The document provides guidelines for writing research reports. It discusses the key steps and components of a research report, including: 1. The main text should include an introduction stating the objectives, a summary of findings, the main body presented logically in sections, and a conclusion restating the results. 2. Preliminary pages include a title page, acknowledgments, table of contents and lists of tables/figures. 3. The end matter includes appendices, bibliography, and index. 4. Research reports are classified based on the information provided (technical vs popular) and representation (written vs oral). Guidelines are given for writing each type of report effectively.

1. MODULE 4
GUIDELINES FOR REPORT WRITING
 This is the last step in research process. And requires a set of skills some what
different from those called for in respect of the earlier stages of research.
 The researcher should follow the main principal of writing a report and these
principal are:-
I. There should be objectivity, clarity in the presentation of ideas.
II. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple
language avoiding vague expressions.
III. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they
present the information more clearly.
IV. Calculated confidence limits must be mentioned and the various
constraints experienced in conducting research operation may as well be
stated.
SIGNIFICANCE OF WRITING RESEARCH REPORT
 Research report is considered a major component of the research study for the
research task remains incomplete till the report has been presented.
 As a matter of fact even the most brilliant hypothesis, highly well designed and
conducted research study, and the most striking generalizations and findings are of
little value unless they are effectively communicated to others.
 It means that the purpose of research is not well served unless the findings are made
known to others.
LAYOUT OF REPORT
 The preliminary pages
 The main text
 The end matter

2. THE PRELIMINARY PAGES
 In its preliminary pages, the report should carry title and date followed by
acknowledgement and foreword then. There should be a table of contents followed by
a list of tables and list of graphs and charts if any given in the report.
THE MAIN TEXT
The main text of the report should have following parts:-
a) INTRODUCTION:- It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the
research and an explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the
research .
b) SUMMARY OF FINDINGS :- A statement of findings and recommendation in non
technical language should be there after introduction.
c) MAIN REPORT:- The main body of the report should be presented in logical
sequence and sections.
d) CONCLUSION:- At the end of the main text, result of the research should be put
clearly and precisely.
THE END MATTER
 At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data.
Bibliography, i.e list of books, journals, reports etc., consulted, should also be given
in the end .index should also be given specially in a published research report. It
means that the researcher should again put down the results of his research clearly and
precisely .in fact, it is the final summing up.
STEPS IN WRITING RESEARCH REPORT
 LOGICAL ANALYSIS OF THE SUBJECT MATTER :- It is the first step which is
primarily concerned with the development of a subject and there are two ways in
which to develop a subject .

3.  PREPARATION OF THE FINAL OUTLINE :- Outlines are the framework upon
which long written works are constructed .they are an aid to the logical organizations
of the material and a reminder of the points to be stressed in the report.
 PREPARATION OF THE ROUGH DRAFT :- This step is of utmost importance for
the now sits to write down what he has done in the context of his research study.
 REWRITING AND POLISHING OF THE ROUGH DRAFT:-In this the researcher
should give due attention to the fact that in his rough draft he has been consistent or
not .he should check the mechanics of writing grammar, spelling and usage.
 PREPARATION OF THE FINAL BIBLIOGRAPHY:- The bibliography ,which is
generally appended to the research report is a list of books in some way pertinent to
the research which has been done.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
 A bibliography is a list of sources you use in writing a report
 Bibliography is a Latin word meaning a list of books
 Biblio=Books Graphy=List
Bibliography=list of books
SHOULD CONTAIN:- All those work that researcher has consulted, the first part may
contain the names of the books and pamphlets .and the second part may contain the names of
magazines and newspapers articles, generally this part of bibliography is considered
convenient and satisfactory from the point of view of reader .
REFERENCING
The two parts to referencing are:
 citations in the text of the report
 a list of references in the final section
A citation shows that information comes from another source. The reference list gives the
details of these sources. You need to use in-text citations and provide details in the references
section when:

4.  you incorporate information from other sources; e.g.:
o factual material
o graphs and tables of data
o pictures and diagrams
 you quote word-for-word from another work (when you do this the page
number must be given in the in-text citation)
In Engineering, the most common referencing style is the author-date (Harvard) system.
However, in Electrical Engineering the IEEE system is used. Full details of these referencing
styles are available from LLS Online Resources or through the Library Online Tutorials
Example of in-text citation and reference list entry using the Harvard referencing style:
In-text citation
Corrosion is defined as a 'chemical action which harms the properties of a metal'
(Glendinning 1973, p.12). Because corrosion reduces the life of the material and protection
procedures are expensive, special corrosion-resistant metals have been developed, including
Monel metals which are particularly suited to marine applications (Glendinning 1973).
Reference list entry
Glendinning, E.H. 1973 English in mechanical engineering, Oxford, Oxford University
Press.
FOOT NOTES
 When using footnotes, whenever a source is used in a paper, a footnote is inserted to
credit the source.
 Footnotes are shown in text as superscript numbers that relate to a numbered source at
the bottom of the page.
 The source at the bottom of the page includes much, if not all, of the original
bibliographic source information
 A simple rule: Who, What, Where, When, Which (pages)

5. – Authors‘ First and Last Names, ―Title‖ Title of Periodical, Owner, or
Publisher (Date of Publication): XX-XX (( page range))
 To enter a footnote (in Microsoft Word), place the cursor at the end of the sentence
(after the period) that includes information or ideas from a source. Click ―References‖
and click ―Insert Foot Note‖
 This inserts the superscript number and allows you to insert the corresponding source
material at the bottom of the page with the matched number
 The order the subscript and citations follow is the order they appear in the text
 In the first in-text citation note, do the full citation. Whenever the same text is cited
again, the note can be shortened to include Author Last Name, Main Title, and Page
numbers:
– 5. Johns, Nature of the Book, 384-85.
– If the footnote immediately preceding is from the same text, the abbreviation
―Ibid.‖ can be used with the page numbers; if both the source and page
numbers are the same as the preceding note, ―Ibid.‖ can stand alone.
– 4. Allen Williams, Knowledge from Reading (Los Angeles: Booky Books,
2010), 22-25.
– 5. Ibid., 54-55.
– 6. Ibid.
LAST STEP IN WRITING RESEARCH REPORT
 WRITING THE FINAL DRAFT:- This constitutes the last step .the final draft should
be written in a concise and objective style and in simple language ,avoiding vague
expressions such as ―it seems‖, ―there may be‖ etc.
 A research report should not be dull but must enthuse people and maintain interest
and must show originality.

6.  It must be remembered that every report should be an attempt to solve some
intellectual problem and must contribute to the solution of a problem and must add to
the knowledge of both the researcher and the reader.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD REPORT
 Attractiveness
 Balanced language
 No repetition of facts
 Statement of scientific facts
 Practicability
 Description of the difficulties and the shortcomings
REPORT PREPRATION AND PRESENTATION PROCESS
FORMAT OF REPORT

7. Candidate‘s Declaration
Acknowledgement
Abstract
 Major Findings
 Recommendations
 Conclusions
Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
Abbreviations
Nomenclature
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
 Background to the research
 Statement of the problem
 Justification of the research
 Structure of the dissertation
 Key definitions
 Limitations and key assumptions
 Conclusion
CHAPTER 2 : LITERATURE SURVEY
 Introduction
 Source concerned with research problem
 Models related to study
 Research questions and hypothesis
 Conclusion
CHAPTER 3 : METHODOLOGY
 Introduction
 Justification for the study
 Paradigm and Methodology
 Research procedures
 Conclusion
CHAPTER 4: ANALYSIS OF DATA
 Introduction
 Subjects
 Patterns of data for research questions and hypothesis
 Conclusion
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION
 Introduction
 Conclusions about research questions and hypothesis
 Research problem conclusions
 Implications for policy and practice
 Limitations
 Further research
 Conclusion
REFERENCES
APPENDIX
TYPES OF REPORTS

8. Research reports are design to convey and record the information that will be of practical use
to the reader. Research report can be classified on the following basis:
 On the basis of information
 On the basis of representation
CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF INFORMATION
1. Technical report
A technical report is written for other researches. In writing the technical
report, the importance is mainly given on the methods that have been used to collect
the informative report.on and the data, the presumptions that are made and finally, the
various presentations techniques that are used to present the findings and the data.
Main features are:
 Summary: It covers a brief analysis of the findings of the research in a v.few
pages.
 Nature: It contains the reasons for which the research is undertaken, the
analysis and the data that is required in order to prepare the report.
 Methods employed: It contains a description of the methods that were
employed in order to collect the data.
 Data: It covers a brief analysis of the various sources from which data has
been collected with their features and drawbacks.
 Analysis of data and presentations of the findings: It contains the various
forms through which the data that has been analysed can be presented.
 Conclusions: It contains a detailed analysis of the various bibliographies that
have been used in order to conduct a research.
 Bibliography: It contains a detailed analysis of the various bibliographies that
have been used in order to conduct a research.
 Technical Appendices: It contains the appendices for technical matters and
for the questionnaires and mathematical derivations.
 Index: The index of the technical report must be provided at the end of the
report.
2. Popular Report

9. A popular report is formulated when there is a need to draw the conclusions of the
findings of the report. One of the main points of consideration that should be kept in mind
while formulating a research report is that, it must be simple and attractive. It must be
written in a v.simple manner that is understandable to all. Following are the main points
that is to be kept in mind while preparing a popular report:
 Findings and their implications: While preparing a popular report, main
importance is given to the findings of the information and the conclusions that
can be drawn out of these findings.
 Recommendations for action: If there are any derivations in the report, then
recommendations are made for taking corrective action in order to rectify the
errors.
 Objective of the study: In a popular report, the specific objective for which the
research has been undertaken is presented.
 Methods employed: The report must contain the various method that have
been employed in order to conduct a research.
 Results: The results of the research findings must be presented in a suitable
and appropriate manner by taking the help of charts and diagrams.
 Technical Appendices: The report must contain an in-depth information used
to collect the data in the form of appendices.
CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF REPRESENTATION
1. Written Report
2. Oral Report
ORAL PRESENTATIONS
We can consider a Presentation in 2 parts
1. Preparing the Presentation.
2. Delivering the Presentation.
 Preparing an oral presentation often requires the same kind of research as needed for a
written report.
1. Goals - What content will help to convey the goal you have for your
presentation ?

10. 2. Audience - What information to choose to appease your audience -
particularly their attitudes, interests, biases, and prejudices about the topic.
3. Coverage - What do you need to cover ?
4. Effectiveness - Because listening is more difficult than reading, how to make
the narrative (stories) particularly effective to retain the attention of your
listeners ?
 Talks will differ from writing papers, creating poster papers, or writing reports.
 The major difference is that the oral presentation needs to be more repetitive.
The standard advice goes like this:
(a) an introduction – tell ‗em what you are going to tell ‗em,
(b) the main body – tell ‗em, and
(c) the conclusion – tell ‗em what you have told ‗em.
FORMULAS FOR SPEECH/PRESENTATION ORGANIZATION
 OIBCC – Basic Formula
 Opening – grab attention
 Introduction – ―Why bring this topic up?‖
 Body – bulk of the presentation
 Remember that for every important point that you make, you must
provide support and this support can take the form of
 Statistics, analogies, testimony, illustrations, or specific
examples.
 Conclusion – summarize briefly points
 Close – last strong sentences that leave the audience with something to
remember
 Must tie to your main idea and should tie to your opening to be
effective
VISUAL AIDS
 Makes presentation more interesting and lively
 Helps audience understand the presentation
 Helps speaker present information more systematically

11.  Reinforce and add impact to information
 Illustrate a relationship between ideas
 Show information patterns or pictures
 Present figures, graphs or charts
 Summarize key points
 Help audience follow passages or quotations
EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
 Communication skills are among the intangible skill sets most valued by employers.
 The ability to communicate effectively, especially during oral presentations, can boost
your marketability and viability for work in a variety of careers.
 To develop strong presentation skills, you need to consider both the verbal and
nonverbal factors involved in delivering your message.
CONVENTIONS AND STRATEGIES OF AUTHENTICATION
 The rapid spread of e-Business has necessitated the securing of transactions.
 Authentication is a fundamental security function. During authentication, credentials
presented by an individual are validated and associated with the person's identity.
 This binding between credentials and identity is typically done for the purpose of
granting (or denying) authorization to perform some restricted operation, like
accessing secured files or executing sensitive transactions.
STRATEGY OF AUTHENTICATION

12.  Designing an authentication strategy involves evaluating your existing infrastructure
and creating accounts, establishing a means to secure the authentication process, and
establishing standards for network authentication and time synchronization. You
might also need to extend your authentication model to allow authentication between
forests or between other Kerberos realms, and to enable delegated authentication in
order to facilitate user access to system resources.
CITATION STYLE
 A way of giving credit for someone's thinking, writing or research
 You mark the material when you use it (a citation) and give the full identification at
the end (a reference)
 In academic writing you are obliged to attribute every piece of material you use to its
author
WHY CITE OR REFERENCE?
 Credit sources of information & ideas
 Reader can locate for further information if required
 Validate arguments
 Increase and spread knowledge
 Show depth, breadth & quality of your reading!

13.  Book:
Stevens, P. (2003) The Voyage of the Catalpa: A Perilous Journey and Six Irish
Rebels’ Escape to Freedom. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
 Journal article
Stevens, P. (2003) ‗The Voyage of the Catalpa: A Perilous Journey and Six Irish
Rebels‘ Escape to Freedom‘. Irish Journal of Social History 50 (2) 34-42.
AVOIDING PLAGIARISM
 The availability of text in digital form increases the possibility of accidentally using
someone else's material without acknowledgement
 Make sure you record all the details of the material you make notes on at the time so
that you know who‘s it is later
 By all means use quotes and paraphrased material but cite it properly
RESEARCH PAPERS
Six Simple Steps for Writing a Research Paper
Step 1: Understand the Assignment and Set a Schedule: One of the biggest problems
students have when beginning a research paper is that they don‘t understand the assignment.
Make sure that if you have any questions you ask the professor, other students, or come into
the Writing Center. Some specific details you should know are:
• How long the paper has to be (pages, number of words)
• The type of citation preferred by the professor
• Number and types of sources that are allowed (websites, books, articles)
• Whether specific aspects of the paper have different due dates or is it due in full on a
specific date.
• Other formatting details (footnotes, subtitles, heading, double-spacing)
• Set a schedule according to the due dates and how long it will take you to complete each
task. (Day-by-day, week-by-week)

14. Step 2: Finding a Topic and Question: Once you have figured out what the assignment is
about, it is time to choose a specific topic or question to research. Some things to consider
when choosing a topic:
• Is this topic appropriate? – You may want to have the professor approve it.
• Narrow the focus of your paper. (try to make it as specific as possible)
• Choose a topic that not only interests you, but will also be interesting to the reader.
• You may want to choose a question that your paper will answer. That way, when you are
researching, you are looking for something specific.
• The answer that you find to this question may ultimately become your thesis statement
Step 3: Begin Research : After you have decided the direction you want to take for the
paper, it will now be time to begin researching the topic.
NOTE: Just because you have chosen a topic and question does not mean you have to stick
with that one for the rest of the paper! After you have started researching, you may find
information that makes you want to change your focus. It is fine if you change your question,
but make sure your paper answers the new question and not the old one. Some things to keep
in mind when researching:
• Make sure you use a wide variety of sources (Internet, books, journals, video, interviews,
etc.)
• Allow yourself enough time to research. This will be the most intensive part of the paper,
allow at least two hours per researching session.
• Keep records and copies of all of the information you obtain. Get all of the bibliographical
information while you are researching so you do not have to go back. Make sure you also
make note of where you found the information in case you have to retrieve it later. o Such
information includes:
 Title of the article or book
 Date it was published or copy written
 Author(s) and publishing company

15.  Pages used
• Try to put information into your own words. It is helpful to paraphrase the information in
your own words while you are taking notes to avoid plagiarism later. If you do take quotes
directly from the source, make sure you make a note of that.
• You should also be making notes about specific conclusions that you are drawing from the
material.
• Look specifically for details that support your thesis or question. Sometimes background
information is also necessary.
Step 4: Construct an Outline : Once you have collected all of the research, it may be helpful
to organize your thoughts with an outline. To construct an outline, you must group your notes
together and match information that fits together. An outline should be formatted in this
manner:
I. Introduction (Thesis Statement)
II. Main heading/idea of paragraph #1
a. Supporting detail 1
b. Supporting detail 2
c. Supporting detail 3
III. Main heading/idea of paragraph #2
a. Supporting detail 1
b. Supporting detail 2
c. Supporting detail 3
IV. Main heading/idea of paragraph #3
a. Supporting detail 1
b. Supporting detail 2
c. Supporting detail 3
V. Conclusion
Try to ensure that each paragraph contains approximately the same amount of information.
Depending upon how organized your outline is, you should be able to write your paper
directly from the information in your outline.
Step 5: Write a Draft Now that you have organized your research material, the next step
will be writing the first draft. Keep in mind that you will write multiple drafts, so do not put
excessive pressure on the first one. Some things to keep in mind when writing a draft:
• Try to write with your own voice. Don‘t just spit out researched information. Add your
own conclusions and thoughts.

16. • Remember to cite your sources when you use them, even in a draft.
• Try to keep your information as organized as possible. That will help the reader understand
what you are trying to say.
• Once you have written a draft, proofread it! Have a peer respond to it or bring it to the
Writing Center to have a tutor help you with it.
Step 6: Write a Final Draft : After you have revised your initial drafts, you should compose
a final draft. This draft should have very few errors, have a clear organization, and be
formatted correctly. Before you hand in your paper, you should make sure you have the
following elements:
1) A cover page stating the course information, the title of your paper, and your name.
2) The final, revised, copy of your paper with any formatting necessary (Footnotes, page
numbers, citations, etc.).
3) A works cited page listing the bibliographical information for each of your sources.
DESIGN OF PARPER USING TEMPLATE
There are common rules in writing academic papers, and researchers should follow
these. Here are some of simple and basic guidelines for students in preparing your research
papers.
1. Typing
All the basic text should be double-spaced, however, footnotes, references, tables,
figures and illustrations may be single-spaced. Triple spacing should be used around
mathematical expressions. Pages should be numbered consecutively, centered at the bottom
of each pages throughout text, excluding the title page.
2. Title Page
Title page of the text must include title, author‘s name and title (name of the
university or college, the department), and the date. Although the title page counts as page 1,
the number is not shown on it.
3. Text

17. 3. 1 Composition of the Body
The body of the paper is usually separated into well-defined division, such as chapters
and sections. Usually it begins with an introduction, which may be called chapter 1, and ends
with an conclusion. Chapters may be divided into sections, which may in turn be divided in to
subsections, and so on. In case of thesis, you have to insert abstract, preface and table of
contents before introduction. Each of the chapter should begin on a new page.
3. 2 Appendix
An Appendix is a group of related items, for example, may contain tables too detailed
for text presentation, a large group of illustrations or figures, technical notes on method or
case studies too long to put into the text. All appendixes go at the end of paper, not at the
ends of chapters. Materials of different categories should be placed in separate appendixes.
Each is given a number or a letter, such as Appendix 1, etc.
3. 3 Bibliography or Reference List
The bibliography or reference list is the last part of the paper. Usually it listed by an
alphabetical order by family names of authors. It is meant to identify a work in full
bibliographical detail: name(s) of author(s), date of publication, full title, place, and
publisher. When you make a bibliography, you should follow these rules:
 A list of works by one author may be arranged in chronological order rather
than in alphabetical order.
 Single-spaced with one blank line between entries. The first line of each entry
is flush left, and any runover lines are indented five spaces.
 Where there are two or more authors‘ names, only the first is inverted in the
bibliography, in order to alphabetize the item. The names following are in
normal order, given name or initials first and family name last.
 Whereas commas and parentheses separate the elements in a note, in a
bibliography entry periods are used at the end of each main part: author‘s
name, title of work, and facts of publication. (A single space should be left
after each period.) Bibliographical references to periodicals, however, do use
parentheses around dates of publication following volume numbers.
 Page numbers are listed in bibliography entries only when the item is part of a
whole work – a chapter in a book or an article in a periodical. When given,

18. page numbers must be inclusive – first and last pages of the relevant section.
When an article is continued at the back of a journal or magazine, however,
only its first page should be given
3. 4 Abbreviations
 The trend is strongly away form the use of periods, especially in uppercase
abbreviations. The periods have been left wherever they have traditionally
appeared. However, it is well to use periods after lowercase abbreviations that
spell words (e.g., in., act., no.). A period and a space are used after the initials
of personal names (e.g., N.Y., Ph.D., N.Dak., U.S.), however, there should be
no space after that period.
 The writer who must form new abbreviations for a paper should spell out all
the words when they appear on the text for the first time. This should be
applied when organizations (the names of government agencies, network
broadcasting companies, associations, fraternal and service organizations,
unions, and other groups) are abbreviated, except definite article like IMF,
OECD.
3. 5 Quotations
Quotations must correspond exactly to the original working, spelling, and
punctuation. Direct quotations require double quotation marks at beginning and end. A prose
quotation of two or more sentences that runs to eight or more lines of text in a paper should
be treated as a block quotation, set off from the text in single-spacing and indented in its
entirety four spaces from the left margin, with no quotation marks at the begging or end. If
the quoted passage itself contains a quotation that is set off with double quotation marks, they
must be changed to single quotation marks. In a block quotation, however, double quotation
marks within the original matter are retained. Note that the source and page numbers directly
follows the terminal punctuation of the quotation. Changes within quotations must be
indicated: use brackets to identify insertions; use ellipses ( . . . ) to show omissions. Also it
should be indicated where emphasis has been added. 4. Tables The conventions governing
the arrangement of the various elements of a statistical table are accepted by many who make
frequent use of tables. Consequently, it is wise to follow existing fashions in the basics of
tabular presentation.

19. 4. 1 Numbering
Every table should be numbered with an arabic numeral and given a title, even though
there may be few tables in the paper. The order in which the tables are mentioned in the text
determines the numbering, which continues straight through all chapters.
Tables in an appendix should be numbered separately from the tables in the text, as
A1, A2, and so on.
4. 2 Position
 Ideally, each table should come as close as possible after the first reference to
it. If space permits, however, it is best to finish the paragraph of text in which
the reference occurs before inserting the table. If a table cannot be
accommodated in the space remaining on a given page, continue the text to
make a full page and place the table at the top of the next page.
 If a table appears on a text page, three blank lines should be left above it and
three blank lines below.
4. 3 Size and Shape
In most tables the columns run the long way on the page. A table may occupy the full
width of the page or less than the full width. In either case, each table must be centered
horizontally on the page.
When a table is long and narrow, space may be saved and appearance enhanced by
doubling it up – dividing it into equal parts and placing them side by side, repeating the stub
and the column heads (see SAMPLE TABLE 1). A vertical rule separates the two sides.
If a table is too wide for the page, it should be turned lengthwide (broadside table; see
SAMPLE TABLE 2). No text should be placed on a page containing a broadside table. The
page number appears in its usual place as on other text pages.
A table too wide to be accommodated broadside may be arranged vertically on two
facing pages. This is done by turning the first page over so that the text is on the back and
thus faces the next pate (the front of the first page remains blank). If software will not
automatically generate a wide table on facing pages, it may be possible to construct two table

20. sections that can be mounted on opposite pages and then photocopied. A better solution
might be to print out the table in smaller type or to reduce a standard printout
photographically.
4. 4 Continued Tables
Long tables may be continued from page to page. The table number and the title are
placed at the beginning of the table; the table number only is given on succeeding pages,
written, for example, ―Table 2—Continued‖. Ordinarily the column headings are repeated on
every page, except that in a continued broadside table in which the pages face each other, the
headings need not be repeated on the second page (and the fourth, sixth, etc.). In a table that
is continued, the bottom rule is omitted except on the last page, at the end of the table.
4. 5 Title
 Place the table number above the table at the left margin; add a period and
continue with the title, running the first line and succeeding full lines the width
of the table, single-spaced, and centering the last, shortest line: Table 21.
Probable rate of damage per foot-candle for thirty light sources expressed in
percentage relative to zenith day
 The title should be substantival in grammatical form. Avoid relative clauses in
favor of participles. Not Number of Families That Subscribe to Weekly News
Magazines But rather, Families Subscribing to Weekly News Magazines
 The table may carry a subheading, often in parentheses: Table 36. Investment
in Automobiles since 1900 (in Thousands of Dollars)
4. 6 Column Headings
In typing column heads, leave at least two spaces between the longest lines in
adjacent headings. The width of the column headings generally determines the total width of
a table, so they should be kept as brief as possible. Use either headline- or sentence-style
capitalization, and type runover lines flush left. Spanner and cut-in heads, however, must be
centered above the columns they pertain to. The column head with the most lines defines the
vertical space available for all the heads. In typing, it is simplest to align the last lines of all
the other heads horizontally with the last line of the longest one. Any subheads are typed on
the line below this one. Rules running the full width of the table are customarily typed or
drawn above and below the column heads and any spanners used.

21. 4. 7 Footnotes
Footnotes to a table are of four general kinds and should appear in this order: (1)
source notes, (2) other general notes, (3) notes on specific parts of the table, and (4) notes on
level of probability. Footnotes are typed flush left below the body of the table. Double-space
between items, single-space within. Leave a blank line between the table‘s closing rule and
the first note. Three blank lines separate notes from any continuation of the text following a
table.
4. 8 Ruling
It is increasingly common to omit all vertical rules, even in very large tables, and this
is acceptable if columns are appropriately spaced. Each ruled table should, however, have a
horizontal rule at the top, above the column heads, and a horizontal rule at the end, above any
notes. There are no vertical rules at the sides of a table.
5. Reference List of This Guideline and for Further Reference
CALCULATION OF IMPACT FACTOR
Impact Factor - The impact factor (IF) is a measure of the frequency with which the
average article in a journal has been cited in a particular year. It is used to measure the
importance or rank of a journal by calculating the times it's articles are cited.
How Impact Factor is Calculated?
The calculation is based on a two-year period and involves dividing the number of times
articles were cited by the number of articles that are citable.
Calculation of 2010 IF of a journal:
A = the number of times articles published in 2008 and 2009 were cited by indexed journals
during 2010.
B = the total number of "citable items" published in 2008 and 2009.
A/B = 2010 impact factor
CITATION INDEX
A citation index is a kind of bibliographic database, an index of citations between
publications, allowing the user to easily establish which later documents cite which earlier
documents. A form of citation index is first found in 12th-century Hebrew religious literature.

22. Legal citation indexes are found in the 18th century and were made popular by citators such
as Shepard's Citations (1873). In 1960, Eugene Garfield's Institute for Scientific
Information (ISI) introduced the first citation index for papers published in academic
journals, first the Science Citation Index (SCI), and later the Social Sciences Citation
Index (SSCI) and the Arts and Humanities Citation Index (AHCI). The first automated
citation indexing was done by CiteSeer in 1997. Other sources for such data include Google
Scholar and Elsevier's Scopus.
General-purpose academic citation indexes include:
 ISI (now part of Thomson Reuters) publishes the ISI citation indexes in print
and compact disc. They are now generally accessed through the Web under the
name Web of Science.
 Elsevier publishes Scopus, available online only, which similarly combines subject
searching with citation browsing and tracking in the sciences and social sciences
 Indian Citation Index is an online citation data which covers peer reviewed journals
published from India. It covers major subject areas such as scientific, technical, medical,
and social sciences and includes arts and humanities. The citation database is the first of
its kind in India.
Each of these offers an index of citations between publications and a mechanism to establish
which documents cite which other documents. They differ widely in cost: the ISI databases
and Scopus are available by subscription (generally to libraries).
In addition, CiteSeer and Google Scholar are freely available online.
ISBN AND ISSN
The ISSN (International Standard Serial Number) and ISBN (International Standard
Book Number) are numeric identification codes. The ISSN, which consists of eight digits, is
used to identify serial publications, whilst the ISBN, which consists of ten digits, is used to
identify books. Whilst the ISSN is optional (the publisher is not legally bound to use it), the
ISBN is mandatory if the book in question falls within the scope of ISBN applicability.
The ISSN and ISBN are not incompatible: some publications may receive both, as in
the case of yearbooks, series of monographs, etc. The ISSN identifies the series whilst the
ISBN identifies the specific instalment or volume. Therefore, the ISSN remains the same for
successive instalments or volumes within a series (provided that the title is not changed),

23. whilst the ISBN is different for each of them. In the case of publications that receive both an
ISSN and an ISBN, it is advisable to print them together, preceding each number with the
respective abbreviations.
PROJECT PROPOSAL
A proposal is a request for financial assistance to implement a project. The proposal
outlines the plan of the implementing organisation about the project, giving extensive
information about the intention, for implementing it, the ways to manage it and the results to
be delivered from it (FUNDS FOR NGOS 2010).The following guidelines are designed to
help you prepare your full proposal. How well you plan the action is critical to the success of
the project.
A project proposal is a detailed description of a series of activities aimed at solving a
certain problem (NEBIU 2002). In order to be successful, the document should:
 provide a logical presentation of a research idea
 illustrate the significance of the idea
 show the idea's relationship to past actions
 articulate the activities for the proposed project
Designing a project is a process consisting of two elements, which are equally
important and thus essential to forming a solid project proposal:
 project planning (formulation of project elements)
 proposal writing (converting the plan into a project document)
The project proposal should be a detailed and directed manifestation of the project
design. It is a means of presenting the project to the outside world in a format that is
immediately recognised and accepted.
Getting Ready to Start a Project Proposal
 From vision to proposal: The first step is to decide what the problem is and develop a
rough idea (vision) of how this could be solved. This vision is then to be transformed
into an idea for a specific project proposal. A logical framework may help you to
structure this idea in a systematic way, and clearly define the aim, purpose, outputs,

24. activities, means, costs and the methodologies for monitoring and evaluation, and will
thus from the basis for the preparation of the narrative of the proposal. Remember that
your idea may have to fit certain requirements if you are answering to a call for
proposals, and that it must also fit local policies and frameworks.
 Identify potential funding options: It is necessary to find out in advance what sources
of funding are available, through governments, international cooperation agencies,
some international NGOs or private foundations.
 Build a project proposal team: a leader will be needed to manage the proposal
development in an efficient way, and therefore it is advisable to assign the lead role to
one specific person. This person is then responsible for the coordination of the overall
proposal development, for communication with potential funders and for making sure
that all different pieces of input are brought together in a consistent and coherent text.
Experts with more detailed technical knowledge might be part of the team, or simply
contribute to an initial brainstorming session. Furthermore, the budget should be
compiled in close cooperation with staff from the financial department. Input
from stakeholders or other specialists with different backgrounds helps bring in the
necessary expertise to the project.
 Hold a kick-off meeting: It is helpful to discuss and develop the proposal in a small
team and share drafts with experts of all relevant disciplines not just from within the
administration, but also from outside it. Input from stakeholders or other specialists
with different backgrounds helps bring in the necessary expertise, but also a larger
variety of ideas on how to solve a particular issue and achieve the previously agreed
objectives.
Proposal Writing
The proposal format might sometimes be of importance for the donor. Source:
unknown
―The requirements of content and format of proposals differ noticeably from one
sponsoring agency to another. While some may provide their own application forms to be

25. filled, and others may request on-line submission of proposals, others will accept a proposal
in any format as long as it features the necessary information, and does not contradict their
conditions‖ (AUB 2010).
Proposed Format for a Full Project Proposal
(Adapted from NEBIU 2002)
A full proposal should have the following parts:
 Title page: A title page should appear on proposals longer than three to four pages.
The title page should indicate the project title, the name of the lead organisation (and
potential partners, if any), the place and date of project preparation and the name of
the donor agency to whom the proposal is addressed.
 Project title: The project title should be short, concise, and preferably refer to a
certain key project result or the leading project activity. Project titles that are too long
or too general fail to give the reader an effective snapshot of what is inside.
 Abstract/Executive Summary: Many readers lack the time needed to read the whole
project proposal. It is therefore useful to insert a short project summary, an abstract or
executive summary. The abstract should include: the problem statement, the project‘s
objectives, implementing organisations; key project activities; and potentially the total
project budget. Theoretically, the abstract should be compiled after the relevant items
already exist in their long form. For a small project the abstract may not be longer
than 10 lines. Bigger projects often provide abstracts as long as two pages.
 Context: This part of the project describes the social, economic, political and cultural
background from which the project is initiated. It should contain relevant data from
research carried out in the project planning phase or collected from other sources.
 Project justification: A rationale should be provided for the project. Due to its
importance, this section is sometimes divided into four or more sub-sections:
o Problem statement: The problem statement provides a description of the
specific problem(s) the project is trying to solve, in order to ―make a case‖ for
the project. Furthermore, the project proposal should point out why a certain

26. issue is a problem for the community or society as a whole, i.e. what negative
implications affect the target group. There should also be an explanation of the
needs of the target group that appear as a direct consequence of the described
problem.
o Priority needs: The needs of the target group that have arisen as a direct
negative impact of the problem should be prioritised. An explanation as to
how this decision was reached must also be included.
o The proposed approach (type of intervention): The project proposal should
describe the strategy chosen for solving the problem and precisely how it
will lead to improvement.
o The implementing organisation: This section should describe the capabilities
of your organisation by referring to its capacity and previous project record.
Describe why exactly your organisation is the most appropriate to run the
project, its connexion to the local community, the constituency behind the
organisation and what kind of expertise the organisation can provide. If other
partners are involved in implementation provide some information on their
capacity as well.
o Project aims: This information should be obtained from the Logframe Matrix,
including the project goal (a general aim that should explain what the core
problem is and why the project is important, i.e. what the long-term benefits to
the target group are), project purpose (that should address the core problem in
terms of the benefits to be received by the project beneficiaries or target group
as a direct result of the project) and the outputs (i.e. results describe the
services or products to be delivered to the intended beneficiaries).
 Target group: define the target group and show how it will benefit from the project.
The project should provide a detailed description of the size and characteristics of the
target groups, and especially of direct project beneficiaries.
 Project implementation: The implementation plan should describe activities and
resource allocation in as much detail as possible. It is exceptionally important to
provide a good overview of who is going to implement the project‘s activities, as well
as when and where. The implementation plan may be divided into two key elements:

27. the activity plan and the resource plan. The activity plan should include specific
information and explanations of each of the planned project activities. The duration of
the project should be clearly stated, with considerable detail on the beginning and the
end of the project. In general, two main formats are used to express the activity plan: a
simple table (a simple table with columns for activities, sub-activities, tasks, timing
and responsibility in a clear and readily understandable format) and the Gantt
chart (a universal format for presenting activities in certain times frames, shows the
dependence and sequence for each activity, see project management for more info.
The resource plan should provide information on the means necessary to undertake
the project. Cost categories are established at this stage in order to aggregate and
summarise the cost information for budgeting.
 Budget: An itemised summary of an organisation‘s expected income and expenses
over a specified period of time.
 Monitoring and evaluation: The basis for monitoring is set when the indicators for
results are set. The project proposal should indicate: how and when the project
management team will conduct activities to monitor the project‘s progress; which
methods will be used to monitor and evaluate; and who will do the evaluation.
 Reporting: The schedule of project progress and financial report could be set in the
project proposal. Often these obligations are determined by the standard requirements
of the donor agency. The project report may be compiled in different versions, with
regard to the audience they are targeting.
 Management and personnel: A brief description should be given of the project
personnel, the individual roles each one has assumed, and the communication
mechanisms that exist between them. All the additional information (such as CVs)
should be attached to the annexes.
Applicability
Proposals are prepared to apply for external funds for the implementation of a project.
Most grant applications ask for the same information, but they often have different formats.
Some will have a list of questions. Others will ask for a ―narrative‖ — the story of your
project.

28. Advantages
 A proposal is an essential marketing document that helps cultivate an initial
professional relationship between an organisation and a donor over a project to be
implemented
 A proposal facilitates appropriate words for the conception of an idea
 The proposal has a framework that establishes ideas formally for a clear
understanding of the project for the donor
 Successful proposals mean financial aid for the organisation to grow for the
replication of project and ideas
Disadvantages
 Planning problems: Although a good idea exists, yet when we try to plan it out
extensively, we face many unexpected challenges
 There are often tight deadlines, and proposals may be rejected