This chapter discusses physical, cognitive, and language development in middle and late childhood. Physically, children experience continued growth and motor skill improvement. Their brains develop increased abilities for logical thinking and memory. Cognitively, children progress from concrete to more abstract thought. They also enhance their use of learning strategies and intelligence. The chapter also reviews disabilities, health issues, and language development during these stages.

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PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE AND LATE
CHILDHOOD
7
ESSENTIALS OF LIFE-SPAN
DEVELOPMENT
JOHN W. SANTROCK
3e

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7-2
CHAPTER OUTLINE
• Physical changes and health
• Children with disabilities
• Cognitive changes
• Language development

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7-3
PHYSICAL CHANGES AND HEALTH
• Body growth and change
• The brain
• Motor development
• Exercise
• Health, illness, and disease

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7-4
BODY GROWTH AND CHANGE
• Growth averages 2–3 inches per year
• Weight gain averages 5–7 pounds a year
• Muscle mass and strength increase as “baby fat”
decreases

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7-5
THE BRAIN
• Brain volume stabilizes
• Significant changes in structures and regions occur,
especially in the prefrontal cortex
• Activation of some brain areas increase while others
decrease

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7-6
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
• Motor skills become smoother and more
coordinated
• Boys outperform girls in gross motor skills involving
large muscle activity
• Improvement of fine motor skills during middle and
late childhood due to increased myelination of the
central nervous system

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7-7
EXERCISE
• Higher level of physical activity is linked to:
• Lower level of metabolic disease risk based on measures :
• Cholesterol, waist circumference, and insulin levels

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7-8
HEALTH, ILLNESS, AND DISEASE
• Middle and late childhood is a time of excellent
health
• Disease and death are less prevalent
• Many face health problems that harm their development

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7-9
HEALTH, ILLNESS, AND DISEASE
• Overweight children
• Causes of children being overweight
• Heredity and environmental contexts
• Consequences of being overweight
• Diabetes, hypertension, and elevated blood cholesterol levels
• Intervention programs

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7-10
HEALTH, ILLNESS, AND DISEASE
• Cancer
• Second leading cause of death in children 5–14 years old
• Most common child cancer is leukemia
• Children with cancer are surviving longer because of
advancements in cancer treatment

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7-11
FIGURE 7.1 - TYPES OF CANCER IN
CHILDREN

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7-12
FIGURE 7.2 - U.S. CHILDREN WITH A DISABILITY
WHO RECEIVE SPECIAL EDUCATION SERVICES

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7-13
CHILDREN WITH DISABILITIES
• The scope of disabilities
• Educational issues

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7-14
THE SCOPE OF DISABILITIES
• Learning disability: Difficulty in learning that involves
understanding or using spoken or written language,
and the difficulty can appear in listening, thinking,
reading, writing, and spelling
• Dyslexia - Severe impairment in the ability to read and spell
• Dysgraphia - Difficulty in handwriting
• Dyscalculia - Developmental arithmetic disorder

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7-15
THE SCOPE OF DISABILITIES
• Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD):
Characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and
impulsivity
• Number of children diagnosed has increased
• Possible causes
• Genetics
• Brain damage during prenatal or postnatal development
• Cigarette and alcohol exposure during prenatal development
• Low birth weight

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7-16
FIGURE 7.4 - REGIONS OF THE BRAIN IN WHICH
CHILDREN WITH ADHD HAD A DELAYED PEAK IN
THE THICKNESS OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX

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7-17
THE SCOPE OF DISABILITIES
• Autism spectrum disorders (ASD): Range from
autistic disorder to Asperger syndrome
• Autistic disorder - Onset in the first three years of life
• Deficiencies in social relationships, abnormalities in
communication, restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns
of behavior
• Asperger syndrome - Good verbal language skills
• Milder nonverbal language problems
• Restricted range of interests and relationships

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7-18
EDUCATIONAL ISSUES
• Individualized Education Plan (IEP): Written
statement that is specifically tailored for the
disabled student
• Least Restrictive Environment (LRE): Setting that is as
similar as possible to the one in which non-disabled
children are educated
• Inclusion: Educating a child with special education
needs full-time in the regular classroom

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7-19
COGNITIVE CHANGES
• Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory
• Information processing
• Intelligence

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7-20
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL
THEORY
• Concrete operational stage
• Ages 7 to 11
• Children can perform concrete operations and reason
logically, and are able to classify things into different sets
• Seriation: Ability to order stimuli along a quantitative
dimension
• Transitivity: Ability to logically combine relations to
understand certain conclusions

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7-21
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL
THEORY
• Evaluating Piaget’s concrete operational stage
• Concrete operational abilities do not appear in synchrony
• Education and culture exert strong influences on children’s
development

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7-22
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL
THEORY
• Neo-Piagetians: Argue that Piaget got some things
right but that his theory needs considerable revision
• Elaborated on Piaget’s theory, giving more emphasis to:
• How children use attention, memory, and strategies to process
information

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7-23
INFORMATION PROCESSING
• Long-term memory: A relatively permanent and
unlimited type of memory
• Increases with age during middle and late childhood
• Knowledge and expertise
• Experts have acquired extensive knowledge about a particular
content area

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7-24
INFORMATION PROCESSING
• Strategies: Deliberate mental activities that improve
the processing of information
• Elaboration: Extensive processing of the information
• Engage in mental imagery
• Understanding the material
• Repeat with variation
• Embed memory-relevant language

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7-25
INFORMATION PROCESSING
• Fuzzy trace theory: Considering two types of
memory representations:
• Verbatim memory trace
• Gist
• Thinking:
• Involves manipulating and transforming information in
memory

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7-26
INFORMATION PROCESSING
• Creative thinking: Ability to think in novel and
unusual ways
• Come up with unique solutions to problems
• Convergent thinking: Produces one correct answer
• Kind of thinking tested by standardized intelligence tests
• Divergent thinking: Produces many answers to the same
question
• Creativity

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7-27
INFORMATION PROCESSING
• Metacognition: Cognition about cognition
• Metamemory - Knowledge about memory

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7-28
INTELLIGENCE
• Ability to solve problems and to adapt and learn
from experiences
• Individual differences - Stable, consistent ways in which
people differ from each other
• Binet tests
• Mental age (MA): Individual’s level of mental development
relative to others

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7-29
INTELLIGENCE
• Intelligence quotient (IQ): Person’s mental age divided by
chronological age, multiplied by 100
• Normal distribution: Symmetrical distribution
• Most scores falling in the middle of the possible range of scores
• Few scores appearing toward the extremes of the range
• Wechsler Scales

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7-30
FIGURE 7.6 - THE NORMAL CURVE AND
STANFORD-BINET IQ SCORES

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7-31
FIGURE 7.7 - SAMPLE SUBSCALES OF THE WECHSLER
INTELLIGENCE SCALE FOR CHILDREN-FOURTH
EDITION (WISC-IV)

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7-32
INTELLIGENCE
• Types of intelligence
• Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence
• Analytical intelligence
• Creative intelligence
• Practical intelligence

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7-33
INTELLIGENCE
• Gardner’s eight frames of mind:
• Verbal
• Mathematical
• Spatial
• Bodily-kinesthetic
• Musical
• Interpersonal
• Intrapersonal
• Naturalist
• Evaluating multiple-intelligence approaches

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7-34
INTELLIGENCE
• Culture and intelligence
• Interpreting differences in IQ scores
• Influences of genetics
• Environmental influences
• Group differences
• Culture-fair tests: Designed to be free of cultural bias

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7-35
FIGURE 7.8 - CORRELATION BETWEEN
INTELLIGENCE TEST SCORES AND TWIN STATUS

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7-36
EXTREMES OF INTELLIGENCE
• Mental retardation: Limited mental ability in which
an individual has a low IQ and has difficulty
adapting to everyday life
• Organic retardation: Caused by a genetic disorder or brain
damage
• Cultural-familial retardation: No evidence of organic brain
damage
• IQ is generally between 50 and 70

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7-37
EXTREMES OF INTELLIGENCE
• Gifted: Above-average intelligence and/or superior
talent for something
• Three criteria
• Precocity
• Marching to their own drummer
• A passion to master
• Nature-nurture
• Domain-specific giftedness and development
• Education of children who are gifted

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7-38
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
• Vocabulary, grammar, and metalinguistic
awareness
• Reading
• Bilingualism and second-language learning

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7-39
VOCABULARY, GRAMMAR, AND
METALINGUISTIC AWARENESS
• Middle and late childhood
• Changes occur in the way children’s mental vocabulary is
organized
• Similar advances in grammar skills
• Metalinguistic awareness: Knowledge about
language
• Understanding what a preposition is
• Being able to discuss the sounds of a language

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7-40
READING
• Whole-language approach: Reading instruction
should parallel children’s natural language learning
• Phonics approach: Reading instruction should
teach basic rules for translating written symbols into
sounds

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7-41
BILINGUALISM AND SECOND-
LANGUAGE LEARNING
• Second-language learning
• Bilingualism has a positive effect on children’s cognitive
development
• Subtractive bilingualism
• Bilingual education
• Research supports bilingual education
• Children have difficulty learning a subject when it is taught in a
language they do not understand
• When both languages are integrated in the classroom, children
learn the second language more readily