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Chapter 7 Physical and Cognitive Development in Middle and Late Childhood
Santrock: Essentials of Life-Span Development, 3e IM-7 | 1
© 2014 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any
manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
Chapter 7: Physical and Cognitive Development in Middle and Late
Childhood
Learning Goals
Learning Goal 1: Describe physical changes and health in middle and late childhood.
A. Discuss body growth and change.
B. Explain brain development.
C. Describe motor development.
D. Summarize the influence of exercise on health and development.
E. Discuss health, illness, and disease.
Learning Goal 2: Identify children with different types of disabilities and issues in educating
them.
A. Define and describe the scope of disabilities.
B. Discuss educational issues related to children with disabilities.
Learning Goal 3: Explain cognitive changes in middle and late childhood.
A. Describe and discuss Piaget's theory of cognitive development.
B. Discuss the information-processing theory.
C. Describe and define intelligence.
Learning Goal 4: Discuss language development in middle and late childhood.
A. Discuss vocabulary, grammar, and metalinguistic awareness.
B. Explain the development of reading during middle and late childhood.
C. Discuss bilingualism and second-language learning.
Overview of Resources
Chapter Outline Resources You Can Use
Physical Changes and Health Learning Goal 1: Describe physical changes and
health in middle and late childhood.
Body Growth and Change
The Brain
Motor Development
Exercise
Health, Illness, and Disease
Lecture Suggestion 1: The Long-Term
Consequences of Childhood Obesity
Personal Application 1: That’s My Kid!
Research Project 1: Current Exercise Levels
Interactive Exercise: Sensorimotor Neural
Circuits
Children with Disabilities Learning Goal 2: Identify children with
different types of disabilities and issues in

educating them.
The Scope of Disabilities
Educational Issues
Lecture Suggestion 2: ADHD—An Intolerance
for Childhood Playfulness
Research Project 2: Interviewing Parents of
Children with Disabilities
Cognitive Changes Learning Goal 3: Explain cognitive changes in
middle and late childhood.
Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory
Information Processing
Intelligence
Lecture Suggestion 3: Observational Issues in
Identifying Children with ADHD
Lecture Suggestion 4: Is Being a Child Prodigy a
Blessing or a Curse?
Classroom Activity 1: Time to Tell Time?
Classroom Activity 2: Is Psychology Just
Common Sense?
Classroom Activity 3: Test Anxiety: A Visit
with Teachers
Personal Application 2: Remember the Time…
Personal Application 3: Smart Move
Personal Application 4: Exploring Your
Creativity
Research Project 3: Assessment of a
Preoperational and a Concrete Operational Thinker
Language Development Learning Goal 4: Discuss language development
in middle and late childhood.
Vocabulary, Grammar, and Metalinguistic
Awareness
Reading
Bilingualism and Second-Language Learning
Lecture Suggestion 5: Environmental Influences
on Literacy
Review Classroom Activity 4: Critical-Thinking
Multiple-Choice Questions and Suggested Answers
Classroom Activity 5: Critical-Thinking Essay
Questions and Suggestions for Helping Students
Resources
Lecture Suggestions
Lecture Suggestion 1: The Long-Term Consequences of Childhood Obesity
The purpose of this lecture is to extend the discussion of the long-term physical and psychological
consequences of childhood obesity. Must et al. (1992) have documented morbidity and mortality rates
related to obesity in adolescence. Obese adolescents are at greater risk for death and adult obesity. These

relationships are stronger for females than males. As Santrock discusses, both males and females suffer
psychological and social consequences of childhood obesity (pulmonary problems, hip problems, high
blood pressure and elevated blood cholesterol, low self-esteem, depression, and exclusion from peer
groups).
• Gortmaker et al. (1993) studied the long-term effects of childhood obesity by assessing young adults
who were obese as adolescents. These individuals had less education, less income, and were less
likely to be married than the individuals who were not obese as adolescents. These effects were
apparent despite the statistical control of initial SES and aptitude scores.
• These results cannot be explained by chronic health problems that interfere with academic or career
success. Gortmaker et al. ingeniously compared a group of individuals with chronic health problems
(diabetes, cerebral palsy) with the individuals who had been obese as adolescents. The individuals
with chronic health problems did not suffer the same consequences.
• What could explain the developmental pattern of obese individuals? The authors speculate that the
negative effects of early obesity are more likely due to stigmatization and discrimination.
Overweight individuals are negatively labeled, which reduces their chances of successful career
progression and mate selection.
• Obesity may be an important factor in determining class and success. This speculation calls into
question the long-held assumption of the unidirectional relationship between SES and obesity.
Being overweight is an increasingly prevalent health problem in children (Schiff , 2013; Summerbell &
others, 2012). Being overweight is defined in terms of body mass index (BMI), which is computed by a
formula that takes into account height and weight—children at or above the 97th percentile are included
in the obesity category, at or above the 95th percentile in the overweight category, and children at or
above the 85th percentile are described as at risk for being overweight (Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, 2012a). Over the last three decades, the percentage of U.S. children who are at risk for being
overweight has doubled from 15 percent in the 1970s to almost 30 percent today, and the percentage of
children who are overweight has tripled during this time frame (Orsi, Hale, & Lynch, 2011). 12.1 percent
of 2- to 5-year-old U.S. children are obese. Th at figure is 50 percent higher for 6- to 11-year-old U.S.
children—in 2009–2010, 18 percent of U.S. 6- to 11-year-olds were classified as obese (Ogden & others,
2012). The levels of child obesity, overweight, and risk for being overweight remain far too high and are
expected to increase in the future (Wardlaw & Smith, 2012).
Sources:
Gortmaker, S. L., Must, A., Perrin, J. M., Sobol, A. M., & Dietz, W. H. (1993). Social and economic consequences
of overweight in adolescence and young adulthood. The New England Journal of Medicine, 329, 1008–1012.
Must, A., Jacques, P. F., Dallal, G. E., Bajema, C. J., & Dietz, W. H. (1992). Long-term morbidity and mortality of
overweight adolescents: A follow-up of the Harvard Growth Study of 1922 to 1935. The New England Journal of
Medicine, 327, 1350–1355.
Lecture Suggestion 2: ADHD—An Intolerance for Childhood Playfulness
Learning Goal 2: Identify children with different types of disabilities and issues in educating them.
The purpose of this lecture is to examine Panksepp’s (1998) proposal that attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD) is overdiagnosed and reflects an intolerance for normal childhood behavior. ADHD is
the most common childhood disorder with approximately 15 percent of American children diagnosed (8
million children). This is an increase from 1 percent of the population in 1902 when this disorder was first
recognized. Given that there is no neurological explanation for this increase, Panksepp speculated that the
increase in standardized educational experiences has led to intolerance for normal playfulness.
Children with ADHD are often given psychostimulants which promote attention and markedly reduce
children’s urge to play, especially rough-and-tumble play (Panksepp & others, 1987). This concerned

Panksepp, as we do not fully understand the impact that play has on the developing brain, and there is the
added concern that we do not understand the long-term neurological consequences of psychostimulant
drugs. Could it be that adults want to reduce children’s rambunctiousness because of inadequate space
and limited opportunities for children to express the natural biological need to play? After all, the
biological need to play intrudes into classroom activities when opportunity and space are limited. Thus,
Panksepp proposed that ADHD needs to be reconceptualized as a symptom of contemporary society and
our attempt to control normal playfulness in children and not as a symptom of neurological imbalance or
a disorder.
Is ADHD a normal variant of human diversity?
Given the research on the heritability of temperament and the concordance of symptoms of ADHD for
siblings, Panksepp argued that symptoms of ADHD are natural variations of child playfulness. The
simple criterion used to diagnose ADHD contributes to the frequency of medicating children. These
children may be normal, highly playful children who have difficulty adjusting to some institutional
expectations. Some of the symptoms can be interpreted in evolutionary terms. Distractibility may be
useful to monitor a changing environment. Difficulty following instructions may reflect independent
thought and judgement. Acting without regard for consequences may reflect risk-taking. Panksepp
argued that we should nurture these characteristics and adjust societal expectations rather than
medicate these children.
What are the neural differences in individuals with ADHD?
The major difference in the brains of individuals with ADHD is a 5 percent reduction in overall size of
the frontal areas. The size difference is accompanied by the lack of right–left symmetries (right is
smaller) (Castellanoes & others, 1996). The frontal lobes are necessary for long-term planning and the
elaboration of complex behavioral strategies. The increased activity level and rough-and-tumble play
demonstrated by children with ADHD is related to damage in these areas. Barkley (1997) theorized
that ADHD is a result of deficient behavioral inhibition, a function that allows better behavioral
flexibility, foresight, and regulation of behavior. Environmental factors, such as play, may improve
frontal lobe functions permanently.
As with learning disabilities, the development of brain-imaging techniques is leading to a better
understanding of ADHD (Almeida Montes & others, 2012; Cubillo & others, 2012; Qui & others,
2011). One study revealed that peak thickness of the cerebral cortex occurred three years later (10.5
years) in children with ADHD than in children without ADHD (peak at 7.5 years) (Shaw & others,
2007). The delay was more prominent in the prefrontal regions of the brain that especially are
important in attention and planning (see Figure 9.5). Another recent study also found delayed
development of the brain’s frontal lobes in children with ADHD, likely due to delayed or decreased
myelination (Nagel & others, 2011). Researchers also are exploring the roles that various
neurotransmitters, such as serotonin and dopamine, might play in ADHD (Dalley & Roiser, 2012;
Shen, Liao, & Tseng, 2012).
Do psychostimulants promote any long-term benefits or problems?
Psychostimulants promote activity in areas of the brain that control attention and goal-directed
behavior (Pliszka & others, 1996). While these drugs do improve attention and focus temporarily,
long-term benefits have not been found (if medication is terminated, ADHD symptoms return). The
long-term problems outweigh the short-term benefits. Side effects of these psychostimulants have been
found as well. For example, children do not like the way the drugs make them feel, and there is a small

decrease in physical growth. Continued behavior problems in adulthood have been reported. There is
inconsistent evidence regarding the increased likelihood of drug abuse as it is difficult to ascertain
whether these consequences are due to constitutional differences or to the long-term use of
psychostimulants.
Stimulant medication such as Ritalin or Adderall (which has fewer side effects than Ritalin) is
effective in improving the attention of many children with ADHD, but it usually does not improve
their attention to the same level as children who do not have ADHD (Sclar & others, 2012; Wong &
Stevens, 2012). A meta-analysis concluded that behavior management treatments are useful in
reducing the effects of ADHD (Fabiano & others, 2009). Researchers have oft en found that a
combination of medication (such as Ritalin) and behavior management improves the behavior of some
but not all children with ADHD better than medication alone or behavior management alone (Parens &
Johnston, 2009).
What else might we do to address such childhood problems?
While there have been some lasting effects of combined cognitive and behavioral interventions, an
alternative proposed by Panksepp is a rough-and-tumble intervention. The innate desire to engage in
rough-and-tumble play may facilitate the normal maturation of children’s brains. Providing children
with abundant opportunity to play may reduce impulsivity. The logic is as follows. We know that
frontal areas mature with age, that the frequency of play decreases with age, and animals with frontal
area damage tend to be more playful (Panksepp & others, 1995).
The question remains, Does rough-and-tumble play facilitate frontal lobe maturation? Panksepp has tested
this hypothesis. Rats with smaller frontal lobes are hyperactive and playful. After considerable play
opportunities, they exhibit a greater than normal decline in their play behavior as they mature. Panksepp
et al. (1997) argued that playful experiences may regulate the brain’s “play circuits.”
In conclusion, despite 50 years of research, there is not sufficient evidence regarding extreme biological
or psychological deviance in individuals with ADHD to warrant the degree of current medical
intervention. Many children’s behavior has been modified with these drugs and has resulted in control of
classroom behavior, increased attention for academic pursuits, and less peer ostracism of children due to
the controlled behavior. Despite these benefits, Panksepp argued that the reduction in play behaviors may
harm children’s brain development and long-term control of behavior.
Sources:
Barkley, R. A. (1997). ADHD and the nature of self-control. New York: Guilford Press.
Castellanoes, F. X., Giedd, J. N., March, W. L., Hamburger, S. D., Vaituzis, A. C., Dickerstein, D. P., Sarfatti, S. E.,
Vauss, Y. C., Snell, J. W., Rajapakse, J. C., & Rapoport, J. L. (1996). Quantitative brain magnetic resonance
imaging in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 53, 607–616.
Panksepp, J. (1998). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorders, psychostimulant, and intolerance of childhood
playfulness: A tragedy in the making? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 7, 91–97.
Panksepp, J., Normalsell, L. A., Cox, J. F., Crepeau, L., & Sacks, D. S. (1987). Psychopharmacology of social play.
In J. Mos (ed.), Ethnopharmocology of social behavior (pp. 132–144). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Duphar.
Panksepp, J., Normalsell, L. A., Cox, J. F., & Siviy, S. (1995). Effects of neonatal decoritication on the social play
of juvenile rats. Physiology & Behavior, 56, 429–443.
Panksepp, J, Burgdorf, J., Turner, C., & Walter, M. (1997). A new animal model for ADHD: Unilateral frontal lobe
damage in neonatal rats. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts, 23, 691.
Pierce, R. C., & Kalvas, P. (1997). A circuitry model of the expression of behavioral sensitization to amphetamine-
like stimulants. Brain Research Reviews, 25, 192–216.
Pliszka, S. R., McCraken, J. T., & Mass, J. W. (1996). Catecholamines in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder:
Current perspectives. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 264–272.

Robinson, T., & Berridge, K. (1993). The neural basis of drug craving: An incentive-sensitization theory of
addiction. Brain Research Reviews, 18, 247–291.
Lecture Suggestion 3: Observational Issues in Identifying Children with ADHD
There are several issues concerning the need for systematic observation to accurately diagnose a child
with ADHD and to correctly characterize the syndrome. A discussion of these issues provides additional
lessons about the use of observation in both practical and scientific applications.
First, discuss the reasons that ADHD typically is not identified until children are in the first or second
grade. A basic point is that the normal, everyday behavior of preschool children is so “hyperactive” in its
own right that the behavior does not necessarily draw attention to children who have the disorder.
Another way of stating this is that we do not have a sufficient observational basis for identifying ADHD
early on. Most of the symptoms of ADHD typically become troublesome when children engage in
structured activities. Prior to entering the school system, the impulsivity and attention deficits are not
problematic given that most activities are unstructured. Furthermore, identification of this “abnormality”
depends heavily on careful identification of normal behavioral patterns among children. Most parents do
not have the experience to differentiate typical playfulness in young children from atypical behavior.
Second, consider the possibility that hyperactivity is less a problem of too many behaviors and more a
problem of too much disorganized behavior. In the 1970s, researchers made systematic, comparative
observations of normal children, hyperactive children, and hyperactive children being treated with Ritalin.
They found that those receiving Ritalin did not “slow down,” but rather became more organized in their
play. This finding called into question the notion that Ritalin (a stimulant) has a truly paradoxical effect
(tranquilizing), and gave more support to the idea that the drug acts on brain processes that monitor and
organize behavior (see Lecture Suggestion 2 “ADHD—An Intolerance for Childhood Playfulness”).
Thus, casual observation of ADHD is inadequate to characterize the disorder. Careful descriptions are
needed of both “normal” children and those who have the syndrome, as well as detailed, systematic
observations of the behavior of the children in question. Assessments need to be multidimensional.
Assessment should include parent, teacher, and possibly peer reports, plus observation in naturalistic
settings.
• Parents can observe their child in a variety of settings and note fluctuations in behavior in response
to varying demands in different situations.
• Teachers can use various rating scales to facilitate their observations of the child’s behavior on a
daily basis. These scales also provide a normative comparison relative to other children’s behavior in
the same settings. This normative perspective is important for comparisons of children of the same
age and setting expectations.
• Systematic observations in play and school settings help experts quantify time spent off-task and
provide information on the child’s functioning. These are important observations of current behavior
given that parent and teacher observations may be biased or confounded by past behavior.
• Sociometric assessment can highlight peer popularity, rejection, social loneliness, and social anxiety
which may influence children’s behavior.
Lecture Suggestion 4: Is Being a Child Prodigy a Blessing or a Curse?
Child prodigies lie at one of the extreme ends of intelligence—the high end. Most prodigies would be, by
IQ alone, considered to be “gifted,” meaning they have an IQ score of 130 or higher. In addition,
prodigies have a superior talent in one or more domains—music, math, or art, to name a few.

For prodigies whose level of intelligence is extremely high (i.e. a child who graduates college at age 12),
both gifts and challenges accompany the extreme intelligence.
Studies support the conclusion that gifted people tend to be more mature than others, have fewer
emotional problems than others, and grow up in a positive family climate (Davidson, 2000).
Individuals who are highly gifted are typically not gifted in many domains, and research on giftedness is
increasingly focused on domain-specific developmental trajectories (Sternberg & Sternberg, 2012;
Winner, 2009). An increasing number of experts argue that the education of children who are gifted in the
United States requires a significant overhaul (Ambrose, Sternberg, & Sriraman, 2012). Ellen Winner
(1996, 2006) argues that too often children who are gifted are socially isolated and under-challenged in
the classroom.
How does a child of genius fit into the world of his peers or even of his parents?
In March 2005, it was reported that Brandenn Bremmer, a musical and intellectual prodigy, committed
suicide at the age of 14 by shooting himself in the head. Brandenn had completed high school at the age
of 10. Home-schooled by his parents, he completed the 11th
and 12th
grades in seven months. He wanted
to be an anesthesiologist and was taking college courses in Colorado at the time of his death.
Brandenn had taught himself to read at 18 months, and begin playing piano at the age of three.
At the time of his death, he had just completed recording his second musical CD. Though his parents
denied seeing any signs of depression, later reports revealed a series of dark emails between Brandenn
and his older sister who did not live at home. His emails suggested the struggle of trying to “fit in” in the
everyday world.
Is a prodigy the product of nature or nurture? Both, says psychologist David Feldman. He says,
“Prodigies seem to be a combination of timing and talent and the right circumstances, all occurring during
the same moment and sustaining itself for at least ten years. So, a prodigy is a child with unusual talent
who appears in a society that has value for that talent” (“Unexplained Child Prodigies,” 2002).
Brandenn’s talent was valued, that’s for sure. But he was troubled enough to end his promising life, and
society lost a valuable human being, not just a valued talent.
Sources:
Child Prodigy, 14, Commits Suicide. (2005, March 18).
http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/03/18/national/main681735.shtml
Lecture Suggestion 5: Environmental Influences on Literacy
The purpose of this lecture is to examine research findings related to environmental influences on
children’s literacy. While basic-skills methods, phonics method, and whole-word methods obviously
factor into children’s learning to read, early experiences also influence this ability. Considerable research
has examined adults’ conversations with children and the influence of parent–child interactions on
literacy and language development (Crain-Thoreson & Dale, 1992; Huttenlocher, 1997; Snow, 1993).
The process of categorizing becomes easier as children increase their vocabulary (Clark, 2012).
Children’s vocabulary increases from an average of about 14,000 words at age 6 to an average of about

40,000 words by age 11. Children make similar advances in grammar (Behrens, 2012). Advances in
vocabulary and grammar during the elementary school years are accompanied by the development of
metalinguistic awareness , which is knowledge about language, such as understanding what a preposition
is or being able to discuss the sounds of a language. Metalinguistic awareness allows children “to think
about their language, understand what words are, and even define them” (Berko Gleason, 2009, p. 4). It
improves considerably during the elementary school years (Pan & Uccelli, 2009). Defining words
becomes a regular part of classroom discourse, and children increase their knowledge of syntax as they
study and talk about the components of sentences such as subjects and verbs (Crain, 2012; Meltzi & Ely,
2009).
Reading development is influenced by early literacy activities such as “reading” picture books and
storytelling. Parents who ask their child to retell a story are facilitating the young child’s ability to read.
Snow found that children’s vocabulary is enhanced by exposure to adults who use relatively uncommon
words in everyday conversations with the child. Family contexts, especially adult–child conversations,
increase the likelihood of the child developing a larger vocabulary and the ability to recognize the words
in print, thus providing a strong foundation for literacy.
The whole-language approach stresses that reading instruction should parallel children’s natural language
learning. In contrast, the phonics approach emphasizes that reading instruction should teach basic rules
for translating written symbols into sounds. Research suggests that children can benefit from both
approaches, but instruction in phonics needs to be emphasized (Tompkins, 2013). An increasing number
of experts in the field of reading now conclude that direct instruction in phonics is a key aspect of
learning to read (Cunningham, 2013; Dow & Baer, 2013; Fox, 2012).
Crain-Thoreson and Dale (1992) found that parental instruction in letter-naming, sounds, and frequency
of storyreading was predictive of reading precocity at age 4 (knowledge of print conventions, invented
spelling, and awareness of phonology).
Huttenlocher (1997) reported that mothers influence children’s vocabulary and grammatical structure as
well. Children of “chatty” mothers averaged 131 more words than children of less talkative mothers by 20
months (by 24 months the difference was 295 words). There are differences in complexity of sentence
structure relative to children’s environments as well. Children who are exposed to their mother’s use of
complex sentences (dependent clauses, such as “when…” or “ because…” ) are much more likely to use
complex sentences. These early experiences have an impact on a child’s ability to read.
Sources:
Crain-Thoreson, C., & Dale, P. S. (1992). Do early talkers become early readers? Linguistic precocity, preschool
language, and emergent literacy. Developmental Psychology, 28, 421–429.
Huttenlocher, J. (1997, spring/summer). In How to build a baby’s brain, by S. Begley. Newsweek, 28–32.
Snow, C. E. (1993). Families as social contexts for literacy development. In W. Damon (Series Ed.) & C. Daiute
(Vol. Ed.), New Directions in Child Development: Vol. 61. The development of literacy through social interaction
(pp. 11–25). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Classroom Activities
Classroom Activity 1: Time to Tell Time?
This activity highlights the development of understanding how to tell time. Have students discuss what
they remember about when they learned to read a clock. How did they deal with the time segments in
school? Did they always lose track of time? Do they remember how long car trips seemed to take, or how

endless sermons were? How did anticipation about holidays affect time? Ask them if all children learn
that time is an important variable. Have students generate methods to teach children how to tell time.
Use the following information to introduce new points and questions:
• Middle-class children are introduced to an organized sense of time early in life—they tend to see
parents go to work at a certain time and return at a certain time, meals are scheduled, bedtime is
regular, and alarm clocks are used to get them up on time for school.
• Children reared in poverty do not see adults going to work at regular times, and they are less likely to
have consistent meal times or bedtimes. As a result, they can be overwhelmed by the school day
being divided into segments. They have difficulty conforming to schedules before they understand
time.
• During middle childhood, children gradually improve their ability to estimate time periods. By
second grade, most can name the days of the week; most third-graders can name the months of the
year; by fifth grade they can start with any day (month) and figure out which day (month) is three
from now; by tenth grade they can start at any day (month) and count backwards.
Logistics:
• Group size: Full-class discussion.
• Approximate time: Full-class discussion (20 minutes).
Source:
Friedman, W. (1986). The development of children’s knowledge of temporal structure. Child Development, 57,
1386–1400.
Taylor, E. (1989, February 27). Time is not on their side. Time, 74.
Classroom Activity 2: Is Psychology Just Common Sense?
The goal of this activity is to have students consider whether or not psychology is just common sense.
Present the following research studies, and have students predict the findings. Discuss why students
accurately or inaccurately predicted the findings.
Third-graders were shown two identical glasses filled equally full of colored liquid and asked to predict
what would happen if the contents of one glass were poured into a wider glass. (Get a prediction here.)
• About 90 percent of children predict that the level would be lower in the wider container. However, a
tube was secretly connected to the third container. As water was poured into the wide container,
extra water was added. The wider container actually filled up to a higher level than the narrower
container. How did the third-graders answer the question: “Is there the same amount of water in the
two containers?” (Get predictions and reasons here.) Over half replied that the wider container had
more water. Forty-two percent said that the amount of liquid was the same. Explanations included “a
trick glass that makes things look big.”
In one experiment, 6 year-olds and 9 year-olds were shown a small bit of an animal picture—not enough
for them to predict what the animal was. They were then asked to predict whether another person could
identify the animal from the same amount of information. What did the children say? (Get predictions and
reasons here.)
• Forty-four percent of the 6 year-olds said the other person would be able to identify the animal.
Almost all of the 9 year-olds correctly realized that the other person also would not be able to
identify the animal.
Researchers asked first- and fourth-graders to imagine that they were playing with a friend in the kitchen

(some were told the friend had been at their house before, and some were told the friend had never been
over before), and they were asking the friend to get a particular toy from their bedroom. How well did the
children do in giving toy-finding instructions? (Get predictions and reasons here.)
• Interestingly, both first- and fourth-graders provided more information to the friend who had never
visited the house. Overall, however, fourth-graders gave more precise information about locating the
toy.
Both this example and the one above show the gradual improvements in middle childhood in the ability to
judge how much information other people have and how much they need.
Logistics:
• Group size: Full-class discussion.
• Approximate time: Full-class discussion (20 minutes).
Sources:
Olson, D. R., & Astington, J. W. (1987). Seeing and knowing: On the ascription of mental states to young children.
Canadian Journal of Psychology, 41, 399–411.
Sonnenshein, S. (1988). The development of referential communication: Speaking to different listeners. Child
Development, 59, 694–670.
Classroom Activity 3: Test Anxiety: A Visit with Teachers
From Jarvis and Creasey, “Activities for Lifespan Developmental Psychology Courses”
Anxiety about school testing is becoming an increasing concern among students and their parents. This
activity involves inviting several teachers of students in middle to late childhood to class for a discussion
on test anxiety and is very useful for students who are currently experiencing test anxiety themselves
and/or those who have a history of such anxiety.
Demonstration:
Several teachers of middle to late childhood age students will be invited to class to discuss test anxiety.
Time:
We recommend that instructors prepare students ahead of time regarding the issue of standardized tests,
beginning in elementary school and the resulting anxiety some students face about such testing. We also
suggest instructors meet with invited teachers ahead of time and outline some key issues to discuss (the
importance of testing for school funding, evidence of test anxiety in students, suggestions for decreasing
anxiety and increasing test performance, etc.). Then the visit with the teachers should only last about 30
minutes or so. It is important to leave some class time beyond the teachers’ visit for class discussion.
Materials:
Instructors should have students generate some questions about testing and test anxiety to ask the visiting
teachers and organize them around central themes prior to the visit. Instructors should supply teachers
with a list of the themes generated by the class. Prior work with the students and teachers ensures a more
productive interview in class.
Procedures:
1. We recommend that instructors discuss the contexts of schools in middle to late childhood generally
and introduce the concepts of testing and test anxiety specifically before offering this activity.
2. In identifying appropriate teachers to invite to class, instructors should contact local schools by
phone and explicitly state that they seek teachers with knowledge of testing and test anxiety to invite

to a college class. We recommend that teachers from different grade levels be invited in order to
obtain a developmental perspective on this issue. Visits can be scheduled during a school break time
that is not a break for the college.
3. When teachers visit the class, instructors should introduce them to the class and present the topic of
discussion and encourage the students to ask the teachers questions about testing and test anxiety.
Instructors should guide the discussion toward suggestions for dealing with and reducing anxiety and
improving students’ attitudes toward testing situations generally. We recommend instructors suggest
to teachers and the class that while such standardized tests are necessary, anxiety about them might
be significantly reduced by how teachers communicate information about the tests to students.
Children are concerned about what the tests mean and what it would mean if they did not do well on
them. How these issues are addressed in middle to late childhood has critical importance for older
students approaching testing situations.
4. It is imperative to write a thank-you letter on university letterhead to the teachers and send a copy to
the principal of the relevant schools. Although we teach adolescent development as a psychology
course, many of our students are education majors and benefit from direct opportunities to speak
with teachers on a professional basis such as this activity allows.
5. Instructors should encourage students to discuss what they learned in light of course material.
Instructors might have students write a brief summary of the visit incorporating course material into
their observations.
6. Finally, instructors might consider adding a short essay question about test anxiety to the next exam
as another way to connect this in-class activity to student learning.
Classroom Activity 4: Critical-Thinking Multiple-Choice Questions and Suggested Answers
Discuss the critical-thinking multiple-choice questions presented in Handout 1.
Question 1 is similar to the exercises students have done for the previous chapters on cognition. Their task
is to integrate information in the chapter and draw appropriate conclusions about the material. This is
essentially a comprehension exercise, and students will probably do it well.
Question 2 is based on material from the second edition of Santrock’s Children. The main point of this
exercise is to get students to see how the contemporary debate about national differences in mathematics
achievement has been framed entirely in terms of differences in nurture between countries like Japan and
the United States. Commentators have seemingly assumed that there are no differences between Japanese
and U.S. children that could account for the observed performance differences, and they have been
willing to accept causal interpretations about the influence of observed differences in educational
practices. This is particularly interesting in comparison with the willingness of many to entertain seriously
the idea that racial differences in intellectual level and achievement in the U.S. are based on genetic or
motivational differences between classes and races of people. You may want to discuss this irony as
preparation for this exercise. The answers are presented in Handout 2.
Logistics:
• Materials: Handout 1 (Critical-Thinking Multiple-Choice Questions) and Handout 2 (Answers).
• Group size: Small groups to discuss the questions, then a full-class discussion.
• Approximate time: Small groups (15 minutes), full-class discussion of any questions (15 minutes).
Classroom Activity 5: Critical-Thinking Essay Questions and Suggestions for Helping Students

Answer the Essays
Discuss the critical-thinking essay questions presented in Handout 3. The purpose of this activity is
threefold. First, the answering of these questions facilitates students’ understanding of concepts in chapter
7. Second, this type of essay question affords the students an opportunity to apply the concepts to their
own lives which will facilitate their retention of the material. Third, the essay format also will give
students practice expressing themselves in written form. Ideas to help students answer the critical-
thinking essay questions are provided in Handout 4.
Logistics:
• Materials: Handout 3 (Essay Questions) and Handout 4 (Ideas to Help Answer).
• Group size: Individual, then full class.
• Approximate time: Individual (60 minutes), full-class discussion of any questions (30 minutes).
Personal Applications
Personal Application 1: That’s My Kid!
The purpose of this exercise is for students to reflect on their childhood activities. By middle childhood,
children often become involved in various extracurricular activities. There are many benefits to
participation in such activities, but there can be detriments if parents approach their children’s activities
with an improper perspective.
Instructions for Students: Recall the activities of your childhood. What did you participate in? Were these
activities your parents’ idea or yours? Did they simply suggest things and offer you a choice, or were you
enrolled without being consulted? Did they positively support and encourage your interests and
participation? Were they demanding and critical, exerting pressure on you to perform? How did your
early experiences with these endeavors influence your subsequent behavior and attitudes about being
involved in particular activities?
Use in the Classroom: Explore the ways in which parents approach directing their children’s interest in
various activities. What might determine how they respond to their children’s performance, and what
various results might manifest themselves in children’s behavior and attitudes? Which do you think is
better developmentally: children participating in a number of different activities, one at a time; children
participating in a number of different activities simultaneously; or children participating in a single
activity, and developing their skills over an extended period of time? What are the possible benefits and
disadvantages of each?
Personal Application 2: Remember the Time…
The purpose of this exercise is to demonstrate the long-term memory capabilities of middle childhood
through recollection of their own childhood experiences. Memory development continues during middle
and late childhood, enabling children to encode information in such a way as to significantly contribute to
their long-term memory.

Instructions for Students: Recall, in as much detail as you can, an event from your childhood. What
enabled you to remember this experience? At the time, did you think that it was something you would
never forget? Are you certain your memory is accurate, or have you “filled in the blanks” over the years?
How much can you remember from this period in your life? Was recalling this event easy or difficult? Do
you have many more recollections from your childhood? If so, is there something similar about them
which may lead to your remembering them? If not, why might that be? For what point in your life do you
begin to have lots of memories?
Use in the Classroom: Have a class discussion on children’s memory encoding.
Personal Application 3: Smart Move
The purpose of this exercise is to prompt students to assess their intellectual strengths from the various
perspectives of multiple kinds of intelligence. Rather than assume that our intellectual functioning can be
summed up in a single number—the score on a traditional IQ test—some theorists believe that we have
particular intellectual strengths and weaknesses. Robert Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence
identifies three areas of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical. Individuals can be strong in any or
all of the three domains. Howard Gardner theorizes eight different types of intelligence, addressing
everything from verbal functioning to music and interpersonal skills. Both approaches assume an
individual’s intelligence profile will manifest itself in his or her academic and life functioning.
Instructions for Students: Identify your intellectual profile based on both Sternberg’s and Gardner’s
categories. In what areas are you strong? In what areas do you demonstrate weaknesses? How have these
strengths and weaknesses impacted your experiences in school? How have they played a role in your
decision to follow a particular career path? Have they influenced you socially in any way?
Use in the Classroom: Discuss intelligence in general. Can it be measured accurately? Should it be
assessed at all? How might this be problematic to individuals or society as a whole? Is the concept of IQ
as relevant and important as that of the existence of multiple intelligences? What practical use might be
made of Sternberg’s and Gardner’s theories? How early in life should intelligence—in any form—be
assessed? Who should be privy to this information and why? Discuss students’ views on breeding for
intelligence—and what effect this might have on society.
Sources:
Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic Books.
Sternberg, R. J. (1999). Intelligence. In M. A. Runco & S. Pritzker (Eds.), Encyclopedia of creativity. San Diego:
Academic Press.
Personal Application 4: Exploring Your Creativity
The purpose of this exercise is to encourage students to think about their own creativity so they can gain a
more complete perspective of its role in life-span development. Some developmental psychologists debate
whether or not creativity is an aspect of intelligence. Regardless of their perspective, psychologists do
agree that creativity is an important aspect of thinking and functioning in life.
Instructions for Students: Describe the ways in which you are creative. Do not limit yourself to thinking
of creativity as only manifesting itself in artistic ability. There are numerous ways in which individuals
can be creative—what are yours? If you do not believe you are creative in any way, describe the efforts

you have made to be creative. What were the results? What might you do to expand your creative
functioning?
Use in the Classroom: Construct a brainstorming activity or present a unique problem to be solved. Have
students who believe they are creative work in small groups with those who say they are not. Afterward,
have groups share their efforts, and have the self-proclaimed “non-creative students” discuss what they
observed and learned from their creative peers. Try another exercise in which the less creative students
can apply what they have learned. What changed in their approach to the situation? How did they think
about it differently? Conclude by pointing out, through studies and their methodologies, that science, and
certainly developmental psychology, is a very creative field!
Research Project Ideas
Research Project 1: Current Exercise Levels
In this exercise, your students will use the questions provided in Handout 5 to interview three people
about their current exercise levels. One subject should be 5 years old, one 10 years old, and one 18 to 20
years old. (If the students are between 18 and 20 years old, they may use themselves as one of the
subjects.) The project will have to be approved by the human subjects review board at your school, and
students will need to get a signed informed consent form from the children’s parents.
Use in the Classroom: Have the students present their data from the research project. Examine the data for
age and sex differences in patterns of exercise. What activities do males and females perform? How do
these differ at different ages? Is amount of exercise a function of age or of sex? What other variables
might account for differences between individuals besides age and sex?
One might expect males to be more active than females and regular exercise for all individuals to increase
with age. The latter trend might be from a conscious decision to exercise. However, it could be that
children are more active than adolescents and therefore exercise more. Individual variation can include
parental models and reinforcement for participating in sports.
Research Project 2: Interviewing Parents of Children with Disabilities
Learning Goal 2: Identify children with different types of disabilities and discuss issues in educating
them.
In this exercise, each student will interview a parent of a child with disabilities (see Handout 6). The
project will have to be approved by the human subjects review board at your school, and the students will
need to get a signed informed consent form from the children’s parents.
Use in the Classroom: Have the students present their data from the research project. Examine common
themes in parents’ responses.
Research Project 3: Assessment of a Preoperational and a Concrete Operational Thinker
The purpose of this exercise is for students to see an example of a preoperational and a concrete
operational thinker. Students should pair up with another class member and test two children, a 4 to 5
year-old child and an 8 to 9 year-old child, using several of Piaget’s tasks. They should administer two
conservation and two classification tasks to each child, and then compare the children’s responses with

each other and attempt to interpret those responses in view of Piaget’s theory. To test the two children,
they will need to clear this through the human subjects review board at your school and get a signed
informed consent form from the children’s parents.
Use in the Classroom: Have the students present data from the research project in class. Pool the data for
the two age groups, and compare mean performance for each age group. What kinds of behaviors were
seen in the 4 to 5 year-olds? What kinds of justifications did they give for their answers? What kinds of
answers did they give? How did the 8 to 9 year-olds differ from them? How do the class data relate to
Piaget’s theory?
The expectation is that the 4 to 5 year-olds will not be able to do either the simple classification task or
the class inclusion task. The 4 to 5 year-olds are also nonconservers for liquid and probably for numbers.
The 8 to 9 year-olds will be able to do all the classification and conservation tasks.
Videos
McGraw-Hill's Visual Assets Database for Life-span Development (VAD 2.0)
(http://www.mhhe.com/vad)
This is an on-line database of videos for use in the developmental psychology classroom created
specifically for instructors. You can customize classroom presentations by downloading the videos to
your computer and showing the videos on their own or inserting them into your course cartridge or
PowerPoint presentations. All of the videos are available with or without captions.
Multimedia Courseware for Child Development
Charlotte J. Patterson, University of Virginia
This video-based two-CD-ROM set (ISBN 0-07-254580-1) covers classic and contemporary experiments
in child development. Respected researcher Charlotte J. Patterson selected the video and wrote modules
that can be assigned to students. The modules also include suggestions for additional projects as well as a
testing component. Multimedia Courseware can be packaged with the text at a discount.
McGraw-Hill also offers other video and multimedia materials; ask your local representative about the
best products to meet your teaching needs.
Feature Films
In this section of the Instructor’s Manual, we suggest films that are widely available on sites like
amazon.com, documentary wire, Hulu, netflix.com, PBS video, etc.
What’s Eating Gilbert Grape? (1993)
Starring Johnny Depp, Leonardo DiCaprio, Juliette Lewis
Directed by Lasse Hallstrom
Gilbert takes care of his retarded brother because his mother is obese and cannot leave the house; she is
physically incapable of doing so. Gilbert has a lot on his plate, caring for the other children and working
to support them. So when he meets someone new, he finds it hard to find time for himself in his difficult
and sometimes suffocating life.
My Left Foot (1989)

Starring Daniel Day-Lewis, Brenda Fricker
Directed by Jim Sheridan
In this true story told through flashbacks, Christy Brown is born with crippling cerebral palsy into a poor,
working-class Irish family. Able only to use his left foot and to speak in guttural sounds, he is considered
retarded for the first 10 years of his life. Through the determination and dedication of his mother and his
own courage, Christy not only learns to grapple with life’s physical tasks and complex psychological
pains, but he also develops into a brilliant painter, poet, and author.
When Zachary Beaver Came to Town (2003)
Starring Jonathan Lipnicki, Sasha Neulinger, Eric Stoltz, Kevin Corrigan
Directed by John Schultz
An independent film based on a book, Zachary Beaver, is a tale of a young boy who experiences many
emotional journeys over one summer. His mom leaves to pursue a singing career, his best friend’s brother
is killed, and he meets another young boy who is obese and has problems of his own. It is an endearing
story of friendship, acceptance, life, and death that evokes a wide range of emotions while entertaining
the audience.
Web site Suggestions
At the time of publication, all sites were current and active; however, please be advised that you may
occasionally encounter a dead link.
Child Development and Parenting Information
http://www.childdevelopmentinfo.com/
Children and Adults with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
http://www.chadd.org/
Gifted Development Center
http://www.gifteddevelopment.com/
Institute for Education Reform: Building a Powerful Reading Program
http://www.csus.edu/ier/reading.html
Learning Disabilities
http://www.ldonline.org/
Mental, Emotional, and Behavioral Disorders
http://mentalhealth.samhsa.gov/publications/allpubs/ca-0006/default.asp
National Association of School Psychologists
http://www.nasponline.org
Overweight Children and Adolescents
http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/topics/obesity/calltoaction/fact_adolescents.htm
Writing in Middle Childhood

http://www.education.com/reference/article/writing-middle-childhood/ Handout 1 (CA 4)
Handout 1 (CA 4)
Critical-Thinking Multiple-Choice Questions
1. In chapter 7, students learnt about concrete operational thinking. Indicate which of the following
cases best illustrates concrete operations. Hint: There is more than one example of concrete
operational thinking. Circle the letters of the best answers, and explain why they are the best answers
and why the other answers are not as good.
a. Katie is asked, “Do you have a brother?” She says, “Yes.” Then she is asked, “Does he have a
sister?” She answers, “No.”
b. Ray says, “A fly is like both insects and birds. It’s like birds because it flies, but it’s like insects
because it has six legs.”
c. Tim is working on analogies. He declares, “Biking is to pedaling as riding in a car is to stepping
on the gas pedal because they both make the vehicle go!”
d. Bobby states, “I understand how this nickel and these five pennies are the same as this dime.”
e. Her teacher asks Mary, “How can the scale be brought back into balance?” Mary replies, “The
only way to do that is to remove the weight that made one pan sink lower than the other.”
2. Read the following passage on differences in levels of achievement in math between American,
Japanese, and Chinese children.
In 1986, Harold Stevenson, Shin-Ying Lee, and James W. Stigler published the first of many studies
comparing math achievement scores and the factors behind them in Japanese, Chinese, and
American children. They selected groups of first- and fifth-grade students from 10 schools each in
Sendai, Japan, and Taipei, China, and from 13 schools in the Minneapolis metropolitan area. These
three cities were chosen because they were roughly equivalent in terms of economic prosperity and
cultural status within each country as a whole. The schools selected had student populations that
were largely native-born and of similar socioeconomic class status within their cultures. Among the
schools, two first-grade classrooms and two fifth-grade classrooms were chosen at random from each
school with 12 students from each classroom who were rated on their mathematical skills in a test
that was carefully constructed to be equivalent in terms of each cultural context.
The results unleashed decades of discussion and concern, especially for American educators, for they
showed that while there was a gap in achievement among first-graders in the United States, Japan,
and China, by the fifth grade, that gap had widened significantly with American children falling far
behind their Japanese and Chinese counterparts. Even the best group of American fifth-grade
students ranked lower than the lowest Japanese group.
Stevenson et al. were criticized for the narrow scope of their initial study, so they conducted another
study 10 years later to look at a broader range of factors, this time selecting 10 schools each in
Sendai, Japan, and Taipei, China, and 20 schools within the greater Chicago area. They gathered
more data, this time including classroom observation and interviews with parents, but again the
results were heavily in favor of both Japanese and Chinese students.
So what could account for the poor performance on math tests by the American children? Stevenson
et al. had included the educational backgrounds of parents and teachers in their second study and
found that they were, in fact, lower in Japan than in the United States, while teachers from both
countries had the same levels of teaching experience. Also, in terms of general intelligence levels,

American children were equally bright if not brighter than children in Japan and China.
The significant differences that did emerge had to do with the amount of time spent by the respective
groups of children on developing their math skills. Comparing just the Japanese and American
students, we see that while American students spend only five days each week in school for a total of
178 days a year, Japanese students spend nearly six days each week for a total of 240 days a year.
Furthermore, Japanese first-graders devote one-quarter of their classroom time to math, while
American first-graders spend only one-tenth. Away from school, Japanese children spend more time
on homework (37 versus 14 minutes each weekday for first-graders, 57 versus 46 minutes each
weekday for fifth-graders), and Japanese teachers are also much more likely to assign homework
over vacations and holidays (68% of Japanese teachers against 12% of American teachers). Finally,
classroom observations showed that only 46% of American students were paying attention in class,
while 65% of Japanese students were.
Sources:
Stevenson, H. W., Lee, S.-Y., & Stigler, J. W. (1986). Mathematics achievement of Chinese, Japanese and
American children. Science, 231, 693–699.
Stevenson, H. W., Chen, C., & Lee, S.-Y. (1993). Mathematics achievement of Chinese, Japanese and
American children: Ten years later. Science, 259, 53–58.
Suzuki, S. (2000). Viewed from the inside out: Beyond the behavioristic approach to Japanese classrooms.
Harvard Asia Quarterly, 4. Retrieved from http://www.asiaquarterly.com/
On the basis of this information, indicate which of the following statements constitutes an
assumption rather than an inference or an observation. Circle the letter of the best answer, and
explain why it is the best answer and why the other answers are not as good. Hint: There is more
than one assumption.
a. There are no genetic differences between Japanese and American children that could influence
mathematics achievement.
b. The differences between Japanese and American children’s scores are smallest for first-grade
girls.
c. The difference in achievement is caused by the amount of time spent in school.
d. Differences in achievement are not associated with differences in teacher experience.
e. Japanese and American children are equally motivated to achieve in mathematics.
Handout 2 (CA 4)
Answers for Critical-Thinking Multiple-Choice Questions
1. In chapter 7, students learnt about concrete operational thinking. Indicate which of the following
cases best illustrates concrete operations. Hint: There is more than one example of concrete
operational thinking. Circle the letters of the best answers, and explain why they are the best answers
and why the other answers are not as good.
a. Katie is asked, “Do you have a brother?” She says, “Yes.” Then she is asked, “Does he have a
sister?” She answers, “No.” is not an example of concrete operational thinking. Katie fails to
understand that sibling relationships are reciprocal, which is a sign of preoperational thinking
(irreversibility).
b. Ray says, “A fly is like both insects and birds. It’s like birds because it flies, but it’s like insects
because it has six legs.” is an example of concrete operational thinking. In this example, Ray is
able to understand that flies have attributes that place them in more than one category (creatures

that fly and creatures with six legs). According to Piaget, this is a concrete operational skill.
c. Tim is working on analogies. He declares, “Biking is to pedaling as riding in a car is to stepping
on the gas pedal because they both make the vehicle go!” is not an example of concrete
operational thinking. In this example, Tim declares that he understands the equivalence of two
abstract relationships which is an aspect of formal operations.
d. Bobby states, “I understand how this nickel and these five pennies are the same as this dime.” is
an example of concrete operational thinking. Bobby is working with two concrete representations
of money and is able to add the values of the nickels and pennies to confirm their equivalence to
the dime. The equivalence also implies reversibility. All of these points characterize concrete
operational thinking.
e. Her teacher asks Mary, “How can the scale be brought back into balance?” Mary replies, “The
only way to do that is to remove the weight that made one pan sink lower than the other.” is an
example of concrete operational thinking. In this example, Mary shows reversibility. However,
she can only think of one solution to the problem and fails to realize that there are several ways to
balance a scale, another aspect of concrete operational thinking.
2. After reading the vignette titled “Achievement in Math Requires Time and Practice: Comparisons of
Children in the United States and Japan,” indicate which of the following statements constitutes an
assumption rather than an inference or an observation. (Hint: There is more than one assumption.)
Circle the letters of the best answers, and explain why they are the best answers and why the other
answers are not as good.
a. There are no genetic differences between Japanese and American children that could influence
mathematics achievement is an assumption. There is no data on this point, yet it must be true if
we want to say that the differences in performance are due to different educational practices. An
interesting point is that this is not assumed in discussions of differences between intelligence
scores of African American and White children.
b. The differences between Japanese and American children’s scores are smallest for first-grade
girls is an observation. It is a direct statement describing the children’s scores.
c. The difference in achievement is caused by the amount of time spent in school is an inference. It
is an interpretation of the finding that Japanese students spend more time in school and therefore
have higher mathematics achievement scores. There is nothing in these facts that indicates a
connection between the two.
d. Differences in achievement are not associated with differences in teacher experience is an
observation. No association between these two variables was found.
e. Japanese and American children are equally motivated to achieve in mathematics is an
assumption. Motivation is a relevant concern, but apparently no data was collected to examine
this issue. Thus, the researchers assumed that motivation was equal for both Japanese and
American students.
Handout 3 (CA 5)
Critical-Thinking Essay Questions
Your answers to these kinds of questions demonstrate an ability to comprehend and apply ideas discussed
in this chapter.
1. Describe physical growth and changes in gross and fine motor skills during middle and late
childhood.
2. Imagine that you are a parent of a child who wants to compete in sports. Explain how you would

evaluate the pros and cons of participation in high-pressure sports.
3. Describe the consequences of childhood obesity, and explain why middle and late childhood is an
especially difficult time for a child to be obese.
4. Discuss the challenges of teaching children with disabilities in regular classrooms.
5. Explain and give examples of characteristics of concrete operational thought according to Piaget.
6. Discuss at least three findings that challenge Piaget’s theory about cognitive development.
7. Compare and contrast metacognitive knowledge and critical thinking. Also, explain how these ideas
relate to education and everyday life.
8. Compare and contrast Binet’s and Sternberg’s views of intelligence.
9. Explain why developmentalists try to create culture-fair tests, and evaluate their success to date.
10. Explain why and how mental retardation, giftedness, and creativity reflect the extremes of
intelligence.
11. Discuss how the development of concrete operations and other aspects of cognitive development
may lead to improvement in reading during middle and late childhood.
12. What is bilingual education? What is known about bilingualism? How successful have bilingual
education programs been?
Handout 4 (CA 5)
Ideas to Help You Answer Critical-Thinking Essay Questions
1. As you discuss the physical changes, relate them to specific examples of both gross and fine motor
skills. Address how the particular skills result from the physical changes that have taken place, and
compare later functioning based on physical development to earlier limitations in motor ability.
2. You might want to create a pros and cons list for a variety of different sports. Do some tend to be
more demanding than others? What advice would you give to your child?
3. Begin by painting a picture of the experiences of an obese child. Consider various activities children
engage in at school and on the playground (e.g., fitting into standard-size desks, sitting on a school
bus, being required to engage in physical fitness activities). Consider the importance of friendships at
this stage in life.
4. Answer this question not only from the teacher’s perspective, but from the perspective of a parent of
a learning disabled child. What experiences would you want for your child and why? Discuss how
difficult it is to meet both parents’ and teachers’ needs.
5. Begin your discussion of concrete operational thought with a description of preoperational cognitive
functioning. This will highlight the accomplishments that occur with the onset of concrete thinking.
6. Prior to each finding that challenges Piaget, present Piagetian theory, reasoning, and

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Sharper wits you'll never see."
Now that was boasting; and boasting is one of the most foolish habits
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over and over, while he waited for Sammy Jay to appear. He had not
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his own store-house in the hollow rail on the edge of the cornfield and
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At last Sammy came, and just as Chatterer expected, he
demanded the corn that Chatterer had promised to get for him
whenever he should ask for it. Right away Chatterer started for the
cornfield, running along the fences. He always did like to run along
fences, and though it was a long way down there, he didn't mind, for
it was a sharp, cold morning and the run made him feel fine. As he
ran, he kept chuckling to himself to think how smart he had been to
think of that store-house and a way to keep his promise to Sammy
Jay without running any risk to himself. He was whisking along the
fence on the edge of the cornfield and had almost reached the hollow
rail where he had stored the corn. He stopped to sit up on a fence-
post and boast once more.
"Chickaro and chickaree!
Who is there as smart—"

He didn't finish. Instead his tongue seemed to stick to the roof of his
mouth and his little black eyes looked as if they would pop out of his
head. Sitting on a post close to the hollow rail was a straight, black
form watching him with cruel, hungry-looking eyes. It was Roughleg
the Hawk! Chatterer gave a little gasp of fright. He whirled around
and started back along the fence as fast as he could make his legs go.
Instantly Roughleg spread his great wings and sailed after him.
Chatterer hadn't gone the length of two rails before Roughleg was
over him. With his great, cruel claws spread wide, he suddenly
swooped down. Chatterer dodged to the under side of the rail just in
time, the very nick of time. Roughleg screamed with disappointment,
and that scream had such a fierce sound that Chatterer shivered all
over.

Chatterer gave a little gasp of fright.
How he ever got back to the Old Orchard he hardly knew himself.
Ever so many times he just managed to dodge those great claws. But
he did get there at last, out of breath and tired and frightened. There
sat Sammy Jay, waiting for his corn. He pretended to be very angry

because Chatterer had none and threatened to go straight to the
Green Forest and tell Shadow the Weasel where Chatterer was living.
There was nothing for Chatterer to do but to go over to the corn-crib
as soon as he had rested a little.
"It's been a dreadful day, a perfectly dreadful day," said Chatterer
to himself, as he curled up in bed for the night. "I wonder—I wonder
how old Roughleg happened to be sitting on that fence-post this
morning."
But Sammy Jay didn't wonder; he knew.
XXIII
CHATTERER HITS ON A PLAN AT LAST
Each time that Chatterer thought himself smarter than Sammy Jay, he
found that he wasn't as smart as he thought he was, and this always
made him feel mortified. He just couldn't admit even to himself that
Sammy was the smartest, and yet here he was every day bringing
corn for Sammy from Farmer Brown's corn-crib whenever Sammy told
him to, and running the risk of being seen by Farmer Brown's boy, all
because he hadn't been able to think of some way to outwit Sammy.
Once more after he had such a narrow escape from old Roughleg the
Hawk, he had tried going down to his store-house at the edge of the
cornfield, but he had found Roughleg on watch and had turned back.
From the way Sammy Jay had grinned when he saw Chatterer coming
back, Chatterer had made up his mind that Sammy knew something
about how old Roughleg happened to have found out about that
store-house and so been on the watch.

Now all this time, Sammy Jay was having a great deal of fun out
of Chatterer's trouble. Each time that Chatterer thought of a plan to
outwit Sammy, he would find that Sammy had already thought of it
and a way to make the plan quite useless. You see, Sammy used to
spend a great deal of his time when he was alone in the Green Forest
pretending that he was in the same fix as Chatterer and then trying to
think of some way out of it. So it was that Chatterer never could think
of a plan that Sammy hadn't already thought of. And yet there was a
way to cheat Sammy out of his fun, though not out of his corn, and it
really was the fun of seeing Chatterer so worried that Sammy cared
most about. Sammy had thought of it almost at once, and it seemed
to him that Chatterer was very, very stupid not to think of it, too.
"He will think of it some day, and I don't see any way to upset
such a simple plan," said Sammy to himself and then fell to studying
some new way to torment Chatterer.
And at last Chatterer did think of it. It was such a simple plan!
Probably that was why he hadn't thought of it before. All he had to do
was to go over to Farmer Brown's corn-crib at break of day, before
any one in Farmer Brown's house was awake, just as he had been
doing, only make two or three trips and store a lot of corn in a safe
hiding place in the old stone wall. Then, when Sammy Jay demanded
corn, he could get it without trouble or danger. He tried it, and it
worked splendidly. Sammy Jay got his corn, but he didn't get any fun,
and he cared more for the fun of seeing Chatterer in trouble than he
did for the corn. So, after two or three mornings, Sammy didn't come
up to the Old Orchard, and Chatterer chuckled as he stored up the
corn, not in one place, but in several places.
Now, while Sammy Jay seemed to have grown tired of corn, he
was doing a lot of thinking. He had no idea of leaving Chatterer alone.

He had just got to think of some way of upsetting Chatterer's simple
plan. It was Reddy Fox who finally gave him the idea. He saw Reddy
trotting down the Lone Little Path through the Green Forest, and right
away the idea came to him. He would tell Reddy where Chatterer was
storing the corn in the old stone wall, and Reddy would hide close by.
"Of course I don't want Reddy to catch Chatterer, but I can
prevent that by warning him just in time. But he will be so frightened
that he won't dare go to that place for corn again in a hurry, and so
will have to go to the corn-crib for it," thought Sammy, and hurried to
tell Reddy Fox about the place half way along the old stone wall
where Chatterer had hidden his corn.
XXIV
CHATTERER HAS HIS TURN TO LAUGH
Sammy Jay had not been up to the Old Orchard for several days, and
Chatterer the Red Squirrel was beginning to wonder if Sammy had
grown tired of corn. But Chatterer had learned that it is always best to
be prepared, and so every morning, when he had visited Farmer
Brown's corn-crib, he had brought a generous supply back to the Old
Orchard and hidden it in several secret places in different parts of the
stone wall and some in a certain hollow in an old apple-tree. Chatterer
couldn't quite believe that Sammy had given up all hope of making
him more trouble, so he meant to be prepared.
So when Sammy did appear early one morning, Chatterer was
not in the least surprised. He pretended to be glad to see Sammy. In
fact, he was almost glad. You see, Sammy had so many times proved

his wits to be sharper than Chatterer's, that Chatterer wanted to get
even. There was a sparkle of mischief in Sammy's eyes. Chatterer saw
it right away, and he guessed that Sammy had some new plan under
that pert cap of his.
"Good morning, Sammy Jay," said Chatterer, pretending to be
polite. "I had begun to think that you were tired of corn. I have some
very nice corn ready for you, the very best I could find in Farmer
Brown's corn-crib. Will you have some this morning?"
"I believe I will," replied Sammy, also pretending to be very
polite. "It is very nice of you to pick out the best corn for me, and the
very thought of it makes me hungry. I believe I would like some this
very minute."
As he spoke, he turned his head to hide a grin, for, thought he,
"of course Chatterer will go straight to that hiding place in the stone
wall and then we shall see some fun." He glanced hastily in that
direction, and he saw a patch of red half hidden behind the wall, and
he knew that it was the red coat of Reddy Fox. Reddy was hiding just
where Sammy had told him to.
Now Chatterer had been doing some quick thinking. He
remembered the sharp tricks Sammy had played on him before, and
he didn't have the least doubt that Sammy had planned another. "Of
course, he expects me to go straight to that place where he knows I
have hidden corn for him, and if he has planned any trouble for me,
that is where it will be," thought Chatterer. "I think I'll get the corn
from one of the hiding places he doesn't know about."
With that Chatterer ran swiftly out along a branch of the tree he
was in, leaped across to another tree and then to a third, the one in
which was the hollow in which he had put some of the corn. In a few
minutes he was back, with his cheeks stuffed full. Sammy Jay

pretended to be very much pleased, but he ate it as if he had lost his
appetite, as indeed he had. You see, he was wondering what he
should say to Reddy Fox, to whom he had promised a chance to catch
Chatterer. He knew that Reddy would think that it was all one of
Sammy's tricks. So without waiting to finish all the corn, Sammy
politely said good-by and flew away to the deepest part of the Green
Forest.
"Ha, ha, ha! Ho, ho, ho!" laughed Chatterer, as his sharp eyes
spied Reddy Fox, trying to creep away without being seen. "Ha, ha,
ha! Ho, ho, ho! It's my turn to laugh. Ha, ha, ha! Ho, ho, ho!"
And so for the time being Chatterer had the last laugh, though
Sammy Jay knew well that his turn would come again, if only he were
patient. But he had other things to think of. You see, he was very
much interested in the adventures of Buster Bear. And if you are
interested in them too, you may read all about them in another book
devoted wholly to the things that happened when Buster came to live
in the Green Forest.
THE END
* * * * * * * *
BOOKS BY
THORNTON W. BURGESS

BEDTIME STORY-BOOKS
THE ADVENTURES OF:
1. REDDY FOX
2. JOHNNY CHUCK
3. PETER COTTONTAIL
4. UNC' BILLY POSSUM
5. MR. MOCKER
6. JERRY MUSKRAT
7. DANNY MEADOW MOUSE
8. GRANDFATHER FROG
9. CHATTERER, THE RED SQUIRREL
10. SAMMY JAY
11. BUSTER BEAR
12. OLD MR. TOAD
13. PRICKLY PORKY
14. OLD MAN COYOTE
15. PADDY THE BEAVER
16. POOR MRS. QUACK
17. BOBBY COON
18. JIMMY SKUNK
19. BOB WHITE
20. OL' MISTAH BUZZARD
MOTHER WEST WIND SERIES
1. OLD MOTHER WEST WIND
2. MOTHER WEST WIND'S CHILDREN
3. MOTHER WEST WIND'S ANIMAL FRIENDS

4. MOTHER WEST WIND'S NEIGHBORS
5. MOTHER WEST WIND "WHY" STORIES
6. MOTHER WEST WIND "HOW" STORIES
7. MOTHER WEST WIND "WHEN" STORIES
8. MOTHER WEST WIND "WHERE" STORIES
GREEN MEADOW SERIES
1. HAPPY JACK
2. MRS. PETER RABBIT
3. BOWSER THE HOUND
4. OLD GRANNY Fox
GREEN FOREST SERIES
1. LIGHTFOOT THE DEER
2. BLACKY THE CROW
3. WHITEFOOT THE WOOD MOUSE
4. BUSTER BEAR'S TWINS
WISHING-STONE SERIES
1. TOMMY AND THE WISHING-STONE
2. TOMMY'S WISHES COME TRUE
3. TOMMY'S CHANGE OF HEART
THE BURGESS BIRD BOOK FOR CHILDREN
THE BURGESS ANIMAL BOOK FOR CHILDREN
THE BURGESS FLOWER BOOK FOR CHILDREN

*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ADVENTURES
OF SAMMY JAY ***

*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ADVENTURES
OF SAMMY JAY ***
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