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![Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and certain other countries.
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America.
Copyright © 2020, 2015, 2010, 2004, 1998 by Oxford University Press; 1991, 1987 Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc.; 1982 CBS College
Publishing
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about pricing and alternate formats.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the
appropriate reproduction rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights
Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above.
You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Sedra, Adel S., author. | Smith, Kenneth C. (Kenneth Carless), author. | Carusone, Tony Chan, author. | Gaudet, Vincent, author.
Title: Microelectronic circuits / Adel S. Sedra, University of Waterloo, Kenneth C. Smith, University of Toronto, Tony Chan Carusone,
University of Toronto, Vincent Gaudet, University of Waterloo.
Description: Eighth edition. | New York, NY: Oxford University Press, [2020] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019017349 | ISBN 9780190853464 (acid-free paper) | ISBN 9780190853532 (ebook)
Version 5
Subjects: LCSH: Electronic circuits. | Microelectronics.
Classification: LCC TK7867 .S39 2020 | DDC 621.3815—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019017349
Printing number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Printed by LSC Communications, United States of America](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/26183262-250605160520-1ee56683/75/Sedra-Smith-Microelectronic-Circuits-8th-Edition-By-Adel-S-Sedra-Author-10-2048.jpg)
![were sung before the door. Just as they were about to nail on the lid
of the coffin, a slight perspiration was observed to appear on the
surface of her body. It grew greater every moment, and at last a
kind of convulsive motion was observed in the hands and feet of the
corpse. A few moments after, during which time fresh signs of
returning life appeared, she at once opened her eyes, and uttered a
pitiable shriek. Physicians were quickly procured, and in the course
of a few days she was considerably restored, and is probably alive at
this day.”
The description which she herself gave of her situation is
extremely remarkable, and forms a curious and authentic addition to
psychology:—
“She said it seemed to her, as if in a dream, that she was really
dead; yet she was perfectly conscious of all that happened around
her in this dreadful state. She distinctly heard her friends speaking,
and lamenting her death at the side of her coffin. She felt them pull
on the dead-clothes and lay her in it. This feeling produced a mental
anxiety which was indescribable. She tried to cry, but her soul was
without power and could not act on her body. She had the
contradictory feeling as if she were in her body, and yet not in it, at
one and the same time. It was equally impossible for her to stretch
out her arms, or to open her eyes, or to cry although she continued
to do so. The internal anguish of her mind was, however, at its
utmost height when the funeral hymns began to be sung, and when
the lid of the coffin was about to be nailed on. The thought that she
was to be buried alive was the first one which gave activity to her
soul, and caused it to operate on her corporeal frame.”
Related by Dr. Herz in the “Psychological Magazine,” and
transcribed by Sir Alexander Crichton in the introduction to his essay
on “Mental Derangement.” [2 vols., Lond., 1798.]
“One of the most frightful cases extant is that of Dr. Walker, of
Dublin, who had so strong a presentiment on this subject, that he](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/26183262-250605160520-1ee56683/75/Sedra-Smith-Microelectronic-Circuits-8th-Edition-By-Adel-S-Sedra-Author-65-2048.jpg)
![dead would be kept under observation until decomposition appears,
would of course prevent such disasters.
Struve, in the Essay cited in the Bibliography (1802), says:—
“All still-born children should be considered as only apparently
dead, and the resuscitative process ought never to be neglected.
Sometimes two hours or more will elapse before reanimation can be
effected. An ingenious man-midwife, says Bruhier, was employed for
several hours in the revival of an apparently still-born child, and as
his endeavours proved unavailing, he considered the subject really
dead. Being, however, accidentally detained, he again turned his
attention to the child, and by continuing the resuscitative method for
some time it was unexpectedly restored to life” (p. 150).
The following is one of Struve’s most striking cases:—
A Mr. E.—— called in 18—— to obtain a certificate of death for a
still-born child of seven months’ gestation. Arriving at the house, the
doctor found the child laid upon a little straw and covered with a
slight black shawl; this was one p.m., and the child had been there
since five a.m. It was icy cold, and there was no heart sound nor
respiration, but there was a slight muscular twitching over the region
of the heart. The child was immersed in a hot bath and artificial
respiration employed, but for twenty minutes the case seemed
hopeless; then the eyes opened and after continued effort the
respirations began, laborious and interrupted at first, then normal by
degrees. The child was saved, and became an accomplished violinist.
The mortality and waste of infant life, particularly in large cities
like Paris, London, Berlin, Vienna, and New York, is admitted by all
investigators to be enormous. In France medical writers, in view of
the small percentage of births to population, are waking up to the
realisation that the State cannot afford the loss, and that, among
other things, steps should be taken to resuscitate the still-born, so
that none should be buried before unequivocal signs of death are
manifested.[21] The premature abandonment of the still-born among
the poorer classes in crowded cities is only too probable. There are](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/26183262-250605160520-1ee56683/75/Sedra-Smith-Microelectronic-Circuits-8th-Edition-By-Adel-S-Sedra-Author-72-2048.jpg)
![twenty-seven apparently dead-born children—a striking instance of
the truth of the remark of a celebrated writer (Osiander) that “the
generality of infants, considered as still-born, are only apparently so;
if, therefore, persons would persevere in their exertions to revive
them, most of them might be restored.”—Report of the Royal
Humane Society, 1816-17, pp. 52-54.
“For these exertions the General Court adjudged the Honorary
Medallion to Mrs. Widgen, and it was accordingly presented to her
by His Royal Highness the Duke of Kent.”—Ibid., p. 52.
[The question naturally suggests itself in this place: If the matron
of such a noble institution as the above was able to save seventy-
two apparently dead children from the grave in four years, how
many of these poor little beings are consigned to the grave all over
the world for lack of the “humane attention and indefatigable
exertions,” such as this skilful matron gave to those that came under
her intelligent care?]
“RECURRENCE OF SUSPENDED ANIMATION.
“A child, who had a cough for some time, was suddenly attacked
with difficulty of breathing, and to all appearances died. A medical
gentleman immediately inflated the lungs, and by persisting in this
for a considerable time, recovered the child. A similar state of
suspended animation took place three or four times, and inflation
was as often had recourse to with the same success; but the attack,
happening, unfortunately, to recur whilst the medical gentleman in
whose family the case happened was from home, the proper
measures were not taken, and the child was lost.”—Ibid., p. 140.
“SHOCK FROM LIGHTNING.
“A boy was struck down by a flash of lightning near Hoxton (in
the suburbs of London), and lay exposed to the rain at least an hour,](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/26183262-250605160520-1ee56683/75/Sedra-Smith-Microelectronic-Circuits-8th-Edition-By-Adel-S-Sedra-Author-75-2048.jpg)
![until his companions carried him home on some boards, apparently
dead—the body being stiff and universally cold, the fingers and toes
contracted, and the countenance livid. He was stripped of his wet
clothes, put in hot blankets, and bled twenty ounces. In half an hour,
interrupted respiration commenced, without inflating the lungs; in an
hour more, regular pulsation and breathing were established,
together with power of swallowing; and in a week he was quite
well.”—Ibid., p. 147.
In the Lancet, 1884, vol. i., p. 922, W. Arnold Thompson,
F.R.C.S.I., reports a case of resuscitation of a child delivered by the
forceps, which was “apparently to myself [he says] and the nurse
and relatives, a perfectly dead child, and with no signs of respiration
or life about it.... My opinion was that the death was real and
positive, but that, there being no actual disease present, and the
blood still warm, the machinery of life was set going, and
resuscitation followed as a consequence of suitable means being
taken and persevered in without undue delay. In the future I do not
intend to allow any still-born children to be put away without making
strenuous efforts to restore vitality.”
The Lancet, 1880, vol. ii., p. 582:—In a discussion at the Royal
Medical and Chirurgical Society upon Artificial Respiration in New-
born Children, Dr. Roper related three cases in which the child was
left for dead. “One of these occurred in the practice of Mr. Brown, of
St. Mary Axe. The child was still-born in the absence of a medical
man. It was taken to the surgery, and thence to the late Mr. Solly,
who next day, in dissecting the body, found that the heart was still
beating. A second instance was of a fœtus of five months and a half,
which was set aside as dead, Dr. Roper attending the mother, who
was suffering from hæmorrhage. He was astonished next day to find
that this immature child, which had lain on the floor for eleven hours
through a cold night, was breathing and its heart beating....” Such
examples show that the new-born have greater tenacity of life than
is supposed.
The Lancet, 1881, vol. ii., p. 430, under the heading of “The
Burial of Still-born Infants,” states that “Greater security for the due](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/26183262-250605160520-1ee56683/75/Sedra-Smith-Microelectronic-Circuits-8th-Edition-By-Adel-S-Sedra-Author-76-2048.jpg)
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- 7. THE OXFORD SERIESIN ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING Adel S. Sedra, Series Editor Allen and Holberg, CMOS Analog Circuit Design, 3rd edition Bobrow, Elementary Linear Circuit Analysis, 2nd edition Bobrow, Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering, 2nd edition Campbell, Fabrication Engineering at the Micro- and Nanoscale, 4th edition Chen, Digital Signal Processing Chen, Linear System Theory and Design, 4th edition Chen, Signals and Systems, 3rd edition Comer, Digital Logic and State Machine Design, 3rd edition Comer, Microprocessor-Based System Design Cooper and McGillem, Probabilistic Methods of Signal and System Analysis, 3rd edition Dimitrijev, Principles of Semiconductor Device, 2nd edition Dimitrijev, Understanding Semiconductor Devices Fortney, Principles of Electronics: Analog & Digital Franco, Electric Circuits Fundamentals Ghausi, Electronic Devices and Circuits: Discrete and Integrated Guru and Hiziroğlu, Electric Machinery and Transformers, 3rd edition Houts, Signal Analysis in Linear Systems Jones, Introduction to Optical Fiber Communication Systems Krein, Elements of Power Electronics, 2nd Edition Kuo, Digital Control Systems, 3rd edition Lathi, Linear Systems and Signals, 3rd edition Lathi and Ding, Modern Digital and Analog Communication Systems, 5th edition Lathi, Signal Processing and Linear Systems Martin, Digital Integrated Circuit Design Miner, Lines and Electromagnetic Fields for Engineers Mitra, Signals and Systems Parhami, Computer Architecture Parhami, Computer Arithmetic, 2nd edition Roberts and Sedra, SPICE, 2nd edition Roberts, Taenzler, and Burns, An Introduction to Mixed-Signal IC Test and Measurement, 2nd edition Roulston, An Introduction to the Physics of Semiconductor Devices Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics, 7th edition Santina, Stubberud, and Hostetter, Digital Control System Design, 2nd edition Sarma, Introduction to Electrical Engineering Schaumann, Xiao, and Van Valkenburg, Design of Analog Filters, 3rd edition Schwarz and Oldham, Electrical Engineering: An Introduction, 2nd edition
- 8. Sedra, Smith, Carusone,and Gaudet, Microelectronic Circuits, 8th edition Stefani, Shahian, Savant, and Hostetter, Design of Feedback Control Systems, 4th edition Tsividis, Operation and Modeling of the MOS Transistor, 3rd edition Van Valkenburg, Analog Filter Design Warner and Grung, Semiconductor Device Electronics Wolovich, Automatic Control Systems Yariv and Yeh, Photonics: Optical Electronics in Modern Communications, 6th edition Żak, Systems and Control
- 9. EIGHTH EDITION Microelectronic Circuits AdelS. Sedra University of Waterloo Kenneth C. Smith University of Toronto Tony Chan Carusone University of Toronto Vincent Gaudet University of Waterloo
- 10. Oxford University Pressis a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and certain other countries. Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America. Copyright © 2020, 2015, 2010, 2004, 1998 by Oxford University Press; 1991, 1987 Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc.; 1982 CBS College Publishing For titles covered by Section 112 of the US Higher Education Opportunity Act, please visit www.oup.com/us/he for the latest information about pricing and alternate formats. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above. You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Sedra, Adel S., author. | Smith, Kenneth C. (Kenneth Carless), author. | Carusone, Tony Chan, author. | Gaudet, Vincent, author. Title: Microelectronic circuits / Adel S. Sedra, University of Waterloo, Kenneth C. Smith, University of Toronto, Tony Chan Carusone, University of Toronto, Vincent Gaudet, University of Waterloo. Description: Eighth edition. | New York, NY: Oxford University Press, [2020] | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2019017349 | ISBN 9780190853464 (acid-free paper) | ISBN 9780190853532 (ebook) Version 5 Subjects: LCSH: Electronic circuits. | Microelectronics. Classification: LCC TK7867 .S39 2020 | DDC 621.3815—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019017349 Printing number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Printed by LSC Communications, United States of America
- 11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 CONTENTS IN BRIEF Tables HistoricalNotes Preface PART I DEVICES AND BASIC CIRCUITS Signals and Amplifiers Operational Amplifiers Semiconductors Diodes MOS Field-Effect Transistors (MOSFETs) Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs) Transistor Amplifiers PART II ANALOG INTEGRATED CIRCUITS Building Blocks of Integrated-Circuit Amplifiers Differential and Multistage Amplifiers Frequency Response Feedback Output Stages and Power Amplifiers Operational-Amplifier Circuits Filters Oscillators PART III DIGITAL INTEGRATED CIRCUITS CMOS Digital Logic Circuits Digital Design: Power, Speed, and Area Memory and Clocking Circuits Appendices Summary Tables
- 12.
- 13. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.4.1 1.4.2 1.4.3 1.4.4 1.4.5 1.4.6 1.4.7 1.4.8 1.5 1.5.1 1.5.2 1.5.3 1.5.4 1.5.5 1.5.6 1.6 1.6.1 1.6.2 1.6.3 1.6.4 CONTENTS Tables Historical Notes Preface PART IDEVICES AND BASIC CIRCUITS 1 Signals and Amplifiers Introduction Signals Frequency Spectrum of Signals Analog and Digital Signals Amplifiers Signal Amplification Amplifier Circuit Symbol Voltage Gain Power Gain and Current Gain Expressing Gain in Decibels The Amplifier Power Supplies Amplifier Saturation Symbol Convention Circuit Models for Amplifiers Voltage Amplifiers Cascaded Amplifiers Other Amplifier Types Relationships between the Four Amplifier Models Determining Ri and Ro Unilateral Models Frequency Response of Amplifiers Measuring the Amplifier Frequency Response Amplifier Bandwidth Evaluating the Frequency Response of Amplifiers Single-Time-Constant Networks
- 14. 1.6.5 2.1 2.1.1 2.1.2 2.1.3 2.2 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4 2.3 2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.3 2.3.4 2.4 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.5 2.5.1 2.5.2 2.5.3 2.6 2.6.1 2.6.2 2.6.3 2.7 2.7.1 2.7.2 2.8 2.8.1 2.8.2 Classification of AmplifiersBased on Frequency Response Summary Problems 2 Operational Amplifiers Introduction The Ideal Op Amp The Op-Amp Terminals Function and Characteristics of the Ideal Op Amp Differential and Common-Mode Signals The Inverting Configuration The Closed-Loop Gain Effect of Finite Open-Loop Gain Input and Output Resistances An Important Application: The Weighted Summer The Noninverting Configuration The Closed-Loop Gain Effect of Finite Open-Loop Gain Input and Output Resistance The Voltage Follower Difference Amplifiers A Single-Op-Amp Difference Amplifier A Superior Circuit: The Instrumentation Amplifier Integrators and Differentiators The Inverting Configuration with General Impedances The Inverting Integrator The Op-Amp Differentiator DC Imperfections Offset Voltage Input Bias and Offset Currents Effect of VOS and IOS on the Operation of the Inverting Integrator Effect of Finite Open-Loop Gain and Bandwidth on Circuit Performance Frequency Dependence of the Open-Loop Gain Frequency Response of Closed-Loop Amplifiers Large-Signal Operation of Op Amps Output Voltage Saturation Output Current Limits
- 15. 2.8.3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.4 3.4.1 3.4.2 3.5 3.5.1 3.5.2 3.5.3 3.6 3.6.1 3.6.2 4.1 4.1.1 4.1.2 4.1.3 4.2 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.3 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.3 Slew Rate Summary Problems 3 Semiconductors Introduction IntrinsicSemiconductors Doped Semiconductors Current Flow in Semiconductors Drift Current Diffusion Current Relationship between D and μ The pn Junction Physical Structure Operation with Open-Circuit Terminals The pn Junction with an Applied Voltage Qualitative Description of Junction Operation The Current–Voltage Relationship of the Junction Reverse Breakdown Capacitive Effects in the pn Junction Depletion or Junction Capacitance Diffusion Capacitance Summary Problems 4 Diodes Introduction The Ideal Diode Current–Voltage Characteristic The Rectifier Limiting and Protection Circuits Terminal Characteristics of Junction Diodes The Forward-Bias Region The Reverse-Bias Region The Breakdown Region Modeling the Diode The Exponential Model Graphical Analysis Using the Exponential Model Iterative Analysis Using the Exponential Model
- 16. 4.3.4 4.3.5 4.3.6 4.3.7 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.6.1 4.6.2 4.6.3 4.6.4 4.6.5 4.7 4.7.1 4.7.2 4.7.3 4.7.4 4.7.5 5.1 5.1.1 5.1.2 5.1.3 5.1.4 5.1.5 5.1.6 5.1.7 5.1.8 5.2 5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3 5.2.4 The Need forRapid Analysis The Constant-Voltage-Drop Model The Ideal-Diode Model Operation in the Reverse Breakdown Region The Small-Signal Model Voltage Regulation Rectifier Circuits The Half-Wave Rectifier The Full-Wave Rectifier The Bridge Rectifier The Rectifier with a Filter Capacitor—The Peak Rectifier Precision Half-Wave Rectifier—The Superdiode Other Diode Applications The Clamped Capacitor and Bootstrapping The Voltage Doubler Varactors Photodiodes Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs) Summary Problems 5 MOS Field-Effect Transistors (MOSFETs) Introduction Device Structure and Physical Operation Device Structure Operation with Zero Gate Voltage Creating a Channel for Current Flow Applying a Small vDS Operation as vDS Is Increased Operation for vDS ≥ vOV: Channel Pinch-Off and Current Saturation The p-Channel MOSFET Complementary MOS or CMOS Current–Voltage Characteristics Circuit Symbol The iD–vDS Characteristics The iD–vGS Characteristic Finite Output Resistance in Saturation
- 17. 5.2.5 5.3 5.4 5.4.1 5.4.2 5.4.3 5.4.4 5.4.5 5.4.6 6.1 6.1.1 6.1.2 6.1.3 6.1.4 6.1.5 6.2 6.2.1 6.2.2 6.2.3 6.2.4 6.3 6.4 6.4.1 6.4.2 7.1 7.1.1 7.1.2 7.1.3 7.1.4 Characteristics of thep-Channel MOSFET MOSFET Circuits at DC Technology Scaling (Moore’s Law) and Other Topics Technology Scaling Subthreshold Conduction and Leakage Currents The Role of the Substrate—The Body Effect Temperature Effects Breakdown and Input Protection The Depletion-Type MOSFET Summary Problems 6 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs) Introduction Device Structure and Physical Operation Simplified Structure and Modes of Operation Operation of the npn Transistor in the Active Mode Structure of Actual Transistors Operation in the Saturation Mode The pnp Transistor Current–Voltage Characteristics Circuit Symbols and Conventions Graphical Representation of Transistor Characteristics Dependence of iC on the Collector Voltage—The Early Effect An Alternative Form of the Common-Emitter Characteristics BJT Circuits at DC Transistor Breakdown and Temperature Effects Transistor Breakdown Dependence of β on IC and Temperature Summary Problems 7 Transistor Amplifiers Introduction Basic Principles The Basis for Amplifier Operation Obtaining a Voltage Amplifier The Voltage-Transfer Characteristic (VTC) Obtaining Linear Amplification by Biasing the Transistor
- 18. 7.1.5 7.1.6 7.1.7 7.2 7.2.1 7.2.2 7.2.3 7.3 7.3.1 7.3.2 7.3.3 7.3.4 7.3.5 7.3.6 7.3.7 7.3.8 7.4 7.4.1 7.4.2 7.5 7.5.1 7.5.2 7.5.3 7.5.4 7.5.5 7.5.6 8.1 8.2 8.2.1 8.2.2 The Small-Signal VoltageGain Determining the VTC by Graphical Analysis Deciding on a Location for the Bias Point Q Small-Signal Operation and Models The MOSFET Case The BJT Case Summary Tables Basic Configurations The Three Basic Configurations Characterizing Amplifiers The Common-Source (CS) and Common-Emitter (CE) Amplifiers The Common-Source (Common-Emitter) Amplifier with a Source (Emitter) Resistance The Common-Gate (CG) and the Common-Base (CB) Amplifiers The Source and Emitter Followers Summary Tables and Comparisons When and How to Include the Output Resistance ro Biasing The MOSFET Case The BJT Case Discrete-Circuit Amplifiers A Common-Source (CS) Amplifier A Common-Emitter Amplifier A Common-Emitter Amplifier with an Emitter Resistance Re A Common-Base (CB) Amplifier An Emitter Follower The Amplifier Frequency Response Summary Problems PART II ANALOG INTEGRATED CIRCUITS 8 Building Blocks of Integrated-Circuit Amplifiers Introduction IC Design Philosophy IC Biasing: Current Sources and Current Mirrors The Basic MOSFET Current Source The MOS Current Mirror
- 19. 8.2.3 8.2.4 8.2.5 8.3 8.3.1 8.3.2 8.3.3 8.3.4 8.4 8.4.1 8.4.2 8.4.3 8.4.4 8.4.5 8.5 8.5.1 8.5.2 8.5.3 8.6 8.7 8.7.1 8.7.2 8.7.3 8.7.4 9.1 9.1.1 9.1.2 9.1.3 9.1.4 9.1.5 9.1.6 9.2 9.2.1 MOS Current-Steering Circuits BJTCircuits Small-Signal Operation of Current Mirrors The Basic Gain Cell The CS and CE Amplifiers with Current-Source Loads The Intrinsic Gain Effect of the Output Resistance of the Current-Source Load Increasing the Gain of the Basic Cell The Common-Gate and Common-Base Amplifiers as Current Buffers The CG Circuit Output Resistance of a CS Amplifier with a Source Resistance The Body Effect in the CG Amplifier The CB Circuit Output Resistance of the Emitter-Degenerated CE Amplifier The Cascode Amplifier The MOS Cascode Amplifier Distribution of Voltage Gain in a Cascode Amplifier The BJT Cascode The IC Source Follower Current-Mirror Circuits with Improved Performance The Cascode MOS Mirror The Wilson BJT Current Mirror The Wilson MOS Mirror The Widlar Current Source Summary Problems 9 Differential and Multistage Amplifiers Introduction The MOS Differential Pair Operation with a Common-Mode Input Voltage Operation with a Differential Input Voltage Large-Signal Operation Small-Signal Operation The Differential Amplifier with Current-Source Loads Cascode Differential Amplifier The BJT Differential Pair Basic Operation
- 20. 9.2.2 9.2.3 9.2.4 9.3 9.3.1 9.3.2 9.4 9.4.1 9.4.2 9.4.3 9.4.4 9.5 9.5.1 9.5.2 9.5.3 9.5.4 9.5.5 9.6 9.6.1 9.6.2 10.1 10.1.1 10.1.2 10.2 10.2.1 10.2.2 10.2.3 10.2.4 10.2.5 10.3 10.3.1 10.3.2 10.3.3 Input Common-Mode Range Large-SignalOperation Small-Signal Operation Common-Mode Rejection The MOS Case The BJT Case DC Offset Input Offset Voltage of the MOS Differential Amplifier Input Offset Voltage of the Bipolar Differential Amplifier Input Bias and Offset Currents of the Bipolar Differential Amplifier A Concluding Remark The Differential Amplifier with a Current-Mirror Load Differential-to-Single-Ended Conversion The Current-Mirror-Loaded MOS Differential Pair Differential Gain of the Current-Mirror-Loaded MOS Pair The Bipolar Differential Pair with a Current-Mirror Load Common-Mode Gain and CMRR Multistage Amplifiers A Two-Stage CMOS Op Amp A Bipolar Op Amp Summary Problems 10 Frequency Response Introduction High-Frequency Transistor Models The MOSFET The BJT High-Frequency Response of CS and CE Amplifiers Frequency Response of the Low-Pass Single-Time-Constant Circuit The Common-Source Amplifier Frequency Response of the CS Amplifier When Rsig Is Low The Common-Emitter Amplifier Miller’s Theorem The Method of Open-Circuit Time Constants The High-Frequency Gain Function Determining the 3-dB Frequency fH Applying the Method of Open-Circuit Time Constants to the CS Amplifier
- 21. 10.3.4 10.4 10.4.1 10.4.2 10.4.3 10.5 10.5.1 10.5.2 10.6 10.6.1 10.6.2 10.7 10.7.1 10.7.2 10.7.3 10.8 10.8.1 10.8.2 10.8.3 10.8.4 11.1 11.1.1 11.1.2 11.1.3 11.1.4 11.1.5 11.2 11.2.1 11.2.2 11.2.3 11.3 11.3.1 Application of theMethod of Open-Circuit Time Constants to the CE Amplifier High-Frequency Response of Common-Gate and Cascode Amplifiers High-Frequency Response of the CG Amplifier High-Frequency Response of the MOS Cascode Amplifier High-Frequency Response of the Bipolar Cascode Amplifier High-Frequency Response of Source and Emitter Followers The Source-Follower Case The Emitter-Follower Case High-Frequency Response of Differential Amplifiers Analysis of the Resistively Loaded MOS Amplifier Frequency Response of the Current-Mirror-Loaded MOS Differential Amplifier Other Wideband Amplifier Configurations Obtaining Wideband Amplification by Source or Emitter Degeneration Increasing fH by Buffering the Input Signal Source Increasing fH by Eliminating the Miller Effect Using a CG or a CB Configuration with an Input Buffer Low-Frequency Response of Discrete-Circuit CS and CE Amplifiers Frequency Response of the High-Pass Single-Time-Constant Circuit The CS Amplifier The Method of Short-Circuit Time Constants The CE Amplifier Summary Problems 11 Feedback Introduction The General Feedback Structure Signal-Flow Diagram The Closed-Loop Gain The Loop Gain The Ideal Case of Infinite Open-Loop Gain A Summary Some Properties of Negative Feedback Gain Desensitivity Bandwidth Extension Reduction in Nonlinear Distortion The Feedback Voltage Amplifier The Series–Shunt Feedback Topology
- 22. 11.3.2 11.3.3 11.3.4 11.4 11.4.1 11.4.2 11.5 11.5.1 11.5.2 11.5.3 11.5.4 11.6 11.7 11.8 11.8.1 11.8.2 11.8.3 11.8.4 11.8.5 11.9 11.9.1 11.9.2 11.9.3 11.10 11.10.1 11.10.2 11.10.3 12.1 12.2 12.2.1 12.2.2 12.2.3 12.2.4 Examples of Series–ShuntFeedback Amplifiers Analysis of the Feedback Voltage Amplifier A Final Remark Systematic Analysis of Feedback Voltage Amplifiers The Ideal Case The Practical Case Other Feedback-Amplifier Types Basic Principles The Feedback Transconductance Amplifier (Series–Series) The Feedback Transresistance Amplifier (Shunt–Shunt) The Feedback Current Amplifier (Shunt–Series) Summary of the Feedback-Analysis Method The Stability Problem Effect of Feedback on the Amplifier Poles Stability and Pole Location Poles of the Feedback Amplifier Amplifiers with a Single-Pole Response Amplifiers with a Two-Pole Response Amplifiers with Three or More Poles Stability Study Using Bode Plots Gain and Phase Margins Effect of Phase Margin on Closed-Loop Response An Alternative Approach for Investigating Stability Frequency Compensation Theory Implementation Miller Compensation and Pole Splitting Summary Problems 12 Output Stages and Power Amplifiers Introduction Classification of Output Stages Class A Output Stage Transfer Characteristic Signal Waveforms Power Dissipation Power-Conversion Efficiency
- 23. 12.3 12.3.1 12.3.2 12.3.3 12.3.4 12.4 12.4.1 12.4.2 12.5 12.5.1 12.5.2 12.5.3 12.5.4 12.6 12.6.1 12.6.2 12.6.3 12.7 12.7.1 12.7.2 12.7.3 13.1 13.1.1 13.1.2 13.1.3 13.1.4 13.1.5 13.1.6 13.1.7 13.1.8 13.2 13.2.1 13.2.2 Class B OutputStage Circuit Operation Transfer Characteristic Power-Conversion Efficiency Power Dissipation Class AB Output Stage Circuit Operation Output Resistance Biasing the Class AB Circuit Biasing Using Diodes Biasing Using the VBE Multiplier Use of Input Emitter Followers Use of Compound Devices CMOS Output Stages The Source Follower An Alternative Using a Common-Source Transistor Class D Power Amplifiers Power Transistors Packages and Heat Sinks Power BJTs Power MOSFETs Summary Problems 13 Operational-Amplifier Circuits Introduction The Two-Stage CMOS Op Amp The Circuit Input Common-Mode Range and Output Swing DC Voltage Gain Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) Frequency Response Slew Rate Power-Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR) Design Trade-Offs The Folded-Cascode CMOS OpAmp The Circuit Input Common-Mode Range and Output Swing
- 24. 13.2.3 13.2.4 13.2.5 13.2.6 13.2.7 13.3 13.3.1 13.3.2 13.3.3 13.3.4 13.3.5 14.1 14.1.1 14.1.2 14.1.3 14.1.4 14.1.5 14.2 14.2.1 14.2.2 14.2.3 14.2.4 14.2.5 14.2.6 14.2.7 14.3 14.3.1 14.3.2 14.4 14.4.1 14.4.2 14.4.3 14.4.4 Voltage Gain Frequency Response SlewRate Increasing the Input Common-Mode Range: Rail-to-Rail Input Operation Increasing the Output Voltage Range: The Wide-Swing Current Mirror BJT Op-Amp Techniques Bias Design Design of the Input Stage Common-Mode Feedback to Control the DC Voltage at the Output of the Input Stage The 741 Op Amp Input Stage Output-Stage Design for Near Rail-to-Rail Output Swing Summary Problems 14 Filters Introduction Basic Filter Concepts Filter Transmission Filter Types Filter Specification Obtaining the Filter Transfer Function: Filter Approximation Obtaining the Filter Circuit: Filter Realization The Filter Transfer Function The Filter Order The Filter Poles The Filter Transmission Zeros All-Pole Filters Factoring T(s) into the Product of First-Order and Second-Order Functions First-Order Filters Second-Order Filter Functions Butterworth and Chebyshev Filters The Butterworth Filter The Chebyshev Filter Second-Order Passive Filters Based on the LCR Resonator The Resonator Poles Realization of Transmission Zeros Realization of the Low-Pass Function Realization of the Bandpass Function
- 25. 14.4.5 14.5 14.5.1 14.5.2 14.5.3 14.6 14.6.1 14.6.2 14.6.3 14.6.4 14.7 14.7.1 14.7.2 14.7.3 14.8 14.8.1 14.8.2 14.8.3 14.8.4 15.1 15.1.1 15.1.2 15.1.3 15.1.4 15.2 15.2.1 15.2.2 15.2.3 15.2.4 15.2.5 15.3 15.3.1 15.3.2 Realization of theNotch Functions Second-Order Active Filters Based on Inductance Simulation The Antoniou Inductance-Simulation Circuit The Op Amp–RC Resonator Realization of the Various Filter Types Second-Order Active Filters Based on the Two-Integrator Loop Derivation of the Two-Integrator-Loop Biquad Circuit Implementation An Alternative Two-Integrator-Loop Biquad Circuit Final Remarks Second Order Active Filters Using a Single Op Amp Bandpass Circuit High-Pass Circuit Low-Pass Circuit Switched-Capacitor Filters The Basic Principle Switched-Capacitor Integrator Switched-Capacitor Biquad Filter Final Remarks Summary Problems 15 Oscillators Introduction Basic Principles of Sinusoidal Oscillators The Oscillator Feedback Loop The Oscillation Criterion Analysis of Oscillator Circuits Nonlinear Amplitude Control Op Amp–RC Oscillator Circuits The Wien-Bridge Oscillator The Phase-Shift Oscillator The Quadrature Oscillator The Active-Filter-Tuned Oscillator A Final Remark LC and Crystal Oscillators The Colpitts and Hartely Oscillators The Cross-Coupled LC Oscillator
- 26. 15.3.3 15.4 15.4.1 15.4.2 15.4.3 15.4.4 15.4.5 15.4.6 15.4.7 15.4.8 16.1 16.1.1 16.1.2 16.1.3 16.1.4 16.1.5 16.1.6 16.1.7 16.1.8 16.1.9 16.2 16.2.1 16.2.2 16.2.3 16.2.4 16.3 16.3.1 16.3.2 16.3.3 Crystal Oscillators Nonlinear Oscillatorsor Function Generators The Bistable Feedback Loop Transfer Characteristic of the Bistable Circuit Triggering the Bistable Circuit The Bistable Circuit as a Memory Element A Bistable Circuit with Noninverting Transfer Characteristic Generating Square Waveforms Using a Bistable Circuit Generating Triangular Waveforms Generation of Sine Waves Summary Problems PART III DIGITAL INTEGRATED CIRCUITS 16 CMOS Digital Logic Circuits Introduction CMOS Logic-Gate Circuits Switch-Level Transistor Model The CMOS Inverter General Structure of CMOS Logic The Two-Input NOR Gate The Two-Input NAND Gate A Complex Gate Obtaining the PUN from the PDN and Vice Versa The Exclusive-OR Function Summary of the Synthesis Method Digital Logic Inverters The Voltage-Transfer Characteristic (VTC) Noise Margins The Ideal VTC Inverter Implementation The CMOS Inverter Circuit Operation The Voltage-Transfer Characteristic (VTC) The Situation When QN and QP Are Not Matched Summary Problems
- 27. 17.1 17.1.1 17.1.2 17.1.3 17.2 17.2.1 17.2.2 17.2.3 17.2.4 17.3 17.3.1 17.3.2 17.4 17.4.1 17.4.2 17.4.3 17.4.4 17.4.5 18.1 18.1.1 18.1.2 18.1.3 18.2 18.2.1 18.2.2 18.2.3 18.2.4 18.2.5 18.3 18.3.1 18.3.2 17 Digital Design:Power, Speed, and Area Introduction Dynamic Operation of the CMOS Inverter Propagation Delay Determining the Propagation Delay of the CMOS Inverter Determining the Equivalent Load Capacitance C Transistor Sizing Inverter Sizing Transistor Sizing in CMOS Logic Gates Effects of Fan-In and Fan-Out on Propagation Delay Driving a Large Capacitance Power Dissipation Sources of Power Dissipation Power–Delay and Energy–Delay Products Implications of Technology Scaling: Issues in Deep-Submicron Design Silicon Area Scaling Implications Temperature, Voltage, and Process Variations Wiring: The Interconnect Digital Design in Modern Technologies Summary Problems 18 Memory and Clocking Circuits Introduction The Transmission Gate Operation with NMOS Transistors as Switches Restoring the Value of VOH to VDD The Use of CMOS Transmission Gates as Switches Latches and Flip-Flops The Latch The SR Flip-Flop CMOS Implementation of SR Flip-Flops A Simpler CMOS Implementation of the Clocked SR Flip-Flop D Flip-Flop Circuits Random-Access Memory (RAM) Cells Static Memory (SRAM) Cell Dynamic Memory (DRAM) Cell
- 28. 18.3.3 18.4 18.4.1 18.4.2 18.4.3 18.4.4 A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H. I. J. K. Flash Memory Ring Oscillatorsand Special-Purpose Circuits Ring Oscillators and Other Pulse-Generation Circuits The Sense Amplifier The Row-Address Decoder The Column-Address Decoder Summary Problems Appendices VLSI Fabrication Technology SPICE Device Models and Design with Simulation Examples Two-Port Network Parameters Some Useful Network Theorems Single-Time-Constant Circuits s-Domain Analysis: Poles, Zeros, and Bode Plots Comparison of the MOSFET and the BJT Filter Design Material Bibliography Standard Resistance Values and Unit Prefixes Typical Parameter Values for IC Devices Fabricated in CMOS and Bipolar Processes Summary Tables Index
- 29. TABLES REFERENCE AND STUDY Table1.1 The Four Amplifier Types Table 1.2 Frequency Response of STC Networks Table 2.1 Characteristics of the Ideal Op Amp Table 3.1 Summary of Important Semiconductor Equations Table 4.1 Diode Models Table 5.1 Regions of Operation of the Enhancement NMOS Transistor Table 5.2 Regions of Operation of the Enhancement PMOS Transistor Table 5.3 Implications of Device and Voltage Scaling Table 5.4 Typical Values of CMOS Device Parameters Table 6.1 BJT Modes of Operation Table 6.2 Summary of the BJT Current–Voltage Relationships in the Active Mode Table 6.3 Simplified Models for the Operation of the BJT in DC Circuits Table 7.1 Systematic Procedure for the Analysis of Transistor Amplifier Circuits Table 7.2 Small-Signal Models of the MOSFET Table 7.3 Small-Signal Models of the BJT Table 7.4 Characteristics of MOSFET Amplifiers Table 7.5 Characteristics of BJT Amplifiers Table 8.1 Gain Distribution in the MOS Cascode Amplifier for Various Values of RL Table 10.1 The MOSFET High-Frequency Model Table 10.2 The BJT High-Frequency Model Table 11.1 Summary of the Parameters and Formulas for the Ideal Feedback-Amplifier Structure of Fig. 11.1 Table 11.2 Summary of Relationships for the Four Feedback-Amplifier Topologies Table 16.1 Important Parameters of the VTC of the Logic Inverter Table 16.2 Summary of Important Static Characteristics of the CMOS Logic Inverter Table 17.1 Implications of Device and Voltage Scaling Table 17.2 Summary of Important Speed and Power Characteristics of the CMOS Logic Inverter Table G.3 Comparison of the MOSFET and the BJT Table J.1 Standard Resistance Values Table J.2 SI Unit Prefixes Table J.3 Meter Conversion Factors
- 30. Table K.1 TypicalValues of CMOS Device Parameters Table K.2 Typical Parameter Values for BJTs
- 31. HISTORICAL NOTES Chapter 1Analog vs. Digital Circuit Engineers Bode Plots Chapter 2 The Op Amp Revolution Integrated Instrumentation Amplifiers Early Op Amps and Analog Computation Chapter 3 LCDs, the Face of Electronics Chapter 4 The Earliest Semiconductor Diode From Indication to Illumination Chapter 5 The First Field-Effect Devices Gordon Moore’s Law Chapter 6 The Invention of the BJT Chapter 7 Shockley and Silicon Valley Lee De Forest—A Father of the Electronics Age Chapter 8 Solid Circuits with “Flying Wires” The Integrated Circuit Chapter 9 The Long-Tailed Pair The International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC) Chapter 10 John Milton Miller: Capacitance Multiplication RFID: Identification at a Distance Chapter 11 Feedback: A Historical Note Harry Nyquist: A Diverse Electronics Fundamentalist Chapter 12 Hans Camenzind: The Inventor of the Class D Amplifier Chapter 13 The Genie of Analog The Creator of the μA741: David Fullagar Chapter 14 Analog Filters: A Brief History Early Filter Pioneers: Cauer and Darlington Chapter 15 The Wien-Bridge Oscillator Oscillator Pioneers Chapter 16 Frank Marion Wanless: The Inventor of CMOS Chapter 17 Federico Faggin: A Pioneer in Microprocessor Electronics Chapter 18 Flip-Flop Fact
- 32.
- 33. PREFACE Microelectronic Circuits, EighthEdition, is intended as a text for the core courses in electronic circuits taught to majors in electrical and computer engineering. It should also prove useful to engineers and other professionals wishing to update their knowledge through self-study. As was the case with the first seven editions, the objective of this book is to develop in the reader the ability to analyze and design electronic circuits, both analog and digital, discrete and integrated. While the application of integrated circuits is covered, emphasis is placed on transistor circuit design. This is done because of our belief that even if the majority of those studying this book were not to pursue a career in IC design, knowledge of what is inside the IC package would enable intelligent and innovative application of such chips. Furthermore, with the advances in VLSI technology and design methodology, IC design itself has become accessible to an increasing number of engineers. Prerequisites The prerequisite for studying the material in this book is a first course in circuit analysis. As a review, some linear circuits material is included here in the appendices: specifically, two-port network parameters in Appendix C; some useful network theorems in Appendix D; single-time-constant circuits in Appendix E; and s-domain analysis in Appendix F. In addition, a number of relevant circuit analysis problems are included at the beginning of the end-of-chapter problems section of Chapter 1. No prior knowledge of physical electronics is assumed. All required semiconductor device physics is included, and Appendix A provides a brief description of IC fabrication. All these appendices can be found on the book’s website. Emphasis on Design It has been our philosophy that circuit design is best taught by pointing out the various tradeoffs available in selecting a circuit configuration and in selecting component values for a given configuration. The emphasis on design has been retained in this edition. In addition to design examples, and design-oriented exercises and end-of-chapter problems (indicated with a D), the book includes on its website an extensive appendix (Appendix B) where a large number of simulation and design examples are presented. These emphasize the use of SPICE, the most valuable circuit-design aid. New to the Eighth Edition The most important change in the eighth edition is that two new coauthors have joined our team: Tony Chan Carusone of the University of Toronto and Vincent Gaudet of the University of Waterloo. While maintaining the philosophy and pedagogical approach of the first seven editions, several changes have been made to both organization and coverage. Our goal in making structural changes has been to increase modularity and thus flexibility for the instructor, without causing disturbance to courses currently using the seventh edition. Changes in coverage are necessitated by the continuing advances in technology which make some topics of greater relevance and others of less interest. As well, advances in IC process technology
- 34. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. require that thenumbers used in the examples, exercises, and end-of-chapter problems be updated to reflect the parameters of newer generations of IC technologies (e.g., some problems utilize the parameters of the 28- nm CMOS process). This ensures that students are acquiring a real-world perspective on technology. The guiding principle in this revision has been to make the book easier to teach and learn from. In pursuit of this goal, the following specific and noteworthy changes have been made: New End-of-Chapter Problems. About half of the approximately 1400 end-of-chapter problems are new or revised. To aid the instructor in deciding which of this large number of problems to assign, we have carefully selected a subset that we have designated essential problems. This should also be helpful to students using the book for self-study. The Instructor’s Solutions Manual (ISM) has been thoroughly revised by the authors. It includes complete solutions for all exercises and end- of-chapter problems. Video Examples. For the first time, we are including forty video examples. For each, the problem statement is provided and the student is directed to a video on the website to watch the authors solve the problem. Also, a directly related end-of-chapter problem is highlighted for the student to solve after watching the video. Summary Tables. New and existing summary tables have been combined together and made available on the website. This collection of tables is an important resource for the student in studying and as a reference while doing homework problems. Improved Organization. While maintaining the very successful modular organization of the seventh edition, we have reduced the number of parts of the eighth edition to three. Specifically, the filters and oscillators chapters are now in Part II: Analog Integrated Circuits. Streamlined Coverage and Book Size. Almost every chapter has been revised and streamlined with emphasis on the essentials. This has resulted in a substantial reduction in the size of the book (by almost 200 pages). However, removed material has been made available on the website for those who want to continue to use it. Particular chapters that have been reduced are: Chapter 12 (Output Stages and Power Amplifiers); Chapter 13 (Op Amp Circuits); Chapter 14 (Filters); Chapter 15 (Oscillators); and Part III: Digital Integrated Circuits. Early Coverage of Technology Scaling and Moore’s Law. The discussion of technology scaling and Moore’s law is now started in Chapter 5 (MOSFETs). It is then referenced throughout the book, and resumed in Chapter 17 (Digital Design) where the effects of scaling on the trinity of digital design—speed, power, and area—are considered. Modernizing the Study of Diodes. Chapter 4 has been reorganized to highlight the different levels of abstraction and accuracy in diode modeling. While the coverage of standard material has been streamlined and reduced somewhat, newer topics have been expanded and/or included such as photodiodes, light-emitting diodes, application of diodes in electronic discharge (ESD) protection, etc. Clearer Derivations and Better Explanations. Three chapters in Part II: Analog Integrated Circuits, have been thoroughly revised to simplify and clarify the presentation and to provide better derivations. These are Chapter 8 (Building Blocks of IC Amplifiers), specifically the treatment of the CG and CB amplifiers and the study of advanced current mirrors; Chapter 9 (Differential and Multistage Amplifiers), specifically the treatment of common-mode gain and CMRR, DC offsets, and the current-mirror-loaded differential amplifier; and Chapter 10 (Frequency Response), which has been reorganized to deemphasize the study of the low-frequency response of discrete-circuit amplifiers (now placed at the end of the chapter).
- 35. 9. 10. 1. 2. • • • • 3. • • • • • • • • • • • Clearer, Improved, andSimplified Study of Feedback. Substantial improvements have been made to Chapter 11 (Feedback) to make the subject easier to understand and use. Streamlined and Better Organized Coverage of the Digital Topics. Part III: Digital Integrated Circuits has undergone a thorough re-organization making it easier to integrate its topics into the first and/or the second electronics course. Its first chapter, now Chapter 16, emphasizes the basics of digital CMOS design, culminating in an in-depth study of the CMOS inverter’s static characteristic. Then, Chapter 17 covers the three main metrics that are commonly used in digital circuit design and optimization, namely speed, power, and area. We then complete the discussion of technology scaling, first started in Chapter 5, by looking at how scaling impacts these three metrics. Finally, Chapter 18 focuses on transistor-level memory circuits and clocking circuits. Many of the examples, exercises, and problems in Part III have been redesigned to use newer technologies. The Book’s Website The companion website for the book (www.oup.com/he/sedra-smith8e) contains important materials that will change frequently to reflect new developments. Here is a list of some of the materials available on the website: Summary tables useful for studying and practice problems. Resources to support the use of Spice with problems and examples including Links to circuit simulation tools. The input files needed to perform simulations of problems from the book identified with a SIM icon. Additional Spice examples and the associated files. Step-by-step guidance to help performing the Spice simulations. Bonus text material of specialized topics that are either not covered or covered briefly in the current edition of the textbook. These include: Precision Rectifier Circuits Junction Field-Effect Transistors (JFETs) Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) Devices and Circuits Specialty Diode Topics: Diode Logic Gates, Temperature Effects in Zener Diodes, and the Schottky-Barrier Diode (SBD) Useful Transistor Pairings Selected Topics in BJT Ouput Stages: Class B Power Dissipation and Improvements, and Protection Circuitry The Classical CMOS Class AB Configuration IC Power Amplifiers Power Transistor Thermal Considerations The 741 Op-Amp Circuit Selected Analog Filter Topics
- 36. – – – – – • • • – – – – – • • 4. 5. • • • • • • • • • • First- and Second-OrderFilter Functions Single-Amplifier Biquadratic Active Filters Sensitivity Transconductance-C Filters Tuned Amplifiers Waveform Generators: The Monostable Multivibrator, IC Timers, and Waveform-Shaping Circuits MOS Velocity Saturation and Subthreshold Leakage Alternative Digital Logic Families Pseudo-NMOS Logic Circuits Dynamic MOS Logic Circuits Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL) Circuits Emitter-Coupled Logic (ECL) Circuits Bipolar and BiCMOS Digital Circuits Memory Architectures and Read-Only Memory (ROM) CMOS Image Sensors Data sheets for hundreds of useful devices to help in laboratory experiments as well as in design projects. Appendices for the Book: Appendix A: VLSI Fabrication Technology Appendix B: Spice Design and Simulation Examples Appendix C: Two-Port Network Parameters Appendix D: Some Useful Network Theorems Appendix E: Single-Time-Constant Circuits Appendix F: s-Domain Analysis: Poles, Zeros and Bode Plots Appendix G: Comparison of the MOSFET and the BJT Appendix H: Filter Design Tools Appendix I: Bibliography Appendix L: Answers to Selected Problems Exercises and End-of-Chapter Problems Over 450 Exercises are integrated throughout the text. The answer to each exercise is given below the exercise so students can check their understanding of the material as they read. Solving these exercises should enable the reader to gauge his or her grasp of the preceding material. In addition, more than 1400 end-of-chapter problems, half of which are new or revised in this edition, are provided. The problems are keyed to the individual chapter sections and their degree of difficulty is indicated by a rating system: difficult
- 37. problems are markedwith an asterisk (*); more difficult problems with two asterisks (**); and very difficult (and/or time consuming) problems with three asterisks (***). We must admit, however, that this classification is by no means exact. Our rating no doubt depended to some degree on our thinking (and mood!) at the time a particular problem was created. Answers to sample problems are given in Appendix L (on the website), so students have a checkpoint to tell if they are working out the problems correctly. Complete solutions for all exercises and problems are included in the Instructor’s Solutions Manual, which is available from the publisher to those instructors who adopt the book. As an aid to the instructor on deciding which to assign of this large number of problems, we have carefully selected a subset and designated it essential problems. (These are the problems with blue numbers). This should also be helpful to students using the book for self-study. As in the previous seven editions, many examples are included. The examples, and indeed most of the problems and exercises, are based on real circuits and anticipate the applications encountered in designing real-life circuits. This edition continues the use of numbered solution steps in the figures for many examples, as an attempt to recreate the dynamics of the classroom. Summary Tables New and existing summary tables are presented together on the website. This collection of tables is an important resource for the student studying for exams or doing homework problems. Video Examples Today’s students learn by watching, and they appreciate video for the ability to control the pace of presentation. For this edition, we have introduced video as a way to help students connect the text’s examples to the homework problems they are assigned to solve. In 40 professionally produced videos, we walk students step by step through the procedures required to solve some of the most common, and complex, circuits they will have to master. We then provide related problems so that they can apply the strategies they have just learned to comparable circuits. We believe these videos will help students close the gap between learning and application. These videos are included in the enhanced ebook and are available to purchasers of the print book using the access code packaged with new print copies. Students with rented or used print copies can gain access to the videos by purchasing access to the ARC Premium site for Microelectronic Circuits at www.oup.com/he/sedra-smith8e. Videos are also available on the ARC site for instructors using Microelectronic Circuits. Course Organization The book contains sufficient material for a sequence of two single-semester courses, each of 40–50 lecture hours. The modular organization of the book provides considerable flexibility for course design. In the following, we suggest content for a sequence of two classical or standard courses. We also describe some variations on the content of these two courses and specify supplemental material for a possible third course. The First Course The first course is based on Part I of the book, that is, Chapters 1–7. It can be taught, most simply by starting at the beginning of Chapter 1 and concluding with the end of Chapter 7. However, as guidance to instructors
- 38. who wish tofollow a different order of presentation or a somewhat modified coverage, or to deal with situations where time might be constrained, we offer the following remarks: The core of the first course is the study of the two transistor types, Chapters 5 and 6, in whatever order the instructor wishes, and transistor amplifiers in Chapter 7. These three chapters must be covered in full. Another important part of the first course is the study of diodes (Chapter 4). Here, however, if time does not permit, some of the applications in the later part of the chapter can be skipped. We have found it highly motivational to cover op amps (Chapter 2) near the beginning of the course. This provides the students with the opportunity to work with a practical integrated circuit and to experiment with nontrivial circuits. Coverage of Chapter 1, at least of the amplifier sections, should prove helpful. Here the sections on signals can be either covered in class or assigned as reading material. Section 1.6 on frequency response is needed if the frequency-response of op-amp circuits is to be studied; otherwise this section can be delayed to the second course. Finally, if the students have not taken a course on physical electronics, Chapter 3 needs to be covered. Otherwise, it can be used as review material or skipped altogether. The Second Course The main subject of the second course is integrated-circuit amplifiers and is based on Part II of the book, that is, Chapters 8–15. These eight chapters, however, contain more material than can be taught in one course. Thus, a judicious selection of topics to cover is called for. We hope that the following remarks can be helpful in making these choices: The core material of Part II is presented in Chapters 8–11 and these four chapters must be covered, though not necessarily in their entirety. For instance, some of the sections near the end of a chapter and identified by the “advanced material” icon can be skipped, usually with no loss of continuity. Beyond the required chapters (8–11), the instructor has many possibilities for the remainder of the course. These include a selection of topics from the remaining four chapters of Part II (12–15). Another possibility, is to include an introduction to digital integrated circuits by covering Chapter 16, and if time permits, selected topics of Chapters 17 and 18. A Digitally Oriented First Course A digitally-oriented first course can include the following: Chapter 1 (without Section 1.6), Chapter 2, Chapter 3 (if the students have not had any exposure to physical electronics), Chapter 4 (perhaps without some of the later applications sections), Chapter 5, selected topics from Chapter 7 emphasizing the basics of the application of the MOSFET as an amplifier, Chapter 16, and selected topics from Chapters 17 and 18. Such a course would be particularly suited for Computer Engineering students. Supplemental Material/Third Course Depending on the selection of topics for the first and second courses, some material will remain and can be used for part of a third course or as supplemental material to support student design projects. These can include Chapter 12 (Output Stages and Power Amplifiers), Chapter 13 (Op-Amp Circuits), Chapter 14 (Filters), and Chapter 15 (Oscillators), which can be used together with the advanced topics of Chapters 8–11
- 39. to support athird course on analog circuits. These can also include Chapters 16, 17, and 18 which can be used for a portion of a senior-level course on digital IC design. The Accompanying Laboratory Courses in electronic circuits are usually accompanied by laboratory experiments. To support the laboratory component for courses using this book, Vincent Gaudet has, in collaboration with K.C. Smith, authored a laboratory manual. Laboratory Explorations, together with an Instructor’s Manual, is available from Oxford University Press. An alternative approach for laboratory experimentation involves the use of pre-wired circuit boards with the experiments digitally controlled. Products that support this approach include AELabs, by Illuster Technologies, and Analog Electronic Board, by Texas Instruments; both work on the NI Elvis platform. More information can be found on the companion website (www.oup.com/he/sedra-smith8e). An Outline for the Reader Part I, Devices and Basic Circuits, includes the most fundamental and essential topics for the study of electronic circuits. At the same time, it constitutes a complete package for a first course on the subject. Chapter 1. The book starts with an introduction to the basic concepts of electronics in Chapter 1. Signals, their frequency spectra, and their analog and digital forms are presented. Amplifiers are introduced as circuit building blocks and their various types and models are studied. This chapter also establishes some of the terminology and conventions used throughout the text. Chapter 2. Chapter 2 deals with operational amplifiers, their terminal characteristics, simple applications, and practical limitations. We chose to discuss the op amp as a circuit building block at this early stage simply because it is easy to deal with and because the student can experiment with op-amp circuits that perform nontrivial tasks with relative ease and with a sense of accomplishment. We have found this approach to be highly motivating to the student. We should point out, however, that part or all of this chapter can be skipped and studied at a later stage (for instance, in conjunction with Chapter 9, Chapter 11, and/or Chapter 13) with no loss of continuity. Chapter 3. Chapter 3 provides an overview of semiconductor concepts at a level sufficient for understanding the operation of diodes and transistors in later chapters. Coverage of this material is useful in particular for students who have had no prior exposure to device physics. Even those with such a background would find a review of Chapter 3 beneficial as a refresher. The instructor can choose to cover this material in class or assign it for outside reading. Chapter 4. The first electronic device, the diode, is studied in Chapter 4. The diode terminal characteristics, the circuit models that are used to represent it, and its circuit applications are presented. Depending on the time available in the course, some of the diode applications and special diode types (Section 4.7) can be skipped or left for the student to read. Chapters 5 and 6. The foundation of electronic circuits is established by the study of the two transistor types in use today: the MOS transistor in Chapter 5 and the bipolar transistor in Chapter 6. These two chapters have been written to be completely independent of one another and thus can be studied in either order, as desired. Furthermore, the two chapters have the same structure, making it easier and faster to study the second device, as well as to draw comparisons between the two device types. Each of Chapters 5 and 6 begins with a study of the device structure and its physical operation, leading to a description of its terminal characteristics. Then, to allow the student to become very familiar with the
- 40. operation of thetransistor as a circuit element, a large number of examples are presented of dc circuits utilizing the device. The last section of each of Chapters 5 and 6 deals with second-order effects that are included for completeness, but that can be skipped if time does not permit detailed coverage. Nevertheless, we strongly recommend coverage of the newly introduced section on Moore’s law and tehnology scaling in Chapter 5. Chapter 7. The heart of a first course in electronics is the study of transistor amplifiers. Chapter 7 presents a unified treatment of the subject. It begins with the basic principles that underlie the operation of a transistor, of either type, as an amplifier, and proceeds to present the important concepts of small-signal operation and modeling. This is followed by a study of the basic configurations of single-transistor amplifiers. After a presentation of dc biasing methods, the chapter concludes with practical examples of discrete-circuit amplifiers. The combined presentation emphasizes the unity of the basic principles while allowing for separate treatment of the two device types where this is warranted. Very importantly, we are able to compare the two devices and to draw conclusions about their unique areas of application. After the study of Part I, the reader will be fully prepared to study either analog integrated-circuits in Part II, or digital integrated circuits in Part III. Part II, Analog Integrated Circuits, is devoted to the study of practical amplifier circuits that can be fabricated in the integrated-circuit (IC) form and their application in the design of filters and oscillators. Its eight chapters constitute a coherent treatment of IC amplifier design and applications and can thus serve as a second course in electronic circuits. MOS and Bipolar. Throughout Part II, both MOS and bipolar circuits are presented side-by-side. Because the MOSFET is by far the dominant device, its circuits are presented first. Bipolar circuits are discussed to the same depth but occasionally more briefly. Chapter 8. Beginning with a brief introduction to the philosophy of IC design, Chapter 8 presents the basic circuit building blocks that are used in the design of IC amplifiers. These include current mirrors, current sources, gain cells, and cascode amplifiers. Chapter 9. The most important IC building block, the differential pair, is the main topic of Chapter 9. The last section of Chapter 9 is devoted to the study of multistage amplifiers. Chapter 10. Chapter 10 presents a comprehensive treatment of the important subject of amplifier frequency response. Here, Sections 10.1 and 10.2 contain essential material; Section 10.3 provides a very useful analysis method; Sections 10.4 to 10.7 present the frequency response analysis of a variety of amplifier configurations; and Section 10.8 presents the low-frequency response of discrete-circuit amplifiers. A selection of the later sections can be made depending on the time available and the instructor’s preference. Chapter 11. The fourth of the essential topics of Part II, feedback, is the subject of Chapter 11. Both the theory of negative feedback and its application in the design of practical feedback amplifiers are presented. We also discuss the stability problem in feedback amplifiers and treat frequency compensation in some detail. Chapter 12. In Chapter 12 we switch gears from dealing with small-signal amplifiers to those that are required to handle large signals and large amounts of power. Here we study the different amplifier classes— A, B, and AB—and their realization in bipolar and CMOS technologies. We also briefly consider power BJTs and power MOSFETs, and introduce the increasingly popular Class D amplifier. Depending on the availability of time, some of the later sections can be skipped in a first reading. Chapter 13. Chapter 13 brings together the topics of Part II in an important application; namely, the design of operational amplifier circuits. We study both CMOS and bipolar op amps. We focus on the most
- 41. fundamental circuits: thetwo-stage and the folded cascode op amps. We also present biasing circuits and techniques for low-voltage operation. The last portion of Part III, Chapters 14 and 15, deals with Filters and Oscillators, and is intentionally oriented toward applications and systems. The two topics illustrate powerfully and dramatically the application of both negative and positive feedback. Chapter 14. Chapter 14 deals with the design of filters, which are important building blocks of communication and instrumentation systems. A comprehensive, design-oriented treatment of the subject is presented. The material provided, together with the supplemental material in Appendix H, should allow the reader to perform a complete filter design, starting from specification and ending with a complete circuit realization. A wealth of design material is included. Chapter 15. Chapter 15 deals with circuits for the generation of sinusoidal signals. It also includes a section on nonlinear oscillators or function generators. Part III, Digital Integrated Circuits, provides a brief but nonetheless comprehensive and sufficiently detailed study of digital IC design. Our treatment is almost self-contained, requiring for the most part only a thorough understanding of the MOSFET material presented in Chapter 5. Thus Part III can be studied right after Chapter 5. The only exception to this is that knowledge of the internal capacitances of a MOSFET (Section 10.1) will be needed before taking on Chapter 17. Chapter 16. Chapter 16 is the foundation of Part III. It begins with the motivating topic of CMOS logic- gate circuits, with a focus on switch-level implementaion of logic functions and gates. Then, following a detailed study of digital logic inverters, we concentrate on the CMOS inverter, its static characteristics, and its design. This chapter is the minimum needed to learn something meaningful about ditigal circuits. Chapter 17. Chapter 17 presents a comprehensive overview of the so-called trinity of digital design metrics: speed, area, and power. The chapter starts by thoroughly analyzing the dynamic characteristics of a CMOS inverter. Then, transistor sizing is discussed, including the impact of sizing on speed and circuit area. Afterwards, sources of power dissipation in digital circuits are introduced. The chapter concludes by investigating the impact of semiconductor scaling—first introduced in Chapter 5—on digital circuit performance metrics. Chapter 18. Digital circuits can be broadly divided into logic and memory circuits. The latter is the subject of Chapter 18, which first looks at the design of latches and flip-flops, and then goes into static and dynamic cell designs for memory arrays. Finally, the chapter also introduces several useful peripheral circuits used in synchronous systems. Appendices. The twelve appendices contain much useful background and supplementary material. We wish to draw the reader’s attention in particular to the first two: Appendix A provides a concise introduction to the important topic of IC fabrication technology including IC layout. Appendix B provides SPICE device models as well as a large number of design and simulation examples in PSpice® and Multisim™. The examples are keyed to the book chapters. These Appendices and a great deal more material on these simulation examples can be found on the Companion Website. Ancillaries A complete set of ancillary materials is available with this text to support your course. For the Instructor
- 42. • • • • • The Ancillary ResourceCenter (ARC) at www.oup.com/he/sedra-smith8e is a convenient destination for all the instructor resources that accompany Microelectronic Circuits. Accessed online through individual user accounts, the ARC provides instructors with access to up-to-date ancillaries at any time while guaranteeing the security of grade-significant resources. On the ARC, you will find: An electronic version of the Instructor’s Solutions Manual. Video examples that take students step by step through the procedures required to solve 40 problems presented in the text. PowerPoint-based figure slides that feature all the images and summary tables from the text, with their captions, so they can easily be displayed and explained in class. Detailed instructor’s support for the SPICE circuit simulations. A set of 65 exam questions, grouped by chapter, with complete solutions, suggested time allocations, and a recommended breakdown of points per question. The Instructor’s Solutions Manual (ISBN 9780190853488), written by Adel Sedra, contains detailed solutions to all chapter exercises and end-of-chapter problems found in Microelectronic Circuits. The Instructor’s Solutions Manual for Laboratory Explorations to Accompany Microelectronic Circuits (ISBN 9780197508589) contains detailed solutions to all the exercises and problems found in this student’s laboratory guide; these solutions are also available online on the ARC instructor site for Microelectronic Circuits (www.oup.com/he/sedra-smith8e). For the Student and Instructor The ARC Premium site, available at www.oup.com/he/sedra-smith8e, features 40 professionally produced videos in which we walk students step by step through the procedures required to solve some of the most common, and complex, circuits they will have to master. Solved Problems is a set of 150 additional homework problems with complete solutions, covering concepts from the nine most used chapters in the book. This self-study aid will help students master core concepts and prepare for homework assignments and exams. Premium ARC content is included in the enhanced ebook. It is also available to purchasers of the print book using the access code packaged with new print copies. Students with rented or used print copies can purchase access codes to the ARC premium site for Microelectronic Circuits at www.oup.com/he/sedra- smith8e. A Companion Website at www.oup.com/he/sedra-smith8e features permanently cached versions of device datasheets, so students can design their own circuits in class. The website also contains SPICE circuit simulation examples and lessons. Bonus text topics and the Appendices are also featured on the website. Another very important item on the website is the Summary Tables (ST) supplement. This compilation of reference tables will benefit students completing homework assignments and studying for exams. The Laboratory Explorations to Accompany Microelectronic Circuits (ISBN 9780197508572) invites students to explore the realm of real-world engineering through practical, hands-on experiments. Keyed to sections in the text and taking a “learn-by-doing” approach, it presents labs that focus on the development of practical engineering skills and design practices. Acknowledgments
- 43. Many of thechanges in this eighth edition were made in response to feedback received from instructors who adopted the seventh edition. We are grateful to all those who took the time to write to us. In addition, many of the reviewers provided detailed commentary on the seventh edition and suggested a number of the changes that we have incorporated in this edition. They are listed later; to all of them, we extend our sincere thanks. We are also grateful for the feedback received from the students who have taken our electronics courses over the years at the Universities of Toronto and Waterloo. Over the recent years we have benefited greatly from discussions with a number of colleagues and friends. In particular we are very grateful to the following: James Barby, University of Waterloo; David Nairn, University of Waterloo; David Johns, University of Toronto; Ken Martin, University of Toronto; Wai-Tung Ng, University of Toronto (who wrote the original version of Appendix A and contributed to Chapter 12 in previous editions); Khoman Phang, University of Toronto; Gordon Roberts, McGill University; Ali Sheikholeslami, University of Toronto; Oliver Trescases, University of Toronto; Amir Yazdani, Ryerson University; and Derek Wright, University of Waterloo. As she did for a number of the previous editions, Jennifer Rodrigues typed the revision with tremendous skill and good humour, and Adel Sedra is very grateful to her. Thanks also to Nijwm Wary who helped prepare the Spice ancillary material for this edition. A large number of people at Oxford University Press contributed to the development of this edition and its various ancillaries. We would like to specifically mention Eric Sinkins of OUP Canada, who has been a tremendous support. We would also like to thank the former engineering editor, Dan Kaveney, the current engineering editor, Dan Sayre, Art Director Michele Laseau, Assistant Editor, Megan Carlson, and Production Manager, Lisa Grzan. A very special thank you goes to Senior Production Editor, Barbara Mathieu, who once more has been superb: her attention to detail and emphasis on quality is without par. Finally, we wish to thank our families for their support and understanding, and to thank all the students and instructors who have valued this book thoroughout its history. Adel S. Sedra Kenneth C. Smith Tony Chan Carusone Vincent Gaudet Waterloo, Ontario, Canada September 2019 Reviewers of Eighth Edition Marc Cahay, University of Cincinnati Jin-Woo Choi, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA Anthony S. Deese, The College of New Jersey, Ewing, NJ Makarand Deo, Norfolk State University Rohit Dua, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Springfield, MO Nuri Emanetoglu, University of Maine, Orono, ME Manoj Franklin, University of Maryland–College Park Drew Hall, University of California–San Diego Masum Hossain, University of Alberta Yoon G. Kim, Calvin College, Grand Rapids, MI Paul Kladitis, University of Dayton
- 44. Peter LoPresti, Universityof Tulsa Edwin Marengo, Northeastern University, Boston, MA Richard Martin, University of Delaware, Newark, DE Bruce McNair, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ Cory Mettler, South Dakota State, Brookings, SD Martin P. Mintchev, University of Calgary Zoulikha Mouffak, California State University–Fresno David Mueller, University of the Pacific, Stockton, CA Zvi Roth, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL Andrew Y. J. Szeto, San Diego State University Lili H. Tabrizi, California State University–Los Angeles Margarita Takach, Seattle University Ryan Christopher Toonen, University of Akron Mehmet Vurkaç, Oregon Institute of Technology, Klamath Falls, OR Lan Wei, University of Waterloo Vesna Zeljkovic, Lincoln University Dachun Zhao, California State University – Fullerton Reviewers of Prior Editions Maurice Aburdene, Bucknell University, Lewisburg, PA Michael Bartz, University of Memphis, TN Elizabeth Brauer, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ Martin Brooke, Duke University, Durham, NC Jungseok Chae, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ Patrick L. Chapman, University of Illinois, Urbana–Champaign, IL Yun Chiu, University of Illinois, Urbana–Champaign, IL Roy H. Cornely, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, NJ Norman Cox, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, MO Dale L. Critchlow, University of Vermont, Burlingon, VT Robert Bruce Darling, University of Washington, Seattle, WA Artice Davis, San Jose State University, CA John Davis, University of Texas, Austin, TX Christopher DeMarco, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI Lian Dong, Baylor University, Waco, TX Robert Engelken, Arkansas State University, Jonesboro, AR Muhammad Faisal, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI Ethan Farquhar, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN Patrick Fay, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN Eby G. Friedman, University of Rochester, NY Paul M. Furth, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM Vincent Gaudet, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Canada
- 45. Rhett T. George,Jr., Duke University, Durham, NC Roobik Gharabagi, St. Louis University, MO George Giakos, University of Akron, OH John Gilmer, Wilkes University, Wilkes-Barre, PA Michael Green, University of California, Irvine, CA Elmer A. Grubbs, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ Steven de Haas, California State University, Sacramento, CA Anas Hamoui, McGill University, Montreal, Canada Reza Hashemian, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL William Harrell, Clemson University, SC Reid Harrison, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT Ward J. Helms, University of Washington, Seattle, WA Richard Hornsey, York University, Toronto, Canada Timothy Horiuchi, University of Maryland, College Park, MD Hsiung Hsu, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH Robert Irvine, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, CA Mohammed Ismail, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH Paul Israelsen, Utah State University, Logan UT Justin Jackson, Weber State University, Ogden, UT Steve Jantzi, Broadcom, CA Zhenhua Jiang, University of Miami, FL Marian Kazimierczuk, Wright State University, Dayton, OH John Khoury, Columbia University, New York, NY Jacob B. Khurgin, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD Seongsin M. Kim, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL Roger King, University of Toledo, OH Clark Kinnaird, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX Robert J. Krueger, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI Joy Laskar, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA Serhiy Levkov, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, NJ Tsu-Jae King Liu, University of California, Berkeley, CA Yicheng Lu, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ David Luke, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, Canada Leda Lunardi, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC John Mankowski, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX Thomas Matthews, California State University, Sacramento, CA Chris Mi, University of Michigan, Dearborn, MI Un-Ku Moon, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR Bahram Nabet, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA Dipankar Nagchoudhuri, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, India David Nairn, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Canada Phyllis R. Nelson, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, CA
- 46. Joseph H. Nevin,University of Cincinnati, OH Robert W. Newcomb, University of Maryland, College Park, MD Toshikazu Nishida, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL Ken Noren, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID Brita Olson, California Polytechnic University, Pomona, CA Martin Peckerar, University of Maryland, College Park, MD Khoman Phang, University of Toronto, Canada Mahmudur Rahman, Santa Clara University, CA Rabin Raut, Concordia University, Montreal, Canada John A. Ringo, Washington State University, Pullman, WA Zvi S. Roth, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL Mulukutla Sarma, Northeastern University, Boston, MA John Scalzo, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA Norman Scheinberg, City College, New York, NY Pierre Schmidt, Florida International University, Miami, FL Richard Schreier, Analog Devices, Toronto, Canada Dipankar Sengupta, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Australia Ali Sheikholeslami, University of Toronto, Canada Kuang Sheng, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ Michael L. Simpson, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN Karl A. Spuhl, Washington University in St. Louis, MO Charles Sullivan, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH Matthew Swabey, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN Andrew Szeto, San Diego State University, CA Khalid Hasan Tantawi, University of Alabama, Huntsville, AL Joel Therrien, University of Massachusetts, Lowell, MA Farid M. Tranjan, University of North Carolina, Charlotte, NC Len Trombetta, University of Houston, TX Daniel van der Weide, University of Delaware, Newark, DE Gregory M. Wierzba, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI Mustapha C. E. Yagoub, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada Sandra Yost, University of Detroit, Mercy, MI Donna Yu, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC Jiann-Shiun Yuan, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL Alex Zaslavsky, Brown University, Providence, RI Jianhua (David) Zhang, University of Illinois, Urbana–Champaign, IL
- 47.
- 48. P PART I Devices andBasic Circuits CHAPTER 1 Signals and Amplifiers CHAPTER 2 Operational Amplifiers CHAPTER 3 Semiconductors CHAPTER 4 Diodes CHAPTER 5 MOS Field-Effect Transistors (MOSFETs) CHAPTER 6 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs) CHAPTER 7 Transistor Amplifiers art I, Devices and Basic Circuits, includes the most fundamental and essential topics for the study of electronic circuits. At the same time, it constitutes a complete package for a first course on the subject. The heart of Part I is the study of the three basic semiconductor devices: the diode (Chapter 4), the MOS transistor (Chapter 5), and the bipolar transistor (Chapter 6). In each case, we study the device operation, its characterization, and its basic circuit applications. Chapter 7 then follows with a study of the most fundamental application of the two transistor types; namely, their use in amplifier design. This side-by-side study of MOSFET and BJT amplifiers allows us to see similarities between these amplifiers and to compare them, which in turn highlights the distinct areas of applicability of each, as well as showing the unity of the basic principles that underlie the use of transistors as amplifiers. For those who have not had a prior course on device physics, Chapter 3 provides an overview of semiconductor concepts at a level sufficient for the study of electronic circuits. A review of Chapter 3 should prove useful even for those with prior knowledge of semiconductors. Since the purpose of electronic circuits is the processing of signals, it is essential to understand signals, their characterization in the time and frequency domains, and their analog and digital representations. The basis for such understanding is provided in Chapter 1, which also introduces the most common signal-processing function, amplification, and the characterization and types of amplifiers.
- 49. Besides diodes andtransistors, the basic electronic devices, the op amp is studied in Part I. Although not an electronic device in the most fundamental sense, the op amp is commercially available as an integrated circuit (IC) package and has well-defined terminal characteristics. Thus, even though the op amp’s internal circuit is complex, typically incorporating 20 or more transistors, its almost-ideal terminal behavior makes it possible to treat the op amp as a circuit element and to use it in the design of powerful circuits, as we do in Chapter 2, without any knowledge of its internal construction. We should mention, however, that the study of op amps can be delayed until a later point, and Chapter 2 can be skipped with no loss of continuity. The foundation of this book, and of any electronics course, is the study of the two transistor types in use today: the MOS transistor in Chapter 5 and the bipolar transistor in Chapter 6. These two chapters have been written to be completely independent of each other and thus can be studied in either order, as desired. After the study of Part I, the reader will be fully prepared to undertake the study of either integrated-circuit amplifiers in Part II or digital integrated circuits in Part III.
- 50. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 • • • • • • • CHAPTER 1 Signals andAmplifiers Introduction Signals Frequency Spectrum of Signals Analog and Digital Signals Amplifiers Circuit Models for Amplifiers Frequency Response of Amplifiers Summary Problems IN THIS CHAPTER YOU WILL LEARN That electronic circuits process signals, and thus understanding electrical signals is essential to appreciating the material in this book. The Thévenin and Norton representations of signal sources. The representation of a signal as the sum of sine waves. The analog and digital representations of a signal. The most basic and pervasive signal-processing function: signal amplification, and correspondingly, the signal amplifier. How amplifiers are characterized (modeled) as circuit building blocks independent of their internal circuitry. How the frequency response of an amplifier is measured, and how it is calculated, especially in the simple but common case of a single-time-constant (STC) type response.
- 51. Introduction The subject ofthis book is modern electronics, a field that has come to be known as microelectronics. Microelectronics refers to the integrated-circuit (IC) technology that at the time of this writing is capable of producing circuits that contain billions of components in a small piece of silicon (known as a silicon chip) whose area is roughly 100 mm2. One such microelectronic circuit is a complete digital computer, which is known, appropriately, as a microcomputer or, more generally, a microprocessor. The microelectronic circuits you will learn to design in this book are used in almost every device we encounter in our daily lives: in the appliances we use in our homes; in the vehicles and transportation systems we use to travel; in the cellphones we use to communicate; in the medical equipment we need to care for our health; in the computers we use to do our work; and in the audio and video systems, the gaming consoles and televisions, and the multitude of other digital devices we use to entertain ourselves. Indeed, it is difficult to conceive of modern life without microelectronic circuits. In this book we will study electronic devices that can be used singly (in the design of discrete circuits) or as components of an integrated-circuit (IC) chip. We will study the design and analysis of interconnections of these devices, which form discrete and integrated circuits of varying complexity and perform a wide variety of functions. We will also learn about available IC chips and their application in the design of electronic systems. The purpose of this first chapter is to introduce some basic concepts and terminology. In particular, we will learn about signals and about one of the most important signal-processing functions electronic circuits are designed to perform: signal amplification. We will then look at circuit representations or models for linear amplifiers. These models will be used in subsequent chapters in the design and analysis of actual amplifier circuits. In addition to motivating the study of electronics, this chapter serves as a bridge between the study of linear circuits and that of the subject of this book: the design and analysis of electronic circuits. Thus, we presume a familiarity with linear circuit analysis, as in the following example. Video Example VE 1.1 For the circuit shown in Fig. VE1.1, find the current in each of the three resistors and the voltage (with respect to ground) at their common node using two methods:
- 53. 1.1 Signals Signals containinformation about a variety of things and activities in our physical world. Examples abound: Information about the weather is contained in signals that represent the air temperature, pressure, wind speed, etc. The voice of a radio announcer reading the news into a microphone provides an acoustic signal that contains information about world affairs. To monitor the status of a nuclear reactor, instruments are used to measure a multitude of relevant parameters, each instrument producing a signal. To extract required information from a set of signals, the observer (be it a human or a machine) invariably needs to process the signals in some predetermined manner. This signal processing is usually most conveniently performed by electronic systems. For this to be possible, however, the signal must first be converted into an electrical signal, that is, a voltage or a current. This process is accomplished by devices known as transducers. A variety of transducers exist, each suitable for one of the various forms of physical signals. For instance, the sound waves generated by a human can be converted into electrical signals using a microphone, which is in effect a pressure transducer. It is not our purpose here to study transducers; rather, we shall assume that the signals of interest already exist in the electrical domain and represent them by one of the two equivalent forms shown in Fig. 1.1(a) and (b). Figure 1.1 Two alternative representations of a signal source: (a) the Thévenin form; (b) the Norton form. In Fig. 1.1(a) the signal is represented by a voltage source vs(t) with a source resistance Rs. In the alternate representation of Fig. 1.1(b) the signal is represented by a current source is(t) with a source resistance Rs. Although the two representations are equivalent, the one in Fig. 1.1(a) (known as the Thévenin form) is preferred when Rs is low. The representation of Fig. 1.1(b) (known as the Norton form) is preferred when Rs is high. You will come to appreciate this point later in this chapter when we study the different types of amplifiers. For the time being, it is important to be familiar with Thévenin’s and Norton’s theorems (for a brief review, see Appendix D) and to note that for the two representations in Fig. 1.1(a) and (b) to be equivalent, their parameters are related by Example 1.1 The output resistance of a signal source, although inevitable, is an imperfection that limits the ability of the source to deliver its full signal strength to a load. To see this point more clearly, consider the signal source when connected to a load resistance RL as shown in Fig. 1.2. For the case in which the source is represented by its Thévenin equivalent form, find the voltage vo that appears across RL, and hence the condition that Rs must
- 54. (a) (b) (c) (d) satisfy for voto be close to the value of vs. Repeat for the Norton-represented source, in this case finding the current io that flows through RL and hence the condition that Rs must satisfy for io to be close to the value of is. Figure 1.2 (a) Circuit for Example 1.1. Video Example VE 1.2 Consider the voltage source in Fig. 1.2(a) connected to loads with the values shown below. In each case, find the percentage change in the voltage and current across RL, vo and oo, in response to a 10% increase in the value of RL. In which cases is it more appropriate to use a Norton equivalent source? In those cases, find the Norton equivalent for Vs = 1 V. Rs = 2 kΩ; RL = 100 kΩ Rs = 100 Ω; RL = 8 Ω Rs = 5 kΩ; RL = 50 kΩ Rs = 1 kΩ; RL = 50 Ω Solution: Watch the authors solve this problem. ∨ Show Solution
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- 56. us “that Empedocleswas particularly admired for curing a woman supposed to be dead, though that philosopher frankly acknowledged that her disorder was only a suffocation of the matrix, and affirmed that the patient might live in that state (the absence of respiration) for thirty days.” Mr. Le Clerc, in the work already quoted, tells us that “Heraclides of Pontus wrote a book concerning the causes of diseases, in which he affirmed that a patient is without respiration in certain disorders for thirty days, and that they appeared dead in every respect, except corruption of the body.” To these authorities we may add that of Pliny, who, after mentioning the lamentable fate of Aviola and Lamia, affirms—“That such is the condition of humanity, and so uncertain the judgment men are capable of forming of things, that even death itself is not to be trusted to.” Colerus, in “Oeconom.” part vi., lib. xviii., cap. 113, observes, “That a person as yet not really dead may, for a long time, remain apparently in that state without discovering the least signs of life; and this has happened in the times of the Plague, when a great many persons interred have returned to life in their graves.” Authors also inform us that the like accident frequently befalls women seized with a suffocation of the matrix (hysteria). Forestus, in “Obs. Med.,” 1. xvii., obs. 9, informs us—“That drowned persons have returned to life after remaining forty-eight hours in the water; and sometimes women, buried during a paroxysm of the hysteric passion, have returned to life in their graves; for which reason it is forbidden in some countries to bury the dead sooner than seventy-two hours after death.” This precaution of delaying the interment of persons thought to be dead is of a very ancient date, since Dilberus, in “Disput. Philol.,” tome i., observes that Plato ordered the bodies of the dead to be kept till the third day, in order to be satisfied of the reality of death. The burial customs of the ancients often included steps that were taken as a precaution against mistaking the living for the dead. Indeed the fear of such an accident seems to have always been
- 57. entertained as athing liable to occur in every case of seeming death. The embalming process employed by the Egyptians was a surgical test of the kind. The abdomen was first opened in order to remove the intestines, and some startling experiences must have been had in consequence of the incisions required for this operation, because it was customary for the friends and relatives of the deceased to throw stones at the persons employed in embalming as soon as the work was over, owing to the horror with which they were struck upon witnessing what must have been at times a cruel proceeding. The funeral ceremonies used in the Caribbee Islands are, in a great measure, conformable to reason. They wash the body, wrap it up in a cloth, and then begin a series of lamentations and discourses calculated to recall the deceased to life, by naming all the pleasures and privileges he has enjoyed in the world, saying over and over again, “How comes it, then, that you have died?” When the lamentations are over, they place the body on a small seat, in a grave about four or five feet deep, and for ten days present aliments to it, entreating it to eat. Then, convinced that it would neither eat nor return to life, they, for its obstinacy, throw the victuals on its head, and cover up the grave. It is evident from the practices of this people that they wait so long before they cover the body with earth, because they have had instances of persons recalled to life by these measures. Lamentations of a similar kind were employed by the Jews and Romans, as well as by the ancient Prussians and the inhabitants of Servia, founded doubtless upon similar experiences. The Thracians, according to Herodotus, kept their dead for only three days, at the end of which time they offered up sacrifices of all kinds, and, after bidding their last adieu to the deceased, either burned or interred their bodies. According to Quenstedt, the ancient Russians laid the body of the dead person naked on a table, and washed it for an hour with warm water. Then they put it into a bier, which was set in the most public room in the house. On the third day they conveyed it to the place of
- 58. interment, where thebier, being opened, the women embraced the body with great lamentations. Then the singers spent an hour in shouting and making a noise in order to recall it to life; after which it was let down into the grave and covered with earth. So that this people used the test of warm water, that of cries, and a reasonable delay, before they proceeded to the interment. In the laws and history of the Jews, there is but one regulation with respect to interment (in the twenty-first chapter of Deuteronomy), where the Jewish legislator orders persons hanged to be buried the same day. From this, one is led to infer that the funeral ceremonies, as handed down from Adam, were otherwise perfect and unexceptionable. The bier used by the Jews, on which the body was laid, was not shut at the top, as our coffins are, as is obvious from the resurrection of the Widow of Nain’s son, recorded in the seventh chapter of Luke, where these words occur:—“And he came and touched the bier, and they that bare him stood still. And he said, Young man, I say unto thee, Arise; and he that was dead sat up and began to speak.” Gierus and Calmet inform us that the body, before its interment, lay for some days in the porch or dining-room of the house. According to Maretus, it was probably during this time that great lamentations were made, in which the name of the deceased was intermixed with mournful cries and groans. Mr. Boyer, member of the Faculty at Paris, observes that such lamentations are still used by the Eastern Jews, and even by the Greeks who embrace the articles of the Greek Church. These people hire women to weep and dance by turns round the body of the dead person, whom they interrogate with respect to the reasons they had for dying. Lanzoni, a physician of Ferrara, informs us that “when any person among the Romans died, his nearest relatives closed his mouth and eyes, and when they saw him ready to expire, they caught his last words and sighs. Then calling him aloud three times by his name, they bade him an eternal adieu.” This ceremony of calling the name of the dying person was called Conclamation, a custom that dates
- 59. prior to thefoundation of Rome, and was only abolished with paganism. Propertius acquaints us with the effect they expected from the first Conclamation—since there were several of them. He introduces Cynthia as saying, “Nobody called me by my name at the time my eyes were closing, and I should have enjoyed an additional day if you had recalled me to life.” Conclamations were made also by trumpets and horns, blown upon the head, into the ears, and upon neck and chest, so as to penetrate all the cavities of the body, into which, as the ancients imagined, the soul might possibly make her retreat. Quenstedt and Casper Barthius, in “Advers.,” lib. xxxvii., ch. 17, tell us that it was customary among the ancients to wash the bodies of their dead in warm water before they burned them, “that the heat of the water might rouse the languid principle of life which might possibly be left in the body.” By warm water we are to understand boiling water, as is obvious from the copious steam arising from the vessel represented in pieces of statuary in such instances: as also from the Sixth Book of Virgil’s “Æneid”—“Some of the companions of Æneas, with boiling water taken from brazen vessels, wash the dead body, and then anoint it.” The Romans, as Lanzoni informs us, kept the bodies of the dead seven days before they interred them; and Servius, in his commentary on Virgil, tells us “that on the eighth day they burned the body, and on the ninth put its ashes in the grave.” Polydorus and Alexander ab Alexandro are also of opinion that the Romans kept the dead seven days; and Gierus affirms that they sometimes did not bury them till the ninth; but it is easy to believe that they deviated from the most universal custom when evident and incontestable marks of death rendered it safe to inter before the usual time. Alexander ab Alexandro also observes that it was customary among the Greeks to keep the bodies of their dead seven days before they put them on the funeral pile. It would have, perhaps, been sufficient to have kept the bodies of the dead seven days, or nine, or till putrefaction evinced the
- 60. certainty of death;but the Romans carried their circumspection farther, since, to use the words of Quenstedt, “Those who were employed in watching the dead now and then began their conclamations, and all at once called the dead person aloud by his name, because, as Celsus informs us, the principle of life is often thought to have left the body when it still remains in it; for which reason conclamations were made, in order, if possible, to rouse it and excite it.” If our senses are so imperfect that the signs of life may escape them; if the languid state of the sensitive powers, or the origin of the nerves, is such that the most painful chirurgical operations are sometimes insufficient to put the spirits in motion; if the duration of a perfect insensibility for a considerable number of days is a precarious and uncertain mark of death; and if situations, apparently the most inconsistent with life, for a considerable time amount only to strong presumptions that life is destroyed, we ought, with Mr. Winslow and a great many other celebrated authors, to conclude that a beginning of putrefaction is the only certain sign of death. Mr. Winslow evidently proves that the most cruel chirurgical operations are sometimes insufficient to ascertain death. From these observations we can but conclude—(1) That it is to no purpose to use the most cruel chirurgical operations; and (2) that it is necessary to abstain from such as may prove mortal to the patient. Mr. Winslow is indeed so far from recommending operations of the last mentioned kind, that he calls it rash to plunge a long needle under the nail of an apoplectic patient’s toe. But if Mr. Winslow thinks it rash to make a simple puncture in a nervous part, we ought, surely, not to entertain a favourable notion of the large and enormous incisions made in dissections. Those, indeed, who are dissected run no risk of being interred alive. The operation is an infallible means to secure them from so terrible a fate. This is one advantage which persons dissected have over those who are without any further ceremony shut up in their coffins.
- 61. In the appendixto the second edition of Dr. Curry’s “Observations on Apparent Death” several instances of a similar kind are added, and amongst others the case of William Earl of Pembroke, who died April 30, 1630. When the body was opened in order to be embalmed, he was observed, immediately after the incision was made, to lift up his hand. This is capped by the incident of Vesalius already given. “A correspondent of the late Dr. Hawes assures us that there was then living in Hertfordshire a lady of an ancient and honourable family whose mother was brought to life after interment by the attempt of a thief to steal a valuable ring from her finger. (See Reports of the Royal Humane Society for 1787-88-89, p. 77.) Whether it was the same or not I cannot say, but Lady Dryden, who resided in the southern part of Northamptonshire, in consequence of some such event having occurred in her family expressly directed in her will that her body should have the throat cut across previous to interment; and to secure this bequeathed fifty pounds to an eminent physician, who actually performed it.”—Ibid., p. 106. Dr. Elliotson refers to a case of a female who was pronounced to be dead. Her pulse could not be felt, and she was put into a coffin; and, as the coffin lid was being closed they observed a sweat break out, and thus saw that she was alive. She recovered completely, and then stated that she had been unable to give any signs of life whatever; that she was conscious of all that was going on around her; that she heard everything; and that when she found the coffin lid about to be put on,the agony was dreadful beyond all description, so that it produced the sweat seen by the attendants. DEATH-TRANCE. In two cases related by the late Mr. Braid, of Manchester, “the patients remained in the horrible condition of hearing various remarks about their death and interment. All this they heard distinctly without having the power of giving any indication that they
- 62. were alive, untilsome accidental abrupt impression aroused them from their lethargy, and rescued them from their perilous situation. On one of these occasions, what most intensely affected the feelings of the entranced subject, as she afterwards communicated to my informant, was hearing a little sister, who came into the room, where she was laid out for dead, exulting in the prospect, in consequence of her death, of getting possession of a necklace of the deceased.” In another instance, the patient remained in a cataleptic condition for fourteen days. During this period, the visible signs of vitality were a slight degree of animal heat and appearance of moisture when a mirror was held close to her face. But although she had no voluntary power to give indication by word or gesture, nevertheless she heard and understood all that was said and proposed to be done, and suffered the most exquisite torture from various tests applied to her.... There is hardly a more interesting chapter in the records of medical literature than the history of well-authenticated cases of profound lethargy or death-trance. Most of the reported cases in which persons in a state of trance are stated to have been consigned to the horrors of a living burial may possibly be apocryphal. Still, on the other hand, there are unquestionably too many well- substantiated instances of the actual occurrence of this calamity, the horrors of which no effort of the imagination can exaggerate, and for the prevention of which no pains can be excessive and no precaution superfluous. The following is taken from “Memorials of the Family of Scott, of Scott’s Hall, in the County of Kent, with an Appendix of Illustrative Documents,” by James Benat Scott, F. S. A., London, 1876, page 225:— “Robert Scott, Esq., tenth (but sixth surviving) son of Sir Thomas Scott, of Scot’s-Hall, Knight, married Priscilla, one of the daughters of Sir Thomas Honywood, of Elmsmere, Knight, by whom he had nine children. Remarkable accidents happened to the said Robert Scott and Priscilla, his wife, before their marriage, at their marriage, and after their marriage, before they had children. At their marriage, which was in or about the year 1610, the said Robert Scott having
- 63. forgot his weddingring when they were to be married, the said Priscilla was married with a ring with death’s head upon it. “Within a short time after they were married, the said Robert Scott, and Priscilla, his wife, sojourning with Sir Edward at Austenhanger, the said Robert Scott, about Bartholomewtide, fell sick of a desperate malignant fever, and was given over for dead by all, insomuch as that he was laid forth, the pillows pulled from under him, the curtains drawn, and the chamber windows set open, and ministers spoke to to preach the funeral service, and a book called for his funeral that was to have been kept at Scott’s Hall, where Sir John Scott the eldest brother then lived. At night he was watched with by his own servant, named Robins, and another servant in the house, and about midnight they, sitting together by the fire in the chamber, the said Robins said to the other, ‘Methinks my master should not be dead, I will go and try,’ and presently starting up went to the bedside where his master laid, and hallooed in his ear, and laid a feather to his nostrils, and perceived that he breathed, upon which he called them up in the house, and they warmed clothes and rubbed him, and brought him to life again. He lived afterwards to be upwards of seventy-two years of age, and to have nine children. “Another remarkable passage was that his wife, Priscilla, being then very sick also, they told her that he was dead. She answered that she did not believe that God would part them so soon. The said Priscilla, when born, was laid for dead, no one minding her, but all the women went to help her mother, who was then like to die after her delivery; but at last an old woman, taking the child in her arms, carried it downstairs, and using means, brought her to life. The other women, missing the child, and hearing the old woman had carried her down to get life in her, laughed at her, as thinking it impossible to bring the child to life; but in a little time she brought it into the chamber, to the amazement of them all, and said she might live to be an old woman; and so she did to the age of fifty-two, and had nine children.” The following cases are from Mrs. Crowe’s “Night Side of Nature,” pp. 133-136:—
- 64. “Dr. Burns mentionsa girl at Canton, who lay in a trance, hearing every word that was said around her, but utterly unable to move a finger. She tried to cry out, but could not, and supposed that she was really dead. The horror of finding that she was about to be buried at length caused a perspiration to appear on her skin, and she finally revived. She described that she felt that her soul had no power to act upon her body, and that it seemed to be in her body and out of it at the same time.” “Lady Fanshawe related the case of her mother who being sick of a fever, her friends and servants thought her deceased, and she lay in that state for two days and a night; but Mr. Winslow, coming to comfort my father, went into my mother’s room, and looking earnestly into her face, said, ‘She was so handsome, and looked so lovely, that he could not think her dead,’ and, suddenly taking a lancet out of his pocket, he cut the sole of her foot, which bled: upon this he immediately caused her to be removed to the bed again, and she opened her eyes, after rubbing and other restorative means, and came to life.” “On the 10th of January, 1717, Mr. John Gardner, a minister at Elgin, fell into a trance, and being to all appearances dead, he was put into a coffin and on the second day was carried to the grave. But fortunately a noise being heard, the coffin was opened, and he was found alive and taken home again, where, according to the record, ‘he related many strange and amazing things which he had seen in the other world.’” Under the head of “Suspended Animation: Cases of Recovery, etc.,” the Report of the Royal Humane Society for 1816-17, pp. 48- 50, copies the following:—“A young lady, an attendant on the Princess of——, after having been confined to her bed for a great length of time with a violent disorder, was at last to all appearances deprived of life. Her lips were quite pale, her face resembled the countenance of a dead person, and her body became cold. “She was removed from the room in which she died, was laid in a coffin, and the day of her funeral was fixed on. The day arrived, and, according to the custom of the country, funeral songs and hymns
- 65. were sung beforethe door. Just as they were about to nail on the lid of the coffin, a slight perspiration was observed to appear on the surface of her body. It grew greater every moment, and at last a kind of convulsive motion was observed in the hands and feet of the corpse. A few moments after, during which time fresh signs of returning life appeared, she at once opened her eyes, and uttered a pitiable shriek. Physicians were quickly procured, and in the course of a few days she was considerably restored, and is probably alive at this day.” The description which she herself gave of her situation is extremely remarkable, and forms a curious and authentic addition to psychology:— “She said it seemed to her, as if in a dream, that she was really dead; yet she was perfectly conscious of all that happened around her in this dreadful state. She distinctly heard her friends speaking, and lamenting her death at the side of her coffin. She felt them pull on the dead-clothes and lay her in it. This feeling produced a mental anxiety which was indescribable. She tried to cry, but her soul was without power and could not act on her body. She had the contradictory feeling as if she were in her body, and yet not in it, at one and the same time. It was equally impossible for her to stretch out her arms, or to open her eyes, or to cry although she continued to do so. The internal anguish of her mind was, however, at its utmost height when the funeral hymns began to be sung, and when the lid of the coffin was about to be nailed on. The thought that she was to be buried alive was the first one which gave activity to her soul, and caused it to operate on her corporeal frame.” Related by Dr. Herz in the “Psychological Magazine,” and transcribed by Sir Alexander Crichton in the introduction to his essay on “Mental Derangement.” [2 vols., Lond., 1798.] “One of the most frightful cases extant is that of Dr. Walker, of Dublin, who had so strong a presentiment on this subject, that he
- 66. had actually writtena treatise against the Irish custom of hasty burial. He, himself, subsequently died, as was believed, of a fever. His decease took place in the night, and on the following day he was interred. At this time, Mrs. Bellamy, the once-celebrated actress, was in Ireland; and as she had promised him, in the course of conversation, that she would take care he should not be laid in the earth till unequivocal signs of dissolution had appeared, she no sooner heard of what had happened than she took measures to have the grave reopened; but it was, unfortunately, too late. Dr. Walker had evidently revived, and had turned upon his side; but life was quite extinct.” Mr. Horace Welby, in a chapter on “Premature Interment,” says that “the Rev. Owen Manning, the historian of Surrey, during his residence at Cambridge University, caught small-pox, and was reduced by the disorder to a state of insensibility and apparent death. The body was laid out and preparations were made for the funeral, when Mr. Manning’s father, going into the chamber to take a last look at his son, raised the imagined corpse from its recumbent position, saying, ‘I will give my poor boy another chance,’ upon which signs of vitality were apparent. He was therefore removed by his friend and fellow-student, Dr. Heberden, and ultimately restored to health.”—The Mysteries of Life and Death, pp. 115-116. A most conspicuous and interesting monument in St. Giles’s Church, Cripplegate, London (where Cromwell was married and John Milton buried), is associated with a remarkable case of trance or catalepsy. In the chancel is a striking sculptured figure in memory of Constance Whitney, a lady of remarkable gifts, whose rare excellences are fully described in the tablet. She is represented as rising from her coffin. Welby, at p. 116, relates the story that she had been buried while in a state of suspended animation, but was restored to life through the cupidity of the sexton, which induced him to disinter the body to obtain possession of a valuable ring left
- 67. upon her finger,which he concluded could be of no use to the wearer. A study of the facts of premature burial shows that the rifling of tombs and coffins to obtain valuables has in other instances revealed similar tragic occurrences. The often-cited case of Mrs. Goodman, one of those recalled to life by the sexton’s attempt to remove a ring from the finger, is thus related in the “History of Bandon,” by George Bennett:— Hannah, wife of Rev. Richard Goodman, vicar of Ballymodan, Bandon, from 1692 to 1737, fell into ill-health, and apparently died. Two or three days after her decease, the body was taken to Rosscarbery Cathedral, and there laid in the family vault of the Goodmans. The attempt of the sexton to recover a valuable diamond ring from the finger is said to have been made at an early hour the next morning. Much violence was used, so that the corpse moved, yawned, and sat up. The sexton having fled in terror, leaving his lantern behind and the church door open, the lady in her shroud made her way out of the vault and through the church to the residence of her brother-in-law, the Rev. Thomas Goodman, which was just outside the church-yard. Having been admitted after some delay and consternation, she was put to bed, and fell asleep soon after, her brother-in-law and his man-servant keeping watch over her until mid-day, when she awoke refreshed. She is said to have shown herself in the village in the afternoon, to have supped with the family in the evening, and to have set out for home on horseback next morning. She is said to have survived this episode for some years, and to have borne a son subsequent to it, who died at an advanced age at Innishannon, a village near Bandon. In Smith’s “History of Cork,” vol. ii., p. 428, the same incident is thus mentioned:—“Mr. John Goodman, of Cork, died in January, 1747, aged about four score; but what is remarkable of him, his mother was interred while she lay in a trance, having been buried in a vault, etc.... This Mr. Goodman was born some time after.”
- 68. Mr. Peckard, Masterof Magdalen College, Cambridge, in a work entitled “Further Observations on the Doctrine of an Intermediate State,” mentions that Mrs. Godfrey, Mistress of the Jewel Office, and sister of the great Duke of Marlborough, is stated to have lain in a trance, apparently dead, for seven days, and was declared by her medical attendants to have been dead. Colonel Godfrey, her husband, would not allow her to be interred, or the body to be treated in the manner of a corpse; and on the eighth day she awoke, without any consciousness of her long insensibility. The daughter of Henry Laurens, of South Carolina, the first President of the American Congress during the Revolutionary War, died when young of small-pox. At all events a medical certificate pronounced her dead, and she was shrouded and coffined for interment. It was customary in those days to confine the patient amidst red curtains with closed windows. After the certificate of death had been duly made out, the curtains were thrown back and the windows opened. The fresh air revived the patient, who recovered and lived to a mature age. This circumstance occasioned on her father so powerful a dread of living interment, that he directed by will that his body should be burnt, and enjoined on his children the performance of this wish as a sacred duty. Bouchut in his “Signes de la Mort,” p. 58, relates that the physician of Queen Isabella of Spain was treating a man during a dangerous illness, and as he went to see his patient one morning he was informed by the assistants that the man had died. He entered, and found the body, in the habit of the Order of St. Francis, laid out upon a board. Nothing daunted, he had him put back to bed in spite of the ridicule of those present, and the patient soon revived and fully recovered. The following cases are from Köppen (see Bibliography, 1799):— Vienna. 1791.—A castle guard (portier) was in a trance for several days. His funeral was prepared, and he was placed in a coffin. All at once he unexpectedly opened his eyes and called out, “Mother, where is the coffee?”
- 69. Halle, 1753.—In theregister of deaths, at St. Mary’s Church, is the following entry:—“Shoemaker Casper Koch was buried, aged eighty-one years. Thirty years ago he had died, to all appearances, and was put in a coffin, when suddenly, when they were about to bury him, he recovered his consciousness.” Haag, Holland, 1785.—The son of a cook died, and while the coffin was being carried to the grave-yard, he was heard to knock. On opening the coffin he was found alive. He was taken home and was restored. In the “Cyclopædia of Practical Medicine,” edited by John Forbes, M.D., F.R.S., and others, 1847, vol. i., pp. 548-549, is the following: —“A remarkable instance of resuscitation after apparent death occurred in France, in the neighbourhood of Douai, in the year 1745, and is related by Rigaudeaux, (Journal des Sçavans, 1749,) to whom the case was confided. He was summoned in the morning to attend a woman in labour, at a distance of about a league. On his arrival, he was informed that she had died in a convulsive fit two hours previously. The body was already prepared for interment, and on examination he could discover no indications of life. The os uteri was sufficiently dilated to enable him to turn the child and deliver by the feet. The child appeared to be dead also; but, by persevering in the means of resuscitation for three hours, they excited some signs of vitality, which encouraged them to proceed, and their endeavours were ultimately crowned with complete success. Rigaudeaux again carefully examined the mother, and was confirmed in the belief of her death; but he found that, although she had been in that state for seven hours, her limbs retained their flexibility. Stimulants were applied in vain; he took his leave, recommending that the interment should be deferred until the flexibility was lost. At five p.m. a messenger came to inform him that she had revived at half-past three. The mother and child were both alive three years after.”
- 71. APPENDIX B. RESUSCITATION OFSTILL-BORN AND OTHER INFANTS. The danger of premature burial of still-born (apparently dead) infants is clearly shown by the following quotation from Tidy’s “Legal Medicine,” part ii., page 253, from tables given on the authority of the British and Foreign Medical Review, No. ii., p. 235, based on eight millions of births. “It would appear that from one in eighteen to one in twenty births are still-born. Dr. Lever found that the proportion in his three thousand cases was one in eighteen. So notorious is it that a large number of these deaths could be averted, that some legislation is urgently needed, requiring that still-borns, whose bodies weigh, say, not less than two pounds (the average weight about the sixth and seventh months at which children are viable), should not be buried without registration and a medical examination.” Many instances can be found in current medical literature of still- born infants that have been revived by artificial respiration. Such cases not infrequently revive without any means being employed for their resuscitation; but among the poor, who dispose of the new- born apparently dead in a hasty manner, they might be buried alive through carelessness. The use of mortuaries, where the seeming
- 72. dead would bekept under observation until decomposition appears, would of course prevent such disasters. Struve, in the Essay cited in the Bibliography (1802), says:— “All still-born children should be considered as only apparently dead, and the resuscitative process ought never to be neglected. Sometimes two hours or more will elapse before reanimation can be effected. An ingenious man-midwife, says Bruhier, was employed for several hours in the revival of an apparently still-born child, and as his endeavours proved unavailing, he considered the subject really dead. Being, however, accidentally detained, he again turned his attention to the child, and by continuing the resuscitative method for some time it was unexpectedly restored to life” (p. 150). The following is one of Struve’s most striking cases:— A Mr. E.—— called in 18—— to obtain a certificate of death for a still-born child of seven months’ gestation. Arriving at the house, the doctor found the child laid upon a little straw and covered with a slight black shawl; this was one p.m., and the child had been there since five a.m. It was icy cold, and there was no heart sound nor respiration, but there was a slight muscular twitching over the region of the heart. The child was immersed in a hot bath and artificial respiration employed, but for twenty minutes the case seemed hopeless; then the eyes opened and after continued effort the respirations began, laborious and interrupted at first, then normal by degrees. The child was saved, and became an accomplished violinist. The mortality and waste of infant life, particularly in large cities like Paris, London, Berlin, Vienna, and New York, is admitted by all investigators to be enormous. In France medical writers, in view of the small percentage of births to population, are waking up to the realisation that the State cannot afford the loss, and that, among other things, steps should be taken to resuscitate the still-born, so that none should be buried before unequivocal signs of death are manifested.[21] The premature abandonment of the still-born among the poorer classes in crowded cities is only too probable. There are
- 73. also cases recordedwhich show a corresponding risk to infants who have survived their birth:— The British Medical Journal, January 21, 1871, p. 71, gives the following case, under the heading, “Alive in a Coffin”:—“Stories of this kind are generally very apocryphal; but the following reaches us from an authentic source. A child narrowly escaped being buried alive last week in Manchester. The infant’s father had died, and was to be buried in Ardwick Cemetery. The day before the burial the infant was taken ill, and apparently died. A certificate of death was procured from a surgeon’s assistant who had seen the child, and, to save expense, it was decided to place it in the same coffin with the father. This was done, and the next morning the bearers set off to the cemetery with their double burden; but before reaching the grave-yard a cry was heard to issue from the coffin. The lid being removed, the infant was discovered alive and kicking. It was at once removed to a neighbour’s house, but died eight hours afterwards. The British Medical Journal, 1885, ii., p. 841, gives the following case, under the heading, “Death or Coma?” “The close similarity which is occasionally seen to connect the appearance of death with that of exhaustion following disease, was lately illustrated in a somewhat striking manner. An infant seized with convulsions was supposed to have died about three weeks ago at Stamford Hill. After five days’ interval, preparations were being made for its interment, when, at the grave’s mouth, a cry was heard to come from the coffin. The lid was taken off, and the child was found to be alive; it was taken home, and is recovering.” The following is from Tidy’s “Legal Medicine,” pt. i., p. 29:— “In a communication to the French Academy, Professor Fort mentions a child (ætat. three) having been resuscitated by artificial respiration continued for four hours, and not commenced until three and a half hours after its apparent decease. “Ogston records one case of a child alive for seven hours, and a second case of a young woman alive for four hours, after they had been left as dead.”
- 74. From the Lancet,April 22, 1882, p. 675:— “PREMATURE INTERMENT. “A daily contemporary states that at the gates of the Avignon cemetery the parents of a child certified to have died of croup insisted on having the coffin opened to take a last look. The child was found breathing, and is expected to be saved.” The following letter to the editor of the Lancet, March 31, 1866, p. 360, illustrates the danger to which infants supposed to be dead are exposed, under one of our traditional customs:— “LAYING-OUT OF DEAD INFANTS. “Sir,—In your journal of last Saturday, among the ‘Medical Annotations,’ you notice the inquiry into the circumstances under which an infant, being still living and moving, was ‘bandaged’ beneath the chin, and ‘laid-out’ at St. Pancras Workhouse. Allow me to state that in the Lancet, vol. ii., 1850, a contribution from me ‘On the Danger of Tying-up the Lower Jaw immediately after Supposed Death’ was published. An infant, aged two months, was brought to me on a Friday with the lower jaw tied up by its mother, who asked for a certificate of death; but on my removing the bandage, the child began to show symptoms of vitality, and it lived until the following Monday. C. J. B. Aldis, M.D., F.R.C.P. “Chester Terrace, Chester Square, March 26, 1866.” It is recorded that Dr. Doddridge showed so little signs of life at his birth that he was laid aside as dead, but one of the attendants observing some signs of life, took the baby under her charge, and by her judicious treatment perfectly restored it. Mr. Highmore, Secretary of the London Lying-in Hospital, confirmed (by a communication to the Royal Humane Society, April, 1816,) the statement of Mrs. Catherine Widgen, the matron of that excellent establishment, that, by a zealous perseverance in the means recommended by that Society, she had been the happy instrument of restoring from a state of apparent death in the space of three years no less than forty-five infants, who, but for her humane attention and indefatigable exertions, must have been consigned to the grave. Later on, Mrs. Widgen restored in one year
- 75. twenty-seven apparently dead-bornchildren—a striking instance of the truth of the remark of a celebrated writer (Osiander) that “the generality of infants, considered as still-born, are only apparently so; if, therefore, persons would persevere in their exertions to revive them, most of them might be restored.”—Report of the Royal Humane Society, 1816-17, pp. 52-54. “For these exertions the General Court adjudged the Honorary Medallion to Mrs. Widgen, and it was accordingly presented to her by His Royal Highness the Duke of Kent.”—Ibid., p. 52. [The question naturally suggests itself in this place: If the matron of such a noble institution as the above was able to save seventy- two apparently dead children from the grave in four years, how many of these poor little beings are consigned to the grave all over the world for lack of the “humane attention and indefatigable exertions,” such as this skilful matron gave to those that came under her intelligent care?] “RECURRENCE OF SUSPENDED ANIMATION. “A child, who had a cough for some time, was suddenly attacked with difficulty of breathing, and to all appearances died. A medical gentleman immediately inflated the lungs, and by persisting in this for a considerable time, recovered the child. A similar state of suspended animation took place three or four times, and inflation was as often had recourse to with the same success; but the attack, happening, unfortunately, to recur whilst the medical gentleman in whose family the case happened was from home, the proper measures were not taken, and the child was lost.”—Ibid., p. 140. “SHOCK FROM LIGHTNING. “A boy was struck down by a flash of lightning near Hoxton (in the suburbs of London), and lay exposed to the rain at least an hour,
- 76. until his companionscarried him home on some boards, apparently dead—the body being stiff and universally cold, the fingers and toes contracted, and the countenance livid. He was stripped of his wet clothes, put in hot blankets, and bled twenty ounces. In half an hour, interrupted respiration commenced, without inflating the lungs; in an hour more, regular pulsation and breathing were established, together with power of swallowing; and in a week he was quite well.”—Ibid., p. 147. In the Lancet, 1884, vol. i., p. 922, W. Arnold Thompson, F.R.C.S.I., reports a case of resuscitation of a child delivered by the forceps, which was “apparently to myself [he says] and the nurse and relatives, a perfectly dead child, and with no signs of respiration or life about it.... My opinion was that the death was real and positive, but that, there being no actual disease present, and the blood still warm, the machinery of life was set going, and resuscitation followed as a consequence of suitable means being taken and persevered in without undue delay. In the future I do not intend to allow any still-born children to be put away without making strenuous efforts to restore vitality.” The Lancet, 1880, vol. ii., p. 582:—In a discussion at the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society upon Artificial Respiration in New- born Children, Dr. Roper related three cases in which the child was left for dead. “One of these occurred in the practice of Mr. Brown, of St. Mary Axe. The child was still-born in the absence of a medical man. It was taken to the surgery, and thence to the late Mr. Solly, who next day, in dissecting the body, found that the heart was still beating. A second instance was of a fœtus of five months and a half, which was set aside as dead, Dr. Roper attending the mother, who was suffering from hæmorrhage. He was astonished next day to find that this immature child, which had lain on the floor for eleven hours through a cold night, was breathing and its heart beating....” Such examples show that the new-born have greater tenacity of life than is supposed. The Lancet, 1881, vol. ii., p. 430, under the heading of “The Burial of Still-born Infants,” states that “Greater security for the due
- 77. observance of thesenecessary regulations (the Births and Deaths Registration Act of 1874), for the burial of infants said to be still- born, is urgently called for. It is constantly patent that the burial of deceased infants as still-born, if checked, is by no means prevented; and that the authorities of burial grounds, by their laxity in carrying out the provisions of the Act, afford dangerous facilities for the concealment of crime, or negligence, and for a practice which threatens to impair the value of our birth and death registration statistics; for, if a live-born infant be buried as still-born, neither its birth nor its death is registered.” A case of forceps-delivery occurred in the hands of the writer (E.P.V.), in which the child, when extracted, was quite purple in colour, and absolutely dead to all appearances—there was no breathing nor impulse to be found anywhere. After some efforts at resuscitation in the way of artificial respiration—not very thoroughly done, nor much prolonged (for the child was believed to be dead)— with a warm bath and frictions, it was laid aside and covered up. At a subsequent visit some hours later, the child was found in the nurse’s lap, completely recovered, and changed in colour to a bright pink. The nurse said she did not like to give the little fellow up, and by breathing into his mouth for some time he showed returning life, and by keeping it up he soon began to breathe himself. Cases like this are believed to be not infrequent, because physicians and nurses are not, as a general rule, aware of the great tenacity of life possessed by the new-born infant. “Still-births are not registered in England; but, under the new Registration Act, no still-born child can be buried without a certificate from a registered practitioner in attendance, or a declaration from a midwife, to the effect that the child was still-born. The proportion of still-births in this country is supposed to be about four per cent., but this is uncertain.”—A. Newsholme, Vital Statistics, 1889, p. 61. “The proportion of deaths from premature births, compared with the total number of births, in 1861-65 was 11·19 to 1,000 births;
- 78. since which timeit has steadily increased, reaching the ratio of 15·89 per births in 1,000 in 1887.”—Ibid., p. 216. The same author, p. 17, states that “a certain proportion of the births remain unregistered(a). There is strong reason for thinking that a certain number of children born alive are buried as still-born.”
- 79. APPENDIX C. RECOVERY OFTHE DROWNED. This is perhaps the best known and most generally appreciated occasion of rescuing the apparently dead. The high degree in which it has excited public sympathy will appear from a glance at that section of the “Bibliography” (towards the end of the eighteenth century) which gives the titles of essays and reports connected with the Royal Humane Society and the corresponding foreign institutions upon which our own was modelled. The following general remarks and cases are from the essay of Dr. Struve, of Görlitz, Lusatia, 1802: — “A great number of persons apparently drowned have been restored to life without the use of stimulants, merely by the renovated susceptibility of irritation. I have collected thirty-six cases of persons apparently drowned in Lusatia from the year 1772 to the year 1792. Most of them were treated by uninformed people, and revived by friction and warming; two persons, however, were indebted for their lives to the continuation of the resuscitative process for several hours. The greatest number were children; which is to be ascribed not only to the greater danger to which they are exposed of drowning, but also to the longer continuance of vital power in the infant frame” (p. 136).
- 80. “A boy ofabout a year and a half old had lain upwards of a quarter of an hour in the water, and was found face downwards, and the whole body livid and swollen. He was undressed, wiped dry, and wrapped in warm blankets; but the most particular part of the process was rolling the body upon a table, shaking it by the shoulders, and rubbing the feet. This having been continued for an hour, a convulsive motion was observed in the toes; sneezing was excited by snuff; the tongue stimulated by strong vinegar; the throat irritated with a feather; an injection given. The child vomited a large quantity of water, and in an hour afterwards began to breathe, and was completely restored to life” (p. 137). “A woman upwards of thirty years of age, and who was affected with epilepsy, fell in a fit from a height of twenty feet into the water, where she remained a full quarter of an hour before she was taken out. Mr. Redlich, surgeon, of Hamburg, had her put into a bed warmed by hot bottles; she was rubbed with warm flannels, some spirits were dropped into her mouth, when in a quarter of an hour symptoms of life, such as convulsive motion and a very weak pulse, appeared. In three hours from the time she was taken out of the water she recovered completely” (p. 138). Dr. Charles Londe, in a remarkable pamphlet (“Lettre sur la Mort Apparente, les Conséquences Réelles des Inhumations Précipitées, et le Temps Pendent lequel peut persister l’Aptitude à étre Rapellé à la Vie.” Paris, Bailliére, 1854), records some instances of narrow escapes from premature burial of the drowned, one of which may be cited:— “On the 13th of July, 1829, about two p.m., near the Pont des Arts, Paris, a body, which appeared lifeless, was taken out of the river. It was that of a young man, twenty years of age, dark- complexioned, and strongly built. The corpse was discoloured and cold; the face and lips swollen and tinged with blue; a thick and yellowish froth exuded from the mouth; the eyes were open, fixed, and motionless; the limbs limp and drooping. No pulsation of the heart nor trace of respiration was perceptible. The body had remained under water for a considerable time; the search for it,
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