Introduc on to Science
12
The Scientific Method
Observations
Variables
Controls
Data Analysis
Calculations
Data Collection
Percent Error
Scientific Reasoning
Writing a Lab Report
Socrates (469 B.C. - 399 B.C.), Plato (427 B.C. - 347 B.C.), and Aristotle (384
B.C. - 322 B.C.) are among the most famous of the Greek philosophers
(Figure 1). Plato was a student of Socrates, and Aristotle was a student of Pla-
to. These three philosophers are considered to be the greatest thinkers of
their time.
Aristotle’s views on science profoundly shaped medieval academics, and his
influence extended into the Renaissance (14th - 16th century). His opinions
were the authority on science well into the 1300s. Unfortunately, the philoso-
pher’s method was logical thinking and did not involve making direct observa-
tions on the natural world. As a result, many of Aristotle’s opinions were incor-
rect. Although he was extremely intelligent, he used a method for determining
the nature of science that was insufficient for the task. For example, in Aris-
totle’s opinion, men were bigger than women. Therefore, he made the de-
duction that men would have more teeth than women. It is assumed that he
never actually looked into the mouths of both men and women and counted
their teeth. If he had, he would have found that males and females have ex-
actly the same number of teeth (Figure 2).
In the 16th and 17th centuries, innovative thinkers began developing a new
way to investigate the world around them. They were developing a method
that relied upon making observations of phenomena and trying to explain
why that phenomena occurred. From these techniques, the scientific method
was born. The scientific method is a process of investigation that involves
Figure 1: Neoclassical statue
of ancient Greek philosopher,
Plato, in front of the Academy
of Athens in Greece.
Figure 2: Humans—male and
female—have 20 baby teeth
and 32 permanent teeth.
13
experimentation and observation to acquire new knowledge, solve problems, and answer questions. Scien-
tists eventually perfected the methods and reduced it to a series of steps (Figure 3).
Today, the scientific method is used as a systematic approach to solving problems. Science begins with ob-
servations. Once enough observations or results from preliminary library or experimental research have been
collected, a hypothesis can be constructed. Experiments then either verify or disprove the hypothesis. If
enough evidence can support a hypothesis, the hypothesis can become a theory, or proven fact. Theories
can be further refined by other hypotheses and experimentation. An example of this is how we further refine
our knowledge of germ theory by learning about specific pathogens. A scientific law is a summary of observa-
tions in which there are no current exceptions using the most recent technology. It can be a general state-
ment, like the Law of Gravity (what goes up m.
The Scientific MethodSteps in the Scientific MethodThere is a .docxssusera34210
The Scientific Method
Steps in the Scientific Method
There is a great deal of variation in the specific techniques scientists use explore the natural world. However, the following steps characterize the majority of scientific investigations:
Step 1: Make observations
Step 2: Propose a hypothesis to explain observations
Step 3: Test the hypothesis with further observations or experiments
Step 4: Analyze data
Step 5: State conclusions about hypothesis based on data analysis
Each of these steps is explained briefly below, and in more detail later in this section.
Step 1: Make observations
A scientific inquiry typically starts with observations. Often, simple observations will trigger a question in the researcher's mind.
Example: A biologist frequently sees monarch caterpillars feeding on milkweed plants, but rarely sees them feeding on other types of plants. She wonders if it is because the caterpillars prefer milkweed over other food choices.
Step 2: Propose a hypothesis
The researcher develops a hypothesis (singular) or hypotheses (plural) to explain these observations. A hypothesis is a tentative explanation of a phenomenon or observation(s) that can be supported or falsified by further observations or experimentation.
Example: The researcher hypothesizes that monarch caterpillars prefer to feed on milkweed compared to other common plants. (Notice how the hypothesis is a statement, not a question as in step 1.)
Step 3: Test the hypothesis
The researcher makes further observations and/or may design an experimentto test the hypothesis. An experiment is a controlled situation created by a researcher to test the validity of a hypothesis. Whether further observations or an experiment is used to test the hypothesis will depend on the nature of the question and the practicality of manipulating the factors involved.
Example: The researcher sets up an experiment in the lab in which a number of monarch caterpillars are given a choice between milkweed and a number of other common plants to feed on.
Step 4: Analyze data
The researchersummarizes and analyzes the information, or data, generated by these further observations or experiments.
Example: In her experiment, milkweed was chosen by caterpillars 9 times out of 10 over all other plant selections.
Step 5: State conclusions
The researcher interprets the results of experiments or observations and forms conclusions about the meaning of these results. These conclusions are generally expressed as probability statements about their hypothesis.
Example: She concludes that when given a choice, 90 percent of monarch caterpillars prefer to feed on milkweed over other common plants.
Often, the results of one scientific study will raise questions that may be addressed in subsequent research. For example, the above study might lead the researcher to wonder why monarchs seem to prefer to feed on milkweed, and she may plan additional experiments to explore this question. For example, perhaps the milkweed has higher ...
What do you think will likely happen when a cell containing 1 suc.docxalanfhall8953
What do you think will likely happen when a cell containing 1% sucrose is placed in an environment with 50% sucrose?
I would guess that the weigh of this experiment concentration will low the sucrose after they are mix togther.
I would also like you to consider the following terms as they relate to this experiment:
Tonicity: The ability of a solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water.
The tonicity of a solution mainly depends on its concentration of solutes that cannot cross the plasma membrane relative to the concentrations of solutes in the cell.
· Isotonic: An environment of equal solute concentration to the cell. In this environment, you will not likely see much of a change in cell size. Will water still move randomly across the plasma membrane?
I will guess that the water would moved randomly because every living cell exists in a liquid environment that it needs to survive. One of the most important functions of the cell membrane is to regulate the movement of dissolved molecules from the liquid on one side of the membrane to the liquid on the other side.
· Hypotonic: This term represents an environment that contains a lower solute concentration than the cell. In this case, water will move into the cell, the cell will swell and may burst. To test your knowledge from the last module, what cellular structure do plants have that will provide protection from burstinTop of Form 1
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Introduction to the Scientific Method
What is you favorite Skittles color? Do you sort your Skittles by color and eat one color at a time, or do you eat them randomly?
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Scientific method
1. Overview of the Scientific Method
The scientific method is a process for experimentation that is used to explore observations and answer questions.
Scientists use the scientific method to search for cause and effect relationships in nature. In other words, they
design an experiment so that changes to one item cause something else to vary in a predictable way.
Just as it does for a professional scientist, the scientific method will help you to focus your science fair project
question, construct a hypothesis, design, execute, and evaluate your experiment.
Ask a Question: The scientific method starts when you ask a question about something that you observe: How,
What, When, Who, Which, Why, or Where?
And, in order for the scientific method to answer the question it must be about something that you can measure,
preferably with a number.
Do Background Research: Rather than starting from scratch in putting together a plan for answering your question,
you want to be a savvy scientist using library and Internet research to help you find the best way to do things and
insure that you don't repeat mistakes from the past.
Construct a Hypothesis: A hypothesis is an educated guess about how things work:
"If _____[I do this] _____, then _____[this]_____ will happen."
You must state your hypothesis in a way that you can easily measure, and of course, your hypothesis should be
constructed in a way to help you answer your original question.
Test Your Hypothesis by Doing an Experiment: Your experiment tests whether your hypothesis is true or false. It is
important for your experiment to be a fair test. You conduct a fair test by making sure that you change only one factor
at a time while keeping all other conditions the same.
You should also repeat your experiments several times to make sure that the first results weren't just an accident.
Analyze Your Data and Draw a Conclusion: Once your experiment is complete, you collect your measurements
and analyze them to see if your hypothesis is true or false.
Scientists often find that their hypothesis was false, and in such cases they will construct a new hypothesis starting
the entire process of the scientific method over again. Even if they find that their hypothesis was true, they may want
to test it again in a new way.
Communicate Your Results: To complete your science fair project you will communicate your results to others in a
final report and/or a display board. Professional scientists do almost exactly the same thing by publishing their final
report in a scientific journal or by presenting their results on a poster at a scientific meeting.
OBSERVATION
This step could also be called "research." It is the first stage in understanding the problem you have chosen. After you
decide on your area of science and the specific question you want to ask, you will need to research everything that
you can find about the problem. You can collect information on your science fair topic from your own experiences,
books, the internet, or even smaller "unofficial" experiments. This initial research should play a big part in the science
fair idea that you finally choose.
Let's take the example of the tomatoes in the garden. You like to garden, and notice that some tomatoes are bigger
than others and wonder why. Because of this personal experience and an interest in the problem, you decide to learn
more about what makes plants grow.
For this stage of the Scientific Method, it's important to use as many sources as you can find. The more information
you have on your science fair project topic, the better the design of your experiment is going to be, and the better
your science fair project is going to be overall. Also try to get information from your teachers or librarians, or
professionals who know something about your science fair topic. They can help to guide you to a solid experimental
setup.
2. HYPOTHESIS
The next stage of the Scientific Method is known as the "hypothesis." This word basically means "a possible solution
to a problem, based on knowledge and research." The hypothesis is a simple statement that defines what you think
the outcome of your experiment will be.
All of the first stage of the Scientific Method -- the observation, or research stage -- is designed to help you express a
problem in a single question ("Does the amount of sunlight in a garden affect tomato size?") and propose an answer
to the question based on what you know. The experiment that you will design is done to test the hypothesis.
Using the example of the tomato experiment, here is an example of a hypothesis:
TOPIC: "Does the amount of sunlight a tomato plant receives affect the size of the tomatoes?"
HYPOTHESIS: "I believe that the more sunlight a tomato plant receives, the larger the tomatoes will grow.
This hypothesis is based on:
(1) Tomato plants need sunshine to make food through photosynthesis, and logically, more sun means more food,
and;
(2) Through informal, exploratory observations of plants in a garden, those with more sunlight appear to grow bigger.
PREDICTION
The hypothesis is your general statement of how you think the scientific phenomenon in question works. Your
prediction lets you get specific -- how will you demonstrate that your hypothesis is true? The experiment that you will
design is done to test the prediction.
An important thing to remember during this stage of the scientific method is that once you develop a hypothesis and a
prediction, you shouldn't change it, even if the results of your experiment show that you were wrong.
An incorrect prediction does NOT mean that you "failed." It just means that the experiment brought some new facts to
light that maybe you hadn't thought about before. The judges at your science fair will not take points off simply
because your results don't match up with your hypothesis.
Continuing our tomato plant example, a good prediction would be: Increasing the amount of sunlight tomato plants in
my experiment receive will cause an increase in their size compared to identical plants that received the same care
but less light.
EXPERIMENT
This is the part of the scientific method that tests your hypothesis. An experiment is a tool that you design to find out if
your ideas about your topic are right or wrong.
It is absolutely necessary to design a science fair experiment that will accurately test your hypothesis. The
experiment is the most important part of the scientific method. It's the logical process that lets scientists learn about
the world. On the next page, we'll discuss the ways that you can go about designing a science fair experiment idea.
CONCLUSION
The final step in the scientific method is the conclusion. This is a summary of the experiment's results, and how those
results match up to your hypothesis.
You have two options for your conclusions: based on your results, either (1) you CAN REJECT the hypothesis, or (2)
you CAN NOT REJECT the hypothesis.
This is an important point. You cannot PROVE the hypothesis with a single experiment, because there is a chance
that you made an error somewhere along the way. What you can say is that your results SUPPORT the original
hypothesis.
If your original hypothesis didn't match up with the final results of your experiment, don't change the hypothesis.
Instead, try to explain what might have been wrong with your original hypothesis. What information did you not have
originally that caused you to be wrong in your prediction? What are the reasons that the hypothesis and experimental
results didn't match up?
Remember, a science fair experiment isn't a failure if it proves your hypothesis wrong or if your prediction isn't
accurate. No one will take points off for that. A science fair experiment is only a failure if its design is flawed. A flawed
experiment is one that (1) doesn't keep its variables under control, and (2) doesn't sufficiently answer the question