
In systems design the design functions and operations
are described in detail, including screen layouts,
business rules, process diagrams and other
documentation. The output of this stage will describe
the new system as a collection of modules or
subsystems.
The design stage takes as its initial input the
requirements identified in the approved requirements
document. For each requirement, a set of one or more
design elements will be produced as a result of
interviews, workshops, and/or prototype efforts.
Design elements describe the desired software
features in detail, and generally include functional
hierarchy diagrams, screen layout diagrams, tables of
business rules, business process diagrams, pseudo-
code, and a complete entity-relationship diagram with
a full data dictionary. These design elements are
intended to describe the software in sufficient detail
that skilled programmers may develop the software
with minimal additional input design.
[edit]Testing

26. The code is tested at various levels in software
testing. Unit, system and user acceptance testings are
often performed. This is a grey area as many different
opinions exist as to what the stages of testing are and
how much, if any iteration occurs. Iteration is not
generally part of the waterfall model, but usually some
occur at this stage. In the testing the whole system is
test one by one
Following are the types of testing:
Defect testing the failed scenarios, including defect
tracking
Path testing
Data set testing
Unit testing
System testing
Integration testing
Black-box testing
White-box testing
Regression testing
Automation testing
User acceptance testing
Software performance testing
[edit]Operations and maintenance
The deployment of the system includes changes and
enhancements before the decommissioning or sunset
of the system. Maintaining the system is an important
aspect of SDLC. As key personnel change positions in
the organization, new changes will be implemented.
There are two approaches to System Development,
there are traditional approach (structured) and Object

27. Oriented. Information Engineering includes traditional
system approach or it also called as Structured
Analysis and Design Technique. Object Oriented
approach views information system as the collection
of objects that integrated each other's to make a full
complete information system.
[edit]Evolution
This section is empty. You can help
by adding to it. (April 2013)
The final phase of the SDLC is to measure the
effectiveness of the application and evaluate potential
enhancements....
[edit]Systems analysis and design
The Systems Analysis and Design (SAD) is the
process of developing Information Systems (IS) that
effectively use hardware, software, data, processes,
and people to support the company's businesses
objectives. System Analysis and Design can be
considered the meta-development activity, which
serves to set the stage and bound the problem. SAD
can be leveraged to set the correct balance among
competing high-level requirements in the functional
and non-functional analysis domains. System Analysis
and Design interacts strongly with distributed
Enterprise Architecture, Enterprise I.T. Architecture,
and Business Architecture, and relies heavily on
concepts such as partitioning, interfaces, personae
and roles, and deployment/operational modeling to
arrive at a high-level system description. This high
level description is then further broken down into the

28. components and modules which can be analyzed,
designed, and constructed separately and integrated
to accomplish the business goal. SDLC and SAD are
cornerstones of full-lifecycle product and system
planning.
[edit]Object-oriented analysis
Object-oriented analysis (OOA) is the process of
analyzing a task (also known as a problem domain), to
develop a conceptual model that can then be used to
complete the task. A typical OOA model would
describe computer software that could be used to
satisfy a set of customer-defined requirements. During
the analysis phase of problem-solving, a programmer
might consider a written requirements statement, a
formal vision document, or interviews with
stakeholders or other interested parties. The task to
be addressed might be divided into several subtasks
(or domains), each representing a different business,
technological, or other areas of interest. Each subtask
would be analyzed separately. Implementation
constraints,
(e.g., concurrency, distribution,persistence, or how the
system is to be built) are not considered during the
analysis phase; rather, they are addressed during
object-oriented design (OOD).
The conceptual model that results from OOA will
typically consist of a set of use cases, one or
more UML class diagrams, and a number
of interaction diagrams. It may also include some kind
ofuser interface mock-up.

29. The input for object-oriented design is provided by the
output of object-oriented analysis. Realize that an
output artifact does not need to be completely
developed to serve as input of object-oriented design;
analysis and design may occur in parallel, and in
practice the results of one activity can feed the other
in a short feedback cycle through an iterative process.
Both analysis and design can be performed
incrementally, and the artifacts can be continuously
grown instead of completely developed in one shot.
Some typical input artifacts for object-oriented design
are:
Conceptual model: Conceptual model is the result
of object-oriented analysis, it captures concepts in
the problem domain. The conceptual model is
explicitly chosen to be independent of
implementation details, such as concurrency or
data storage.
Use case: Use case is a description of sequences
of events that, taken together, lead to a system
doing something useful. Each use case provides
one or more scenarios that convey how the system
should interact with the users called actors to
achieve a specific business goal or function. Use
case actors may be end users or other systems. In
many circumstances use cases are further
elaborated into use case diagrams. Use case
diagrams are used to identify the actor (users or
other systems) and the processes they perform.

30. System Sequence Diagram: System Sequence
diagram (SSD) is a picture that shows, for a
particular scenario of a use case, the events that
external actors generate, their order, and possible
inter-system events.
User interface documentations (if applicable):
Document that shows and describes the look and
feel of the end product's user interface. It is not
mandatory to have this, but it helps to visualize the
end-product and therefore helps the designer.
Relational data model (if applicable): A data model
is an abstract model that describes how data is
represented and used. If an object database is not
used, the relational data model should usually be
created before the design, since the strategy
chosen for object-relational mapping is an output of
the OO design process. However, it is possible to
develop the relational data model and the object-
oriented design artifacts in parallel, and the growth
of an artifact can stimulate the refinement of other
artifacts.
[edit]Systems development life cycle
[edit]Management and control

31. SPIU phases related to management controls.[8]
The SDLC phases serve as a programmatic guide to
project activity and provide a flexible but consistent
way to conduct projects to a depth matching the scope
of the project. Each of the SDLC phase objectives are
described in this section with key deliverables, a
description of recommended tasks, and a summary of
related control objectives for effective management. It
is critical for the project manager to establish and
monitor control objectives during each SDLC phase
while executing projects. Control objectives help to
provide a clear statement of the desired result or
purpose and should be used throughout the entire
SDLC process. Control objectives can be grouped into
major categories (domains), and relate to the SDLC
phases as shown in the figure.[8]
To manage and control any SDLC initiative, each
project will be required to establish some degree of
a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) to capture and

32. schedule the work necessary to complete the project.
The WBS and all programmatic material should be
kept in the "project description" section of the project
notebook. The WBS format is mostly left to the project
manager to establish in a way that best describes the
project work.
There are some key areas that must be defined in the
WBS as part of the SDLC policy. The following
diagram describes three key areas that will be
addressed in the WBS in a manner established by the
project manager.[8]
[edit]Work breakdown structured
organization
Work breakdown structure.[8]
The upper section of the work breakdown
structure (WBS) should identify the major phases and
milestones of the project in a summary fashion. In
addition, the upper section should provide an overview
of the full scope and timeline of the project and will be
part of the initial project description effort leading to
project approval. The middle section of the WBS is
based on the seven systems development life cycle

33. (SDLC) phases as a guide for WBS task development.
The WBS elements should consist of milestones and
"tasks" as opposed to "activities" and have a definitive
period (usually two weeks or more). Each task must
have a measurable output (e.x. document, decision, or
analysis). A WBS task may rely on one or more
activities (e.g. software engineering, systems
engineering) and may require close coordination with
other tasks, either internal or external to the project.
Any part of the project needing support from
contractors should have a statement of work (SOW)
written to include the appropriate tasks from the SDLC
phases. The development of a SOW does not occur
during a specific phase of SDLC but is developed to
include the work from the SDLC process that may be
conducted by external resources such as contractors
and struct.[8]
[edit]Baselines in the SDLC
Baselines are an important part of the systems
development life cycle (SDLC). These baselines are
established after four of the five phases of the SDLC
and are critical to the iterative nature of the model
.[9]
Each baseline is considered as a milestone in the
SDLC.
functional baseline: established after the conceptual
design phase.
allocated baseline: established after the preliminary
design phase.
product baseline: established after the detail design
and development phase.

34. updated product baseline: established after the
production construction phase.
[edit]Complementary to SDLC
Complementary software development methods to
systems development life cycle (SDLC) are:
Software prototyping
Joint applications development (JAD)
Rapid application development (RAD)
Extreme programming (XP); extension of earlier
work in Prototyping and RAD.
Open-source development
End-user development
Object-oriented programming
Comparison of Methodology Approaches (Post, &
Anderson 2006)[10]
SDLC RAD
Open
sourc
e
Objec
ts
JAD
Prototy
ping
End
Use
r
Control Formal MIS Weak
Stand
ards
Joint User
Use
r
Time
frame
Long
Shor
t
Medi
um
Any
Medi
um
Short
Sho
rt
–
Users Many Few Few Varies Few One or One

35. two
MIS staff Many Few
Hundr
eds
Split Few
One or
two
Non
e
Transactio
n/DSS
Transa
ction
Both Both Both DSS DSS DSS
Interface
Minim
al
Mini
mal
Weak
Wind
ows
Cruci
al
Crucial
Cru
cial
Document
ation and
training
Vital
Limit
ed
Intern
al
In
Objec
ts
Limit
ed
Weak
Non
e
Integrity
and
security
Vital Vital
Unkn
own
In
Objec
ts
Limit
ed
Weak
We
ak
Reusabilit
y
Limited
Som
e
Mayb
e
Vital
Limit
ed
Weak
Non
e
[edit]Strengths and weaknesses
Few people in the modern computing world would use
a strict waterfall model for their systems development
life cycle (SDLC) as many modern methodologies
have superseded this thinking. Some will argue that
the SDLC no longer applies to models like Agile
computing, but it is still a term widely in use in

36. technology circles. The SDLC practice has
advantages in traditional models of software
development, that lends itself more to a structured
environment. The disadvantages to using the SDLC
methodology is when there is need for iterative
development or (i.e. web development or e-
commerce) where stakeholders need to review on a
regular basis the software being designed. Instead of
viewing SDLC from a strength or weakness
perspective, it is far more important to take the best
practices from the SDLC model and apply it to
whatever may be most appropriate for the software
being designed.
A comparison of the strengths and weaknesses of
SDLC:
Strength and Weaknesses of SDLC [10]
Strengths Weaknesses
Control. Increased development time.
Monitor large projects. Increased development cost.
Detailed steps.
Systems must be defined up
front.
Evaluate costs and
completion targets.
Rigidity.
Documentation. Hard to estimate costs,

37. project overruns.
Well defined user input.
User input is sometimes
limited.
Ease of maintenance.
Development and design
standards.
Tolerates changes in MIS
staffing.
An alternative to the SDLC is rapid application
development, which combines prototyping, joint
application development and implementation of CASE
tools. The advantages of RAD are speed, reduced
development cost, and active user involvement in the
development process.
[edit]See also
Application lifecycle management
[edit]References
1. ^ SELECTING A DEVELOPMENT APPROACH.
Retrieved 27 October 2008.
2. ^ "Systems Development Life Cycle".
In: Foldoc(2000-12-24)
3. ^ Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC), Power
Point, – Powered by Google Docs

38. 4. ^ James Taylor (2004). Managing Information
Technology Projects. p.39..
5. ^ a b
Geoffrey Elliott & Josh Strachan (2004) Global
Business Information Technology. p.87.
6. ^ QuickStudy: System Development Life Cycle, By
Russell Kay, May 14, 2002
7. ^ a b
US Department of Justice
(2003). INFORMATION RESOURCES
MANAGEMENT Chapter 1. Introduction.
8. ^ a b c d e
U.S. House of Representatives
(1999). Systems Development Life-Cycle Policy. p.13.
9. ^ Blanchard, B. S., & Fabrycky, W. J.(2006) Systems
engineering and analysis (4th ed.) New Jersey:
Prentice Hall. p.31
10. ^ a b
Post, G., & Anderson, D., (2006). Management
information systems: Solving business problems with
information technology. (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-
Hill Irwin.
[edit]Further reading
Blanchard, B. S., & Fabrycky, W. J.(2006) Systems
engineering and analysis (4th ed.) New Jersey:
Prentice Hall.
Cummings, Haag (2006). Management Information
Systems for the Information Age. Toronto, McGraw-
Hill Ryerson
Beynon-Davies P. (2009). Business Information
Systems. Palgrave, Basingstoke. ISBN 978-0-230-
20368-6
Computer World, 2002, Retrieved on June 22, 2006
from the World Wide Web:
Management Information Systems, 2005, Retrieved
on June 22, 2006 from the World Wide Web:

39. This article is based on material taken from
the Free On-line Dictionary of Computing prior to 1
November 2008 and incorporated under the
"relicensing" terms of the GFDL, version 1.3 or
later.
[edit]External links
Wikimedia Commons has media
related to: Systems Development
Life Cycle
The Agile System Development Lifecycle
Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation –
Information Technology Solutions Lifecycle
Methodology
FSA Life Cycle Framework
HHS Enterprise Performance Life Cycle Framework
The Open Systems Development Life Cycle
System Development Life Cycle Evolution Modeling
Zero Deviation Life Cycle
Integrated Defense AT&L Life Cycle Management
Chart, the U.S. DoD form of this concept.
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43. Prototype
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Prototype (disambiguation).
A prototype is an early sample or model built to test a
concept or process or to act as a thing to be replicated or
learned from. It is a term used in a variety of contexts,
including semantics,design, electronics, and software
programming. A prototype is designed to test and trial a new
design to enhance precision by system analysts and users.
Prototyping serves to provide specifications for a real, working
system rather than a theoretical one.[1]
The word prototype derives from
the Greek πρωτότσπον (prototypon), "primitive form", neutral
of πρωτότσπος (prototypos), "original, primitive",
from πρῶτος (protos), "first" and τύπος (typos),
"impression".[2]

44. Contents
[hide]
1 Semantics
2 Design and modeling
3 Basic prototype categories
4 Differences between a prototype and a production design
5 Characteristics and limitations of prototypes
6 Modern trends
7 Mechanical and electrical engineering
8 Electronics prototyping
9 Computer programming/computer science
10 Software release cycle
11 Data prototyping
12 Scale modeling
13 Metrology
14 Sciences
15 References
[edit]Semantics
For more details on this topic, see Prototype theory.
In semantics, prototypes or proto instances combine the most
representative attributes of a category. Prototypes are typical
instances of a category that serve as benchmarks against
which the surrounding, less representative members are
analysed.
[edit]Design and modeling
In many fields, there is great uncertainty as to whether a new
design will actually do what is desired. New designs often

45. have unexpected problems. A prototype is often used as part
of the product design process to allow engineers and
designers the ability to explore design alternatives, test
theories and confirm performance prior to starting production
of a new product. Engineers use their experience to tailor the
prototype according to the specific unknowns still present in
the intended design. For example, some prototypes are used
to confirm and verify consumer interest in a proposed design
whereas other prototypes will attempt to verify the
performance or suitability of a specific design approach.
In general, an iterative series of prototypes will be designed,
constructed and tested as the final design emerges and is
prepared for production. With rare exceptions, multiple
iterations of prototypes are used to progressively refine the
design. A common strategy is to design, test, evaluate and
then modify the design based on analysis of the prototype.
In many products it is common to assign the prototype
iterations Greek letters. For example, a first iteration prototype
may be called an "Alpha" prototype. Often this iteration is not
expected to perform as intended and some amount of failures
or issues are anticipated. Subsequent prototyping iterations
(Beta, Gamma, etc.) will be expected to resolve issues and
perform closer to the final production intent.
In many product development organizations, prototyping
specialists are employed - individuals with specialized skills
and training in general fabrication techniques that can help
bridge between theoretical designs and the fabrication of
prototypes.

46. [edit]Basic prototype categories
There is no general agreement on what constitutes a
"prototype" and the word is often used interchangeably with
the word "model" which can cause confusion. In general,
"prototypes" fall into five basic categories:
Proof-of-Principle Prototype (Model) (in electronics
sometimes built on a breadboard). A Proof of
concept prototype is used to test some aspect of the intended
design without attempting to exactly simulate the visual
appearance, choice of materials or intended manufacturing
process. Such prototypes can be used to "prove" out a
potential design approach such as range of motion,
mechanics, sensors, architecture, etc. These types of models
are often used to identify which design options will not work,
or where further development and testing is necessary.
Form Study Prototype (Model). This type of prototype will
allow designers to explore the basic size, look and feel of a
product without simulating the actual function or exact visual
appearance of the product. They can help assess ergonomic
factors and provide insight into visual aspects of the product's
final form. Form Study Prototypes are often hand-carved or
machined models from easily sculpted, inexpensive materials
(e.g., urethane foam), without representing the intended color,
finish, or texture. Due to the materials used, these models are
intended for internal decision making and are generally not
durable enough or suitable for use by representative users or
consumers.
User Experience Prototype (Model). A User Experience
Model invites active human interaction and is primarily used to
support user focused research. While intentionally not
addressing possible aesthetic treatments, this type of model

47. does more accurately represent the overall size, proportions,
interfaces, and articulation of a promising concept. This type
of model allows early assessment of how a potential user
interacts with various elements, motions, and actions of a
concept which define the initial use scenario and overall user
experience. As these models are fully intended to be used
and handled, more robust construction is key. Materials
typically include plywood, REN shape, RP processes and
CNC machined components. Construction of user experience
models is typically driven by preliminary CAID/CAD which
may be constructed from scratch or with methods such
as industrial CT scanning.
Visual Prototype (Model) will capture the intended design
aesthetic and simulate the appearance, color and surface
textures of the intended product but will not actually embody
the function(s) of the final product. These models will be
suitable for use in market research, executive reviews and
approval, packaging mock-ups, and photo shoots for sales
literature.
Functional Prototype (Model) (also called a working
prototype) will, to the greatest extent practical, attempt to
simulate the final design, aesthetics, materials and
functionality of the intended design. The functional prototype
may be reduced in size (scaled down) in order to reduce
costs. The construction of a fully working full-scale prototype
and the ultimate test of concept, is the engineers' final check
for design flaws and allows last-minute improvements to be
made before larger production runs are ordered.

48. [edit]Differences between a prototype and a
production design
In general, prototypes will differ from the final production
variant in three fundamental ways:
Materials. Production materials may require manufacturing
processes involving higher capital costs than what is practical
for prototyping. Instead, engineers or prototyping specialists
will attempt to substitute materials with properties that
simulate the intended final material.
Processes. Often expensive and time consuming unique
tooling is required to fabricate a custom design. Prototypes
will often compromise by using more variable processes,
repeatable or controlled methods; substandard, inefficient, or
substandard technology sources; or insufficient testing for
technology maturity.
Lower fidelity. Final production designs often require
extensive effort to capture high volume manufacturing detail.
Such detail is generally unwarranted for prototypes as some
refinement to the design is to be expected. Often prototypes
are built using very limited engineering detail as compared to
final production intent, which often uses statistical process
controls and rigorous testing.
[edit]Characteristics and limitations of
prototypes
Engineers and prototyping specialists seek to understand the
limitations of prototypes to exactly simulate the characteristics
of their intended design.

49. It is important to realize that by their very definition, prototypes
will represent some compromise from the final production
design. Due to differences in materials, processes and design
fidelity, it is possible that a prototype may fail to perform
acceptably whereas the production design may have been
sound. A counter-intuitive idea is that prototypes may actually
perform acceptably whereas the production design may be
flawed since prototyping materials and processes may
occasionally outperform their production counterparts.
In general, it can be expected that individual prototype costs
will be substantially greater than the final production costs due
to inefficiencies in materials and processes. Prototypes are
also used to revise the design for the purposes of reducing
costs through optimization and refinement.
It is possible to use prototype testing to reduce the risk that a
design may not perform as intended, however prototypes
generally cannot eliminate all risk. There are pragmatic and
practical limitations to the ability of a prototype to match the
intended final performance of the product and some
allowances and engineering judgement are often required
before moving forward with a production design.
Building the full design is often expensive and can be time-
consuming, especially when repeated several times—building
the full design, figuring out what the problems are and how to
solve them, then building another full design. As an
alternative, "rapid-prototyping" or "rapid application
development" techniques are used for the initial prototypes,
which implement part, but not all, of the complete design. This
allows designers and manufacturers to rapidly and
inexpensively test the parts of the design that are most likely
to have problems, solve those problems, and then build the
full design.

50. This counter-intuitive idea —that the quickest way to build
something is, first to build something else— is shared
by scaffolding and the telescope rule.
[edit]Modern trends
With the recent advances in computer modeling it is becoming
practical to eliminate the creation of a physical prototype
(except possibly at greatly reduced scales for promotional
purposes), instead modeling all aspects of the final product as
a computer model. An example of such a development can be
seen in Boeing 787 Dreamliner, in which the first full sized
physical realization is made on the series production line.
Computer modeling is now being extensively used in
automotive design, both for form (in the styling and
aerodynamics of the vehicle) and in function — especially for
improving vehicle crashworthiness and in weight reduction to
improve mileage.
[edit]Mechanical and electrical engineering
A prototype of the Polish economyhatchback car Beskid 106 designed in
the 1980s.
Main article: rapid prototyping

51. The most common use of the word prototype is a functional,
although experimental, version of a non-military machine
(e.g., automobiles, domestic appliances, consumer
electronics) whose designers would like to have built by mass
production means, as opposed to a mockup, which is an inert
representation of a machine's appearance, often made of
some non-durable substance.
An electronics designer often builds the first prototype
from breadboard or stripboard or perfboard, typically using
"DIP" packages.
However, more and more often the first functional prototype is
built on a "prototype PCB" almost identical to the production
PCB, as PCB manufacturing prices fall and as many
components are not available in DIP packages, but only
available in SMT packages optimized for placing on a PCB.
Builders of military machines and aviation prefer the terms
"experimental" and "service test".
[edit]Electronics prototyping
In electronics, prototyping means building an actual circuit to
a theoretical design to verify that it works, and to provide a
physical platform for debugging it if it does not. The prototype
is often constructed using techniques such as wire wrap or
using veroboard or breadboard, that create an electrically
correct circuit, but one that is not physically identical to the
final product.
Open-source tools exist to document electronic prototypes
(especially the breadboard-based ones) and move forward
toward production such as Fritzing and Arduino.
A technician can build a prototype (and make additions and
modifications) much more quickly with these techniques —

52. however, it is much faster and usually cheaper to mass
produce customprinted circuit boards than these other kinds
of prototype boards. This is for the same reasons that writing
a poem is fastest by hand for one or two, but faster by printing
press if you need several thousand copies.
The proliferation of quick-turn pcb fab companies and quick-
turn pcb assembly houses has enabled the concepts of rapid
prototyping to be applied to electronic circuit design. It is now
possible, even with the smallest passive components and
largest fine-pitch packages, to have boards fabbed and parts
assembled in a matter of days.
[edit]Computer programming/computer
science
Main article: Software prototyping
In many programming languages, a function prototype is
the declaration of a subroutine or function. (This term is
rather C/C++-specific; other terms for this notion
are signature, type andinterface.) In prototype-based
programming (a form of object-oriented programming), new
objects are produced by cloning existing objects, which are
called prototypes.[3]
The term may also refer to the Prototype Javascript
Framework.
Additionally, the term may refer to the prototype design
pattern.
Prototype software is often referred to as alpha grade,
meaning it is the first version to run. Often only a few
functions are implemented, the primary focus of the alpha is
to have a functional base code on to which features may be

53. added. Once alpha grade software has most of the required
features integrated into it, it becomes beta software for testing
of the entire software and to adjust the program to respond
correctly during situations unforeseen during development.[4]
Often the end users may not be able to provide a complete
set of application objectives, detailed input, processing, or
output requirements in the initial stage. After the user
evaluation, another prototype will be built based on feedback
from users, and again the cycle returns to customer
evaluation. The cycle starts by listening to the user, followed
by building or revising a mock-up, and letting the user test
the mock-up, then back. There is now a new generation of
tools called Application Simulation Software which help
quickly simulate application before their development.
Extreme programming uses iterative design to gradually add
one feature at a time to the initial prototype.
Continuous learning approaches within organizations or
businesses may also use the concept of business or process
prototypes through software models.
[edit]Software release cycle
Main article: Software release cycle
[edit]Data prototyping
A data prototype is a form of functional or working prototype.
The justification for its creation is usually a data migration,
data integration or application implementation project and the
raw materials used as input are an instance of all the relevant
data which exists at the start of the project.
The objectives of data prototyping are to produce:

54. A set of data cleansing and transformation rules which
have been seen to produce data which is all fit for purpose.
A dataset which is the result of those rules being applied to
an instance of the relevant raw (source) data.
To achieve this, a data architect uses a graphical interface to
interactively develop and execute transformation and
cleansing rules using raw data. The resultant data is then
evaluated and the rules refined. Beyond the obvious visual
checking of the data on-screen by the data architect, the
usual evaluation and validation approaches are to use Data
profiling software and then to insert the resultant data into a
test version of the target application and trial its use.
[edit]Scale modeling
In the field of scale modeling (which includes model
railroading, vehicle modeling, airplane modeling, military
modeling, etc.), a prototype is the real-world basis or source
for a scale model—such as the real EMD GP38-
2 locomotive—which is the prototype of Athearn's (among
other manufacturers) locomotive model. Technically, any non-
living object can serve as a prototype for a model, including
structures, equipment, and appliances, and so on, but
generally prototypes have come to mean full-size real-world
vehicles including automobiles (the prototype 1957 Chevy has
spawned many models), military equipment (such as M4
Shermans, a favorite among US Military modelers), railroad
equipment, motor trucks, motorcycles, and space-ships (real-
world such as Apollo/Saturn Vs, or the ISS).
There is debate whether 'fictional' or imaginary items can be
considered prototypes (such as Star Wars or Star Trek
starships, since the feature ships themselves are models or
CGI-artifacts); however, humans and other living items are

55. never called prototypes, even when they are the basis for
models and dolls (especially - action figures).
As of 2005, conventional rapid prototype machines cost
around £25,000.[5]
[edit]Metrology
In the science and practice of metrology, a prototype is a
human-made object that is used as the standard
of measurement of some physical quantity to base all
measurement of that physical quantity against. Sometimes
this standard object is called an artifact. In the International
System of Units (SI), the only prototype remaining in current
use is the International Prototype Kilogram, a solid platinum-
iridium cylinder kept at the Bureau International des Poids et
Mesures (International Bureau of Weights and Measures)
in Sèvres France (a suburb of Paris) that by definition is the
mass of exactly one kilogram. Copies of this prototype are
fashioned and issued to many nations to represent the
national standard of the kilogram and are periodically
compared to the Paris prototype.
Until 1960, the meter was defined by a platinum-iridium
prototype bar with two scratch marks on it (that were, by
definition, spaced apart by one meter), the International
Prototype Metre, and in 1983 the meter was redefined to be
the distance in free space covered by light in 1/299,792,458 of
a second (thus defining the speed of light to be 299,792,458
meters per second).
It is widely believed that the kilogram prototype standard will
be replaced by a definition of the kilogram that will define
another physical constant (likely either Planck's constant or
the elementary charge) to a defined numerical value, thus

56. obviating the need for the prototype and removing the
possibility of the prototype (and thus the standard and
definition of the kilogram) changing very slightly over the
years because of loss or gain of atoms.
[edit]Sciences
In many sciences, from pathology to taxonomy, prototype
refers to a disease, species, etc. which sets a good example
for the whole category. In Biology, prototype is the ancestral
or primitive form of a species or other group; an
archetype.[6]
For example, the Senegal bichir is regarded as
the prototypes of its genus, Polypterus.
[edit]References
1. ^ "Prototyping Definition". PC Magazine. Retrieved 2012-05-
03.
2. ^ Online Etymology Dictionary
3. ^ "5.5 Function Prototypes". HP. Retrieved 2012-05-03.
4. ^ "Alpha Version Definition". PC Magazine. Retrieved 2012-
05-03.
5. ^ Bath.ac.uk
6. ^ prototype. CollinsDictionary.com. Collins English Dictionary -
Complete & Unabridged 11th Edition. Retrieved December 07,
2012.
Categories:
Industrial design
Production and manufacturing
Prototypes
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