Three-phase circuits use three conductors with voltages displaced 120 degrees from each other to transmit power. Balanced three-phase systems have equal voltages of the same frequency and magnitude but displaced in phase by 120 degrees. Common connections for three-phase systems include wye (Y) and delta (Δ). Power calculations can be performed for balanced and unbalanced Y-Y, Y-Δ, and Δ-Y connections. Transformations between Y and Δ configurations are also described.
This document summarizes key concepts about semiconductors. It describes how semiconductor materials like silicon can be made to conduct electricity through doping, which involves adding impurities to the crystal lattice structure. Doping can produce either N-type semiconductors with extra electrons or P-type semiconductors with electron holes. Current then flows through the movement of these electrons or holes when a voltage is applied. The document outlines the basic properties and behaviors of semiconductors that make them useful in electronic devices.
This document contains information about spiral ductwork and fittings produced by Spiral Manufacturing Co., including:
- A table listing the weights of spiral galvanized pipe in various sizes and gauges.
- Specifications for fittings like elbows, tees, laterals, manifolds, and other components.
- Information on products like insulated duct, rectangular duct, dual wall duct and fittings, joints, and accessories.
- Notes on applications, materials handling, product selection, and other general information.
The document provides specifications and details for a complete line of high pressure ductwork and pneumatic distribution systems.
The document summarizes key concepts about semiconductors and pn junctions. It discusses how semiconductors have properties between conductors and insulators. Intrinsic semiconductors have few charge carriers, while extrinsic semiconductors are doped with impurities to increase charge carriers, making them n-type or p-type. A pn junction forms at the interface of a p-type and n-type semiconductor, creating a depletion region and potential barrier. Forward biasing reduces and reverse biasing increases the potential barrier.
This document discusses various welding processes. It separates welding into two categories: fusion welding processes that melt the base metals like arc welding, and solid state welding processes that join metals without melting, like friction welding. The document focuses on describing several common arc welding processes including: shielded metal arc welding, gas metal arc welding, flux-cored arc welding, gas tungsten arc welding, plasma arc welding, and submerged arc welding. It also covers resistance spot welding, a type of resistance welding used to join sheet metals.
This document discusses electromagnetic induction and coupled inductors. It contains the following key points:
- Faraday's law states that a time-varying magnetic flux induces a voltage in a conductor. Ampere's law describes how a current generates a magnetic field. Lenz's law explains how induced currents create opposing magnetic fields.
- Coupled inductors have magnetic fields that interact. They can be connected in series or parallel. Series connections can be cumulatively or differentially coupled depending on field direction.
- The dot convention is used to determine polarity of induced voltages in coupled coils based on the direction of magnetic fluxes and currents. Mutual inductance can be additive or subtractive based on this polarity.
The interest in superconducting systems stems from their promise to be more efficient, smaller, and lighter than those made from conventional conductors. The types of applications in which superconductivity has the potential to be effective in an electric power system can be separated into two general classes. The first type includes those technologies in which superconductivity is simply a replacement of existing resistive materials, for example, cables, motors, generators, and transformers.
The second type includes technologies that will be enabled by superconductivity and that have little or, at most, limited capability if conventional resistive or other materials are used. Examples are superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) and large fault current limiters (FCL). Before looking at the applications under development the article discusses the discovery and development of superconductivity.
Three-phase circuits use three conductors with voltages displaced 120 degrees from each other to transmit power. Balanced three-phase systems have equal voltages of the same frequency and magnitude but displaced in phase by 120 degrees. Common connections for three-phase systems include wye (Y) and delta (Δ). Power calculations can be performed for balanced and unbalanced Y-Y, Y-Δ, and Δ-Y connections. Transformations between Y and Δ configurations are also described.
This document summarizes key concepts about semiconductors. It describes how semiconductor materials like silicon can be made to conduct electricity through doping, which involves adding impurities to the crystal lattice structure. Doping can produce either N-type semiconductors with extra electrons or P-type semiconductors with electron holes. Current then flows through the movement of these electrons or holes when a voltage is applied. The document outlines the basic properties and behaviors of semiconductors that make them useful in electronic devices.
This document contains information about spiral ductwork and fittings produced by Spiral Manufacturing Co., including:
- A table listing the weights of spiral galvanized pipe in various sizes and gauges.
- Specifications for fittings like elbows, tees, laterals, manifolds, and other components.
- Information on products like insulated duct, rectangular duct, dual wall duct and fittings, joints, and accessories.
- Notes on applications, materials handling, product selection, and other general information.
The document provides specifications and details for a complete line of high pressure ductwork and pneumatic distribution systems.
The document summarizes key concepts about semiconductors and pn junctions. It discusses how semiconductors have properties between conductors and insulators. Intrinsic semiconductors have few charge carriers, while extrinsic semiconductors are doped with impurities to increase charge carriers, making them n-type or p-type. A pn junction forms at the interface of a p-type and n-type semiconductor, creating a depletion region and potential barrier. Forward biasing reduces and reverse biasing increases the potential barrier.
This document discusses various welding processes. It separates welding into two categories: fusion welding processes that melt the base metals like arc welding, and solid state welding processes that join metals without melting, like friction welding. The document focuses on describing several common arc welding processes including: shielded metal arc welding, gas metal arc welding, flux-cored arc welding, gas tungsten arc welding, plasma arc welding, and submerged arc welding. It also covers resistance spot welding, a type of resistance welding used to join sheet metals.
This document discusses electromagnetic induction and coupled inductors. It contains the following key points:
- Faraday's law states that a time-varying magnetic flux induces a voltage in a conductor. Ampere's law describes how a current generates a magnetic field. Lenz's law explains how induced currents create opposing magnetic fields.
- Coupled inductors have magnetic fields that interact. They can be connected in series or parallel. Series connections can be cumulatively or differentially coupled depending on field direction.
- The dot convention is used to determine polarity of induced voltages in coupled coils based on the direction of magnetic fluxes and currents. Mutual inductance can be additive or subtractive based on this polarity.
The interest in superconducting systems stems from their promise to be more efficient, smaller, and lighter than those made from conventional conductors. The types of applications in which superconductivity has the potential to be effective in an electric power system can be separated into two general classes. The first type includes those technologies in which superconductivity is simply a replacement of existing resistive materials, for example, cables, motors, generators, and transformers.
The second type includes technologies that will be enabled by superconductivity and that have little or, at most, limited capability if conventional resistive or other materials are used. Examples are superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) and large fault current limiters (FCL). Before looking at the applications under development the article discusses the discovery and development of superconductivity.
This document provides an introduction to semiconductors. It discusses how semiconductors can behave as either conductors or insulators depending on doping, and describes the crystal lattice structure of semiconductors. It also explains intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors, detailing how doping with trivalent or pentavalent impurities creates N-type or P-type materials respectively. The document concludes by discussing diode operation under forward and reverse bias conditions.
This document discusses the classification and uses of nickel and nickel alloy bare welding electrodes and rods. It begins by explaining that the welding filler metals are classified based on their chemical composition using a system of letters and numbers. It then provides details on 14 different classifications (ERNi-1, ERNiCu-7, ERNiCr-3, etc.), including their nominal chemical composition and intended uses for welding various nickel and nickel alloy base metals. Tensile strengths for the different classifications range from 380 to 1140 MPa.
Wet or Electrochemical corrosion, Mechanism of electrochemical corrosion, Evolution of hydrogen and absorption of oxygen type cathodic reaction, Distinction between dry and wet corrosion.
Basic Electrical Technology Questions with Answers.Ghulam Mehdi
Q.1: Explain the different types of First Aid.
Q.2: Explain the properties of conductors and insulators.
Q.3: A resistor is connected in series with parallel circuit comprises of two resistances of 12 Ω and 8 Ω. Total power dissipated in the circuit is 70 watts when the applied voltage is 20 volts. Calculate value of resistance.
Q.4 What are the characteristics of primary and secondary cells?
Q.5 What defects occur in the secondary cell?
Q.6 Describe the working principle of alkaline cell?
Q.7 What are the advantages and disadvantages of AC current?
Q.8 What is difference between ammeter, voltmeter, ohmmeter and multimeter?
Q.9 Discuss the working principle of moving coil instruments.
Q.10 State the efficiency and protective devices of transformer.
This document discusses various methods for measuring medium resistances between 1-0.1M Ω. It describes four common methods: the voltmeter-ammeter method, substitution method, ohmmeter method, and bridge circuit method. The bridge circuit method operates on the principle of null comparison using a Wheatstone bridge configuration with ratio and standard arms. Sources of error in resistance measurements include thermal EMF and contact resistance. Worked examples are provided to calculate resistance values and measurement uncertainties.
This document provides information on band theory and semiconductor physics. It discusses how energy bands are formed in solids due to the interaction of atoms. Energy bands split into discrete energy levels for insulators and partially overlapping bands for conductors and semiconductors. Semiconductors have a small band gap that can be modified by doping to create n-type or p-type materials. A p-n junction forms the basic structure of a diode and transistor. The document explains concepts such as Fermi levels, carrier transport, and device characteristics like the I-V curve and modes of transistor operation. Applications of semiconductors include rectifiers and basic logic functions.
Corrosion is the destructive attack of a metal by chemical or electrochemical reaction with its environment. There are three main types of polarization that influence the corrosion rate - concentration polarization, activation polarization, and IR drop. Concentration polarization occurs when the rate of the electrochemical reaction is controlled by the mass transport of reactants or products. Activation polarization is caused by an energy barrier that must be overcome for the electrochemical reaction to proceed. IR drop is the potential drop across the electrolyte due to its resistance. The total polarization is the sum of the individual polarization contributions. Cathodic polarization generally decreases the corrosion rate while anodic polarization can either increase or decrease the corrosion rate depending on whether the metal is in an active or passive state.
Arc welding processes like shielded metal arc welding, gas metal arc welding and gas tungsten arc welding are described. Shielded metal arc welding uses a consumable electrode covered with a flux to shield the weld. Gas metal arc welding employs a continuously fed wire and shielding gas. Gas tungsten arc welding uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode, shielding gas and a separate filler material. The document discusses welding techniques, processes, defects and includes illustrations of welding joints and processes.
This document provides an introduction to semiconductors. It discusses the atomic structure of semiconductors like silicon and how covalent bonding forms between atoms. Semiconductors have energy bands with gaps between the valence and conduction bands. Doping semiconductors by adding impurities can produce either N-type or P-type materials. When a P-type and N-type material come into contact, electrons and holes diffuse across the junction, forming a depletion region that inhibits current flow in one direction. Diodes are formed from the junction between P-type and N-type materials and allow current to flow in only one direction.
This document summarizes various instrumentation devices used for measurement and control. It discusses mechanical, electrical, and electronic instruments. It also describes different types of transducers including temperature, pressure, flow, strain, and proximity sensors. The key measurement principles and applications of instruments like RTDs, thermocouples, thermistors, bourdon tubes, load cells, and inductive proximity sensors are summarized.
Thermionic (vacuum tube) diodes and solid state (semiconductor) diodes were developed separately in the early 1900s as radio receiver detectors. Vacuum tube diodes were more commonly used in radios until the 1950s due to early semiconductor diodes being less stable. Semiconductor diodes are made from materials like silicon and germanium that have precise atomic structures that allow controlled current flow. A p-n junction is formed at the interface between p-type and n-type semiconductor materials and enables diode rectification properties. Diodes have various applications including rectification, clamping, clipping, and lighting.
This slide give you idea about the atomic structure, classification of solids based on valance electron, free electron, energy band description, why the silicon is used as semiconductor substance compare to germanium, semiconductor and its types.
This document contains a 17 question multiple choice quiz on welding topics for a CSWIP 3.1 certification. The quiz covers questions on welding processes like MMA, TIG, and SAW; welding techniques like slope in; welding defects like arc blow and lamellar tearing; welding consumables; post-weld heat treatment; and non-destructive testing methods. It also lists 7 theory questions asked in a February 2007 CSWIP 3.1 exam related to welding inspector duties, electrode classifications, hard stamping limitations, TIG processes, hydrogen cracking causes, welding procedure tests, and lamellar tearing.
Honeywell provides corrosion solutions including laboratory testing, monitoring technologies, software, and consulting services to reduce corrosion costs for customers in oil and gas, chemical, and other process industries. The laboratory uses advanced experimental techniques like high pressure/temperature autoclaves and electrochemical analysis to test new materials and solve corrosion problems. Honeywell's corrosion monitoring technologies provide real-time data on corrosion rates to improve asset reliability and reduce maintenance costs.
This document discusses energy bands in solids and semiconductor devices. It explains how the discrete energy levels in isolated atoms merge and form continuous energy bands as atoms are brought together in a solid. In semiconductors, the valence band is full while the conduction band is empty, with a small band gap between them. Thermally excited electrons can cross this gap, making semiconductors weakly conductive. Doping a semiconductor with impurities introduces donors or acceptors that increase the number of free electrons or holes, making it an n-type or p-type extrinsic semiconductor. The carrier concentrations and conductivity of semiconductors are determined by factors like doping level, temperature, and carrier mobilities.
Inductors play an important role in AC circuits by opposing any changes in current through induction. The opposition is known as reactance. In an inductor, the current lags the voltage by 90 degrees. In an LCR series circuit, the voltages across each component depend on frequency and have different phase relationships. At resonance, the inductor and capacitor reactances cancel out, resulting in maximum current.
Powerpoint presentation about lenz's lawrdelizoneyou
Lenz's law states that (1) an induced current will flow in a closed conducting loop when the magnetic flux through the loop changes, and (2) the direction of this induced current will be such that it creates its own magnetic field opposing the original change in flux. (3) Examples are given demonstrating how an induced current in a coil will flow in a direction opposing the motion of a magnet moving in or out of the coil.
In this presentation, I discuss new power semiconductor materials which have a wide band gap and how it is revolutionizing the power electronics technology.
Mig welding process is semi automatic when used for manual welding . It can be used in welding automation systems for high quality welds and high productivity.
semiconductor and hall effect.pptx chemistry .....amruthatk3
Semiconductors are materials with an electrical conductivity between conductors and insulators. They have energy bands consisting of a valence band, conduction band, and a forbidden band or bandgap between them. The small bandgap in semiconductors allows electrons to move between bands with small amounts of energy. Semiconductors can be intrinsic, consisting of pure elements like silicon, or extrinsic through doping with impurities. N-type semiconductors are doped with donor atoms that provide extra electrons, while P-type are doped with acceptor atoms that create holes. The document discusses the band structure and carrier concentrations that give semiconductors their unique electronic properties.
The document provides an overview of semiconductors including:
- Types of semiconductors such as intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors. Extrinsic semiconductors are further divided into n-type and p-type.
- Properties of semiconductors such as resistivity, conductivity, and how resistivity decreases with increasing temperature.
- Band theory and the roles of conduction and valence bands.
- How doping semiconductors with different impurities creates either n-type or p-type semiconductors by introducing more electrons or holes.
This document provides an introduction to semiconductors. It discusses how semiconductors can behave as either conductors or insulators depending on doping, and describes the crystal lattice structure of semiconductors. It also explains intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors, detailing how doping with trivalent or pentavalent impurities creates N-type or P-type materials respectively. The document concludes by discussing diode operation under forward and reverse bias conditions.
This document discusses the classification and uses of nickel and nickel alloy bare welding electrodes and rods. It begins by explaining that the welding filler metals are classified based on their chemical composition using a system of letters and numbers. It then provides details on 14 different classifications (ERNi-1, ERNiCu-7, ERNiCr-3, etc.), including their nominal chemical composition and intended uses for welding various nickel and nickel alloy base metals. Tensile strengths for the different classifications range from 380 to 1140 MPa.
Wet or Electrochemical corrosion, Mechanism of electrochemical corrosion, Evolution of hydrogen and absorption of oxygen type cathodic reaction, Distinction between dry and wet corrosion.
Basic Electrical Technology Questions with Answers.Ghulam Mehdi
Q.1: Explain the different types of First Aid.
Q.2: Explain the properties of conductors and insulators.
Q.3: A resistor is connected in series with parallel circuit comprises of two resistances of 12 Ω and 8 Ω. Total power dissipated in the circuit is 70 watts when the applied voltage is 20 volts. Calculate value of resistance.
Q.4 What are the characteristics of primary and secondary cells?
Q.5 What defects occur in the secondary cell?
Q.6 Describe the working principle of alkaline cell?
Q.7 What are the advantages and disadvantages of AC current?
Q.8 What is difference between ammeter, voltmeter, ohmmeter and multimeter?
Q.9 Discuss the working principle of moving coil instruments.
Q.10 State the efficiency and protective devices of transformer.
This document discusses various methods for measuring medium resistances between 1-0.1M Ω. It describes four common methods: the voltmeter-ammeter method, substitution method, ohmmeter method, and bridge circuit method. The bridge circuit method operates on the principle of null comparison using a Wheatstone bridge configuration with ratio and standard arms. Sources of error in resistance measurements include thermal EMF and contact resistance. Worked examples are provided to calculate resistance values and measurement uncertainties.
This document provides information on band theory and semiconductor physics. It discusses how energy bands are formed in solids due to the interaction of atoms. Energy bands split into discrete energy levels for insulators and partially overlapping bands for conductors and semiconductors. Semiconductors have a small band gap that can be modified by doping to create n-type or p-type materials. A p-n junction forms the basic structure of a diode and transistor. The document explains concepts such as Fermi levels, carrier transport, and device characteristics like the I-V curve and modes of transistor operation. Applications of semiconductors include rectifiers and basic logic functions.
Corrosion is the destructive attack of a metal by chemical or electrochemical reaction with its environment. There are three main types of polarization that influence the corrosion rate - concentration polarization, activation polarization, and IR drop. Concentration polarization occurs when the rate of the electrochemical reaction is controlled by the mass transport of reactants or products. Activation polarization is caused by an energy barrier that must be overcome for the electrochemical reaction to proceed. IR drop is the potential drop across the electrolyte due to its resistance. The total polarization is the sum of the individual polarization contributions. Cathodic polarization generally decreases the corrosion rate while anodic polarization can either increase or decrease the corrosion rate depending on whether the metal is in an active or passive state.
Arc welding processes like shielded metal arc welding, gas metal arc welding and gas tungsten arc welding are described. Shielded metal arc welding uses a consumable electrode covered with a flux to shield the weld. Gas metal arc welding employs a continuously fed wire and shielding gas. Gas tungsten arc welding uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode, shielding gas and a separate filler material. The document discusses welding techniques, processes, defects and includes illustrations of welding joints and processes.
This document provides an introduction to semiconductors. It discusses the atomic structure of semiconductors like silicon and how covalent bonding forms between atoms. Semiconductors have energy bands with gaps between the valence and conduction bands. Doping semiconductors by adding impurities can produce either N-type or P-type materials. When a P-type and N-type material come into contact, electrons and holes diffuse across the junction, forming a depletion region that inhibits current flow in one direction. Diodes are formed from the junction between P-type and N-type materials and allow current to flow in only one direction.
This document summarizes various instrumentation devices used for measurement and control. It discusses mechanical, electrical, and electronic instruments. It also describes different types of transducers including temperature, pressure, flow, strain, and proximity sensors. The key measurement principles and applications of instruments like RTDs, thermocouples, thermistors, bourdon tubes, load cells, and inductive proximity sensors are summarized.
Thermionic (vacuum tube) diodes and solid state (semiconductor) diodes were developed separately in the early 1900s as radio receiver detectors. Vacuum tube diodes were more commonly used in radios until the 1950s due to early semiconductor diodes being less stable. Semiconductor diodes are made from materials like silicon and germanium that have precise atomic structures that allow controlled current flow. A p-n junction is formed at the interface between p-type and n-type semiconductor materials and enables diode rectification properties. Diodes have various applications including rectification, clamping, clipping, and lighting.
This slide give you idea about the atomic structure, classification of solids based on valance electron, free electron, energy band description, why the silicon is used as semiconductor substance compare to germanium, semiconductor and its types.
This document contains a 17 question multiple choice quiz on welding topics for a CSWIP 3.1 certification. The quiz covers questions on welding processes like MMA, TIG, and SAW; welding techniques like slope in; welding defects like arc blow and lamellar tearing; welding consumables; post-weld heat treatment; and non-destructive testing methods. It also lists 7 theory questions asked in a February 2007 CSWIP 3.1 exam related to welding inspector duties, electrode classifications, hard stamping limitations, TIG processes, hydrogen cracking causes, welding procedure tests, and lamellar tearing.
Honeywell provides corrosion solutions including laboratory testing, monitoring technologies, software, and consulting services to reduce corrosion costs for customers in oil and gas, chemical, and other process industries. The laboratory uses advanced experimental techniques like high pressure/temperature autoclaves and electrochemical analysis to test new materials and solve corrosion problems. Honeywell's corrosion monitoring technologies provide real-time data on corrosion rates to improve asset reliability and reduce maintenance costs.
This document discusses energy bands in solids and semiconductor devices. It explains how the discrete energy levels in isolated atoms merge and form continuous energy bands as atoms are brought together in a solid. In semiconductors, the valence band is full while the conduction band is empty, with a small band gap between them. Thermally excited electrons can cross this gap, making semiconductors weakly conductive. Doping a semiconductor with impurities introduces donors or acceptors that increase the number of free electrons or holes, making it an n-type or p-type extrinsic semiconductor. The carrier concentrations and conductivity of semiconductors are determined by factors like doping level, temperature, and carrier mobilities.
Inductors play an important role in AC circuits by opposing any changes in current through induction. The opposition is known as reactance. In an inductor, the current lags the voltage by 90 degrees. In an LCR series circuit, the voltages across each component depend on frequency and have different phase relationships. At resonance, the inductor and capacitor reactances cancel out, resulting in maximum current.
Powerpoint presentation about lenz's lawrdelizoneyou
Lenz's law states that (1) an induced current will flow in a closed conducting loop when the magnetic flux through the loop changes, and (2) the direction of this induced current will be such that it creates its own magnetic field opposing the original change in flux. (3) Examples are given demonstrating how an induced current in a coil will flow in a direction opposing the motion of a magnet moving in or out of the coil.
In this presentation, I discuss new power semiconductor materials which have a wide band gap and how it is revolutionizing the power electronics technology.
Mig welding process is semi automatic when used for manual welding . It can be used in welding automation systems for high quality welds and high productivity.
semiconductor and hall effect.pptx chemistry .....amruthatk3
Semiconductors are materials with an electrical conductivity between conductors and insulators. They have energy bands consisting of a valence band, conduction band, and a forbidden band or bandgap between them. The small bandgap in semiconductors allows electrons to move between bands with small amounts of energy. Semiconductors can be intrinsic, consisting of pure elements like silicon, or extrinsic through doping with impurities. N-type semiconductors are doped with donor atoms that provide extra electrons, while P-type are doped with acceptor atoms that create holes. The document discusses the band structure and carrier concentrations that give semiconductors their unique electronic properties.
The document provides an overview of semiconductors including:
- Types of semiconductors such as intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors. Extrinsic semiconductors are further divided into n-type and p-type.
- Properties of semiconductors such as resistivity, conductivity, and how resistivity decreases with increasing temperature.
- Band theory and the roles of conduction and valence bands.
- How doping semiconductors with different impurities creates either n-type or p-type semiconductors by introducing more electrons or holes.
Advancements of Semi conductors and Superconductorsadnanalvi051
explained what are semiconductors and superconductors and their uses. Also nowadays revolutions and advancements in semiconductors as superconductors. After reading these Slides one can easily understand about semiconductors and Superconductors, Nowadays our life is full of semiconductor usage.
This document provides information on advancements in semiconductors and superconductors. It defines semiconductors and describes their intrinsic and extrinsic types. Applications of semiconductors include displays, RFID tags, and solar cells. Superconductors are materials that conduct electricity without resistance below a critical temperature. The document defines key terms related to superconductors like critical temperature and Meissner effect, and provides examples of superconducting materials like YBa2Cu307.
B.tech sem i engineering physics u ii chapter 1-band theory of solidRai University
This document provides an overview of band theory of solids. It discusses effective mass of electrons in solids, the concept of holes, and the energy band structure of conductors, semiconductors, and insulators. Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors are described, along with p-type and n-type materials. Simple diode and Zener diode operation is summarized, including forward and reverse bias conditions.
Semiconductor devices use crystalline solids like silicon as semiconductors. Semiconductors can be made to conduct electricity more or less depending on if they are doped with impurities. A PN junction diode is made by doping one side of silicon with a P-type impurity and the other side with an N-type impurity. When the two sides are joined, electrons and holes diffuse across the junction, leaving an electric field that blocks further diffusion. This allows current to flow easily in one direction but blocks it in the reverse direction, making the diode useful for rectification.
B.Tech sem I Engineering Physics U-II Chapter 1-Band theory of solidAbhi Hirpara
The document discusses band theory of solids and semiconductor devices. It explains that in solids, electrons occupy discrete energy bands separated by forbidden gaps. This leads to the classification of materials as conductors, semiconductors or insulators. Semiconductors can be intrinsic, with equal electron and hole concentrations, or extrinsic through doping. The document describes the operation of simple diodes and Zener diodes, whose sharp breakdown voltage makes them useful for voltage regulation and references.
Diploma sem 2 applied science physics-unit 3-chap-1 band theory of solidRai University
This document provides an overview of band theory of solids. It discusses key concepts such as effective mass of electrons, the concept of holes, and the energy band structure of conductors, semiconductors and insulators. It explains that conductors have overlapping valence and conduction bands, semiconductors have a small bandgap, and insulators have a large bandgap. The document also covers intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors, the operation of p-n junction diodes under reverse and forward bias, and types of diodes such as simple diodes and Zener diodes.
BASIC ELECTRONICS
Electronics is a branch of physics that deals with the emission and effects of electrons in materials.
Or
Is a branch of science dealing with the study and development of circuit involving semi conductors, logic gates and other electrical components like resistors, capacitors and inductors.
This document discusses semiconductors and their types. It defines a semiconductor as a material with conductivity between a metal and an insulator. There are two types of semiconductors - intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic semiconductors are pure, while extrinsic are doped with impurities to be either N-type (excess electrons) or P-type (excess holes). The document explains the carrier concentrations and energy band diagrams of the different semiconductor types.
This document provides an overview of basic concepts in electronics and semiconductor materials. It discusses:
1) The basic structure of atoms including protons, neutrons and electrons. Electrons orbit the nucleus in shells and valence electrons are in the outer shell.
2) Semiconductors have energy bands where electrons can move between a valence band and conduction band. The energy gap between the bands determines conductivity.
3) Intrinsic semiconductors have equal electrons and holes. Extrinsic semiconductors are doped with impurities to increase conductivity, creating either n-type or p-type materials. N-type adds extra electrons and p-type adds holes.
This document provides an overview of intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors. It begins with an introduction to crystalline solids and classifications of solids as conductors, insulators, or semiconductors. It then discusses intrinsic semiconductors, how increasing temperature generates electron-hole pairs, and how conductivity increases with temperature. Extrinsic or doped semiconductors are introduced, including n-type and p-type semiconductors created by adding donor or acceptor impurities. The document explains how doping increases the number of charge carriers and conductivity.
Superconductors are materials that conduct electricity without resistance below a critical temperature. There are two main types of superconductors - Type I, which exhibits perfect diamagnetism below its transition temperature, and Type II, which partially excludes magnetic fields below two critical field values. A key characteristic of superconductors is the Meissner effect, where magnetic fields are excluded from the material. Superconductivity arises from electron pairs known as Cooper pairs that form below the critical temperature and flow without resistance. Potential applications of superconductors include power transmission, transportation, computing, and medical imaging.
This document provides an overview of semiconductors. It discusses intrinsic semiconductors, which have few charge carriers, and extrinsic semiconductors, which are doped with impurities to increase conductivity. N-type materials are doped with elements like phosphorus that contribute free electrons, while P-type materials are doped with elements like boron that contribute holes. The document explains current flow in semiconductors, with electrons as the majority carrier in N-type and holes as the majority carrier in P-type. When P-type and N-type materials are combined, they form a PN junction, which allows the creation of semiconductor devices.
This document discusses semiconductors and their properties. It explains that semiconductors have electrical conductivity between conductors and insulators. Their valence and conduction bands are almost full and empty respectively, with a small energy gap that allows electrons to cross over with a smaller electric field compared to insulators. Common semiconductors like silicon and germanium form covalent bonds and have crystalline structures. Doping semiconductors with impurities can create an excess or shortage of electrons, making them either n-type or p-type semiconductors respectively.
This document provides information about the EE-3111 Electrical and Electronic Systems course taught by Engr. Neelam Mughees. It outlines the course materials, policy, marks distribution, academic dishonesty policy, and introduces some key concepts about semiconductors and PN junctions. The course covers topics like introduction to semiconductors, current in semiconductors, N-type and P-type semiconductors, formation of the depletion region, and biasing of PN junctions. Students are expected to attend all classes, submit all assignments by deadlines, and will be penalized for any forms of cheating.
The document discusses energy bands in semiconductors. It explains that semiconductors have a valence band, conduction band, and a forbidden energy gap between the bands. Intrinsic semiconductors generate electron-hole pairs when heated, while extrinsic semiconductors are doped with impurities to generate more charge carriers. P-type semiconductors are doped with acceptors to generate holes, while N-type are doped with donors to generate electrons. A PN junction forms a depletion region that acts as a diode, allowing current in one direction but blocking it in the other. Semiconductors find applications in devices like transistors, solar cells, and LEDs.
1) Semiconductors have energy band gaps between 1-4 eV allowing electrons to move between bands with small energy inputs, unlike insulators. Metals have overlapping or no bands.
2) Intrinsic semiconductors have small numbers of electrons and holes as charge carriers from thermal excitation breaking covalent bonds. Extrinsic semiconductors are doped with donor or acceptor impurities to add more free electrons or holes.
3) Donor impurities introduce extra electrons in the conduction band of n-type semiconductors. Acceptor impurities introduce holes in the valence band of p-type semiconductors.
This document discusses intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors. It explains that intrinsic semiconductors have equal numbers of electrons and holes generated by thermal excitation across the band gap. Extrinsic semiconductors are made by doping intrinsic semiconductors with impurities to create majority charge carriers. N-type semiconductors are doped with pentavalent impurities, making electrons the majority carriers. P-type semiconductors are doped with trivalent impurities, making holes the majority carriers. The document provides details on generation and recombination of carriers, the crystalline structure of semiconductors, and the differences between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.
This document provides an introduction to semiconductors. It discusses that semiconductors have conductivity between conductors and insulators. Intrinsic semiconductors are pure, while extrinsic semiconductors are doped with impurities. N-type semiconductors are doped with donors, making electrons the majority carriers. P-type semiconductors are doped with acceptors, making holes the majority carriers. When a P-type and N-type semiconductor are joined, a PN junction is formed with a depletion region between them. Forward biasing the junction lowers the barrier for current to flow.
Philippine Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) CurriculumMJDuyan
(𝐓𝐋𝐄 𝟏𝟎𝟎) (𝐋𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐧 𝟏)-𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐦𝐬
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐮𝐬𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐄𝐏𝐏 𝐂𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐦 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐏𝐡𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐩𝐩𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐬:
- Understand the goals and objectives of the Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) curriculum, recognizing its importance in fostering practical life skills and values among students. Students will also be able to identify the key components and subjects covered, such as agriculture, home economics, industrial arts, and information and communication technology.
𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐍𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐜𝐨𝐩𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐧 𝐄𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐮𝐫:
-Define entrepreneurship, distinguishing it from general business activities by emphasizing its focus on innovation, risk-taking, and value creation. Students will describe the characteristics and traits of successful entrepreneurs, including their roles and responsibilities, and discuss the broader economic and social impacts of entrepreneurial activities on both local and global scales.
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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The chapter Lifelines of National Economy in Class 10 Geography focuses on the various modes of transportation and communication that play a vital role in the economic development of a country. These lifelines are crucial for the movement of goods, services, and people, thereby connecting different regions and promoting economic activities.
A Visual Guide to 1 Samuel | A Tale of Two HeartsSteve Thomason
These slides walk through the story of 1 Samuel. Samuel is the last judge of Israel. The people reject God and want a king. Saul is anointed as the first king, but he is not a good king. David, the shepherd boy is anointed and Saul is envious of him. David shows honor while Saul continues to self destruct.
This presentation was provided by Racquel Jemison, Ph.D., Christina MacLaughlin, Ph.D., and Paulomi Majumder. Ph.D., all of the American Chemical Society, for the second session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session Two: 'Expanding Pathways to Publishing Careers,' was held June 13, 2024.
This presentation was provided by Rebecca Benner, Ph.D., of the American Society of Anesthesiologists, for the second session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session Two: 'Expanding Pathways to Publishing Careers,' was held June 13, 2024.
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryCeline George
In this slide, we'll explore how to set up warehouses and locations in Odoo 17 Inventory. This will help us manage our stock effectively, track inventory levels, and streamline warehouse operations.
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfTechSoup
"Learn about all the ways Walmart supports nonprofit organizations.
You will hear from Liz Willett, the Head of Nonprofits, and hear about what Walmart is doing to help nonprofits, including Walmart Business and Spark Good. Walmart Business+ is a new offer for nonprofits that offers discounts and also streamlines nonprofits order and expense tracking, saving time and money.
The webinar may also give some examples on how nonprofits can best leverage Walmart Business+.
The event will cover the following::
Walmart Business + (https://business.walmart.com/plus) is a new shopping experience for nonprofits, schools, and local business customers that connects an exclusive online shopping experience to stores. Benefits include free delivery and shipping, a 'Spend Analytics” feature, special discounts, deals and tax-exempt shopping.
Special TechSoup offer for a free 180 days membership, and up to $150 in discounts on eligible orders.
Spark Good (walmart.com/sparkgood) is a charitable platform that enables nonprofits to receive donations directly from customers and associates.
Answers about how you can do more with Walmart!"
This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
A wound is a break in the integrity of the skin or tissues, which may be associated with disruption of the structure and function.
Healing is the body’s response to injury in an attempt to restore normal structure and functions.
Healing can occur in two ways: Regeneration and Repair
There are 4 phases of wound healing: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. This document also describes the mechanism of wound healing. Factors that affect healing include infection, uncontrolled diabetes, poor nutrition, age, anemia, the presence of foreign bodies, etc.
Complications of wound healing like infection, hyperpigmentation of scar, contractures, and keloid formation.
1. SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
Definition of semi-conductor:
“Semiconductors are the materials which have a conductivity between conductors
(generally metal) and insulators (such as ceramics).”
Semiconductors can be compounds such as gallium arsenide or pure elements such as
germanium or silicon.
Examples of semiconductors:
Gallium arsenide, germanium and silicon are some of the most commonly used
semiconductors.
Silicon is used in electronic circuit fabrication and gallium arsenide is used in solar cells, laser
diodes etc.
2. SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
Holes & Electrons in semiconductors:
Holes and electrons are the types of charge carriers accountable for the flow of current in
semiconductors.
Holes (valence electrons) are the positively charged electric charge carrier whereas electrons
are the negatively charged particles.
Both electrons and holes are equal in magnitude but opposite in polarity.
3. SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
Band Theory Of Semiconductors:
The introduction of band theory happened during the quantum revolution science. Walter
Heitler and Fritz London discovered the energy bands.
We know that the electrons in an atom are present in different energy levels. When we try to
assemble a lattice of a solid with N-atoms, then each level of an atom must split up into N
levels in the solid. This splitting up of sharp and tightly packed energy levels forms Energy
Bands. The gap between adjacent bands representing a range of energies that possess no
electrons is called a Band Gap.
4. SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
Conduction Band & Valence Bond in Semiconductor:
1)Conduction Band:
It is the lowest unoccupied band that includes the energy levels of positive (holes) or negative
(free electrons) charge carriers. It has conducting electrons resulting in the flow of current.
The conduction band possess high energy level and are generally empty. The conduction band
in semiconductors accepts the electrons from the valence band.
2)Valence Band:
The energy band involving the energy levels of valence electrons is known as the valence
band. It is the highest occupied energy band. When compared with insulators, the bandgap in
semiconductors is smaller. It allows the electrons in the valence band to jump into the
conduction band on receiving any external energy.
5. SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
Fermi Level in Semiconductors:
Fermi level denoted by EF is present between the valence band and conduction band. It is the
highest occupied molecular orbital at absolute zero. The charge carriers in this state have their
own quantum states and generally do not interact with each other. When the temperature rises
above absolute zero, these charge carriers will begin to occupy states above FERMI LEVEL.
In a p-type semiconductor, there is an increase in the density of unfiled states. Thus, more
electrons at the lower energy levels.
However, in an n-type semiconductors, the density of states increase, therefore,
accommodating more electrons at higher energy levels.
6. SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
Types of Semiconductors:
Semiconductors can be classified as;
›Intrinsic Semiconductor
›Extrinsic Semiconductor
8. SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
Germanium (Ge) and Silicon (Si) are the most common type of intrinsic semiconductor
material. They have 4-valence electrons (tetravalent). They are bound to the atom by covalent
bond at absolute zero temperature.
When the temperature rises, due to collisions, few electrons are unbounded and become free to
move through the lattice, thus creating an absence in its original position (hole). These free
electrons and holes contribute to the conduction of electricity in the semiconductor. The
negative and positive charge carriers are equal in number.
9. SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
Energy diagram of intrinsic semiconductor:
The energy diagram of an intrinsic semiconductor is shown below. In intrinsic semiconductors,
current flows due to the motion of free electrons as well as
Holes. The total current is the sum of the electron current
𝐈𝐞 due to thermally generated electrons and the hole
current 𝐈𝐡. The total current (I)=𝐈𝐞 + 𝐈𝐡
For an intrinsic semiconductor at finite temperature, the
probability of electrons to exist in conduction band dec-
reases with increasing bandgap.
𝐧 = 𝐧𝟎𝐞
−𝐄𝐠
𝟐
.𝐊𝐛.𝐓
Where:
𝑬𝒈= Energy bandgap ; 𝑲𝒃= Boltzmann’s law
10. SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
Extrinsic Semiconductor:
The conductivity of semiconductors can be greatly improved by introducing a small number of
suitable replacement atoms called impurities. The process of adding impurity atoms to the pure
semiconductor is called doping.
Usually only 1-atom in 𝟏𝟎𝟕 is replaced by a dopant atom in the doped semiconductor.
11. SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
Extrinsic Semiconductor can be further classified into;
›N-type semiconductor
›P-type semiconductor
N-type semiconductor P-type semiconductor
Mainly due to electrons Mainly due to holes
𝐈 = 𝐈𝐡 & 𝐧𝐡 ≫ 𝐧𝐞 𝐈 = 𝐈𝐡 & 𝐧𝐡 ≫ 𝐧𝐞
Majority of electrons Majority of holes
Minority of holes Minority of electrons
12. SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
Properties of Semiconductor:
i)Semiconductor can conduct electricity under preferable conditions.
ii)For unlike conductors, the charge carriers in semiconductors arise only because of external
energy.
iii)It causes a certain number of valence electrons to cross the energy gap and jump into the
conduction band, leaving an equal amount of unoccupied energy states, i.e holes.
iv)Semiconductor acts like an insulator at zero kelvin. On increasing the temperature, it works
as a conductor.
v)Due to exceptional electrical properties, semiconductors can be modified by doping to make
semiconductor device suitable for energy conversion, switches and amplifiers.
vi)Lesser power losses.
vii)The resistance of Semiconductor materials decreases with the increase in temperature and
vice-versa.
13. SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
Resistivity of semiconductors go down with temperature why?
The difference in resistivity between conductors and semiconductors is due to their difference
in charge carrier density.
The resistivity of semiconductors decreases with temperature because the number of charge
carriers increases rapidly with increase in temperature, making the fractional change i.e. the
temperature coefficient negative.
14. SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
Uses of semiconductors:
›Temperature sensors are made with semiconductor devices.
›They are used in 3D printing machines.
›Used in microchips and self driving cars.
›Used in calculators, solar plates, computer and other electronic devices.
›Transistors and MOSFET used as a switch in electrical circuits are manufacturing using in
semiconductors.