This document defines and provides examples of common logical fallacies that are often used in arguments. It discusses 12 specific fallacies including ad hominem, dicto simpliciter, post hoc ergo propter hoc, irrelevant conclusion, slippery slope, argumentum ad ignorantium, argumentum ad speculum, and argumentum ad verecundium. For each fallacy, it provides a definition and examples of how the fallacy could be used by a client in a counseling session to make a flawed argument. The document concludes by posing discussion questions about identifying and challenging fallacious beliefs clients may have.

1. LOGICAL FALLACIES

2. When arguing their position, people often present illogical arguments. These are
called fallacies.

3. Fallacies do not mean the position is wrong; they only mean the argument isn’t
valid.
For example, I could say I know that water is wet because I dreamed that it was.
This wouldn't be a good reason for you to accept what I'm telling you, but it isn't
necessarily untrue.

4. Unfortunately, people often present their argument based only on fallacies and
persuade others who never search for more substantial support for the
argument.

5. Public policy is often based on fallacies, and clients often present fallacious
arguments in counseling sessions.
There are several types of fallacies. Here are a few.

6. A few types of fallacies...

7. Argumentum Ad Hominem ("Argument Directed Toward The Man")
Ignoring the issue by focusing on the character of the person who is stating a
position and arguing that the personality of that individual is conclusive evidence
to decide the issue.
Attacking the person: "He never went past eighth grade. He doesn't know what
he's talking about.“
Praising the person: "We should believe what he says because he's a celebrity.“
How a client might use an ad hominem argument: "The cops set me up for the
OUI. They've always been out to get me."

8. Dicto Simpliciter (“Jumping To Conclusions”)
Basing your argument on shaky or inadequate examples, sometimes stated out of
ignorance and sometimes deliberately presented to confuse the issue.
Example #1: "Over 75% of people who receive treatment for methadone commit
felonies within the first year of their treatment." (...based on the experience of one
town in Ohio with a population of 9000 and with 18 citizens enrolled in a
methadone program. No neighboring towns reported similar results.)
Example #2: "Everyone I know agrees with me on this issue.“
How a client might use a dicto simpliciter argument: "My dad got sober without AA
or treatment. Why do I need it?"

9. Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc ("After This, Therefore Because Of This")
Arguing that, because one thing preceded the other, the first thing caused the
second. This argument overlooks other factors that could be significant.
Example #1: "Last year, we let the Somali's move into out city and the crime rate
went up 40%.“
Example #2: "I didn't wear my lucky socks today and the Patriots lost.
Coincidence? I don't think so!“
How a client might use post hoc, ergo propter hoc: "Of course I'm an addict. I
grew up in an abusive home."

10. Irrelevant Conclusion (Ignorantio Elenchi)
Providing, as evidence, information that is true, but not relevant to the question
at hand. The information may be used to deliberately throw people off track or
to try to disqualify opposing arguments because the people making those
arguments don't always follow what they are suggesting.
Example #1: "Why do we need to put a stop sign at the end of that block? A
survey of the neighborhood showed that all the families living there were
satisfied with their school system.“
Example #2: "Why should we believe you when you say we need more funding
for traffic surveillance? You even admitted yourself that you've been caught
speeding in the past.“
How a client might use the irrelevant conclusion fallacy: "Why should I listen to
your suggestions? You've already told me that you are an addict too."

11. The "Slippery Slope" Fallacy
Defending a position by predicting irreversible outcomes if the position is not
agreed upon. Once the first step is taken, nothing can stop the unfortunate
results.
Example #1: "You start by allowing one black family in the neighborhood, and
pretty soon the whole city is taken over by them.“
Example #2: "If you don't go to war with the Chinese now, they'll invade all of
Asia.“
How a client might use the slippery slope fallacy: "Coffee's a gateway drug to
alcohol and other drugs. Show me an addict that didn't start out by drinking
coffee."

12. Argumentum Ad Ignorantium ("Argument from Ignorance")
Arguing that a position must be true because no one can prove it is false. No
valid evidence is used to support the issue, but it must be assumed to be a valid
position anyway because there is no way to prove the position can't be true.
Example #1: "I had lunch with Sasquatch yesterday. You weren't there, so how
would you know that I didn't?“
Example #2: "Injecting gasoline might cure the hiccups. It's never been tried
before, so how do you know it wouldn't work?“
How a client might use argumentum ad ignorantum: "I never would have had a
problem with drugs if my family had stayed in Ohio. Once I got to Maine I started
using. Never would have happened if we'd stayed in Cleveland.“

13. Argumentum Ad Speculum ("Hypothetical Argument To Prove The Point")
Defending a position by creating an imaginary example and having no other
supporting evidence. These arguments are often fueled by fearful imagination.
Example #1: "Okay, suppose everyone suddenly came down with the flu. How
would you keep your store open if everyone stayed home sick?“
Example #2: "So, you're saying we should get a new Toyota. What if there's an
embargo or something and we can't get parts for it?“
How a client might use argumentum ad speculum: "I can't go to a self-help group.
What if everyone starts laughing at me?"

14. Argumentum Ad Verecundium ("Appeal to Improper Authority")
Using the words or deeds of someone who has no authoritative relevance to
support a position. This argument is often used to support gossip. Sometimes, the
reference is to a person who has some legitimate authority but has a biased point
of view.
Example #1: "My cousin said we should stop using microwave ovens because
they cause brain damage, and he works in a store that sells them, so he knows
what he's talking about.“
Example #2: "Dr. Fischer said this medication is the best on the market, and he
should know, he's been a pharmacologist for thirty years. He also owns the
company.“
How a client might use argumentum ad verecundium: "My dealer told me I won't
have any withdrawal symptoms if I take Valium with OxyContin."

15. Peer group meeting
What are some fallacies you think your clients may have?
What makes these beliefs fallacies?
What makes these beliefs potentially dangerous to the client?
Without arguing with your client, how can you challenge these fallacies?
What current issues affecting addiction and recovery are susceptible to
fallacies?