Running title: Communication disorders 3
Name:
University:
Professor:
Date:
Explain how understanding the conceptual model of working memory helps you in selecting strategies to take in helping a child that may have a communicative disorder. Please give an example of a strategy that you might use with a child with a specific communicative disorder.
Construct a scenario of a team approach that could be developed when working with a child that has a specific communicative disorder. You should identify the communicative disorder that the child has in this scenario and provide research and techniques/strategies that are known to be effective with this type of communicative disorder.
Evaluate the benefits for family and children in being connected to organizations associated with a specific communicative disorder. These organizations can be found from the list in your chapter reading or from an internet search.
Explain how understanding the conceptual model of working memory helps you in selecting strategies to take in helping a child that may have a communicative disorder. Please give an example of a strategy that you might use with a child with a specific communicative disorder.
Understanding the communication disorder is quite convenient towards the selection of the best mode of commiunication with a disabled child. (Sigman & Norman,1999). When am able to know some causes of communication disorders that the child is facing and this includes hearing loss in a child, neurological disorders, brain injury, mental retardation, drug abuse, physical impairments such as cleft lip or palate, emotional or psychiatric autism, and developmental disorders (Howlin, Mawhood, & Rutter, 2000), I will be able to freely interact with the child with the disorder without making him feel bad. This might include the use of include joint attention, imitation, and toy play to socialize with the autistic disorder. (Adamson & Bakeman,1985,1991)
At 14 years, 8 months of age, Sam spontaneously imparted his aims, through nonverbal means, which included outward appearances (e.g., looking to staff to demand a nibble), physical motions (e.g., pulling his educators' hands to his head to demand a head rub), and more ordinary signals (e.g., indicating solicitation and a head shake to reject). He likewise utilized offbeat nonverbal flags that included gnawing his hand to impart positive and negative feelings and squeezing to dissent. Sam every so often utilized a couple of verbal word rough guesses (e.g., "no," "yes," "more," and "inflatable"), the sign for "help," and picture images on a voice yield gadget. Be that as it may, he commonly utilized these images latently, regularly because of a direct verbal brief from his social accomplice. From research, this shows that this is Autistic Disorder due to the fact that, he uses a variety of communication modes including speech, facial expressions, conventional gestures (e.g., pointing), unconvent.
Running Head MANAGEMENT OF AUTISM IN CHILDREN .docxcowinhelen
Running Head: MANAGEMENT OF AUTISM IN CHILDREN 1
MANAGEMENT OF AUTISM IN CHILDREN 2
Autism spectrum disorder in Toddlers
Name of student
Institution Affiliation
Literature review
After conducting an investigation on the connection of social skills, adaptability limitations, emotional and behavioural challenges among school children (Pack, C.J, et al., 2012) came to the conclusion that, kids diagnosed with autism had challenges related to daily social skills and behavioural complications. He proposed that physical conversation abilities are mostly related to practical and developmental effects rather than basic communication skills. However, according to a study by (Tager-Flusberg, et al., 2010) and (Ellawadi, A.B, et al., 2015), from their investigation on socialisation abilities of autistic toddlers and the variances in variables assumed to affect communication advancements at various ideal stages. They organised the toddler’s based on verbal communication standards to survey the variances on the chosen variables through the standardisation groupings. From the investigation they found that verbal communication standards are essential in describing premature communication outlines as well as determining factors that affect effective language development.
Besides, (Ellis Weimer, et al., 2010) described premature socialisation abilities among children suffering from Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD, n=257) by use of multiple communication advancement measures, in comparison to children with non-spectrum Developmental Delay (DD, N=69. Results of ASD presented substantial variance in the outline of receptive-sensitive communication skills for autism children in comparison to the development delay (DD). Children with autism had moderately more serious receptive verbal delays than expressive. These results contradict those of (Ventola, P, et al., 2007) in their study. Ventola related the conduct of children suffering from autism spectrum disorder to general developmental delay. They came to the conclusion that the two categories of children shared a variety of related characteristics but still there were specific behavioural change that distinguished the two categories of children’s.
Another study by (Drew, A, et al 2007) through the means of Social Communication Assessment for Toddlers with Autism (SCATA) which measured communication skills on the two groups of children found to be suffering from the autism spectrum disorder came to the conclusion that the regularity and persistence of verbal acts of communications during childhood determined their communication abilities in the future. Socialisation acts provided a more prediction to association than replies and appeals.
Problem statement
Complains by parents about their growing children especially of age 4-12 years having a challenge on social skills with people have i ...
Running head LEARNING TO READ1LEARNING TO READ6.docxwlynn1
Running head: LEARNING TO READ 1
LEARNING TO READ 6
Learning to Read
Mary Williams
CSU
3/10/19
Learning to Read
Learning to read entails a complicated process progressing continuously from childhood. Orthographic knowledge and phonological awareness are ideal in the acquisition of reading and related writing skills. Their learning to read attributes to the ability of an individual and the information stored on memory to encode a spoken language. Also, the ability to comprehend, as well as detect the sound, and any units even small of distinct sounds in a speech postulate the process of learning that is unique to each.
From the empirical studies by Gray (2010), I have got to acknowledge that individuals, especially children take their primary step early in life to learn how to write and read. They develop fundamental concept understanding revolving around literacy and its importance before exhibiting production skill of reading and writing. Research postulates that children acknowledge the use of symbols, incorporating oral language, prints, pictures, and take part incoherent combination, therefore, facilitating their communication and creation of meaning in various contexts.
Children acquire substantial knowledge attributing to systems of the alphabet; begin to process the relationship between letters and sounds, as well as reading words, from their initial interaction and experiences with adults. In their continuous learning process, they effectively incorporate these formulations into structures and patterns that in turn facilitate fluency, as well as automaticity in learning. The all or nothing analogy defines the developmental continuum, thus conceptualizing acquisition of the learning skills.
Affirmatively, research on “learning to read” shows that the process develops naturally only after careful instruction and planning. Active and regular interactions with prints are of the essenceof this process. Immediate experiences with written and oral language lead to the required specific abilities critical for writing and reading. The skills one has early in their lives define the expectations and assumptions concerning inspiring a child to practice learning and becoming literate. From differentbackgrounds, the young person gets to acknowledge that writing and reading are significant elements that enable them to execute different things in their lives.
Moreover, children begin experimenting with language in their first periods of life. For instance, toddlers produce sounds imitating rhythms and tones of adult talk as they read facial expressions and gestures. Therefore, associating sequences of sounds with words frequently heard also, children delight in listening to familiar rhymes and jingles, manipulate objects like alphabet blocks and board books, as well as playing along with games such as pat-a-cake and peek-a-boo in their play. As a result, children learn to use several symbols from these first beginnings.
.
Running Head MANAGEMENT OF AUTISM IN CHILDREN .docxcowinhelen
Running Head: MANAGEMENT OF AUTISM IN CHILDREN 1
MANAGEMENT OF AUTISM IN CHILDREN 2
Autism spectrum disorder in Toddlers
Name of student
Institution Affiliation
Literature review
After conducting an investigation on the connection of social skills, adaptability limitations, emotional and behavioural challenges among school children (Pack, C.J, et al., 2012) came to the conclusion that, kids diagnosed with autism had challenges related to daily social skills and behavioural complications. He proposed that physical conversation abilities are mostly related to practical and developmental effects rather than basic communication skills. However, according to a study by (Tager-Flusberg, et al., 2010) and (Ellawadi, A.B, et al., 2015), from their investigation on socialisation abilities of autistic toddlers and the variances in variables assumed to affect communication advancements at various ideal stages. They organised the toddler’s based on verbal communication standards to survey the variances on the chosen variables through the standardisation groupings. From the investigation they found that verbal communication standards are essential in describing premature communication outlines as well as determining factors that affect effective language development.
Besides, (Ellis Weimer, et al., 2010) described premature socialisation abilities among children suffering from Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD, n=257) by use of multiple communication advancement measures, in comparison to children with non-spectrum Developmental Delay (DD, N=69. Results of ASD presented substantial variance in the outline of receptive-sensitive communication skills for autism children in comparison to the development delay (DD). Children with autism had moderately more serious receptive verbal delays than expressive. These results contradict those of (Ventola, P, et al., 2007) in their study. Ventola related the conduct of children suffering from autism spectrum disorder to general developmental delay. They came to the conclusion that the two categories of children shared a variety of related characteristics but still there were specific behavioural change that distinguished the two categories of children’s.
Another study by (Drew, A, et al 2007) through the means of Social Communication Assessment for Toddlers with Autism (SCATA) which measured communication skills on the two groups of children found to be suffering from the autism spectrum disorder came to the conclusion that the regularity and persistence of verbal acts of communications during childhood determined their communication abilities in the future. Socialisation acts provided a more prediction to association than replies and appeals.
Problem statement
Complains by parents about their growing children especially of age 4-12 years having a challenge on social skills with people have i ...
Running head LEARNING TO READ1LEARNING TO READ6.docxwlynn1
Running head: LEARNING TO READ 1
LEARNING TO READ 6
Learning to Read
Mary Williams
CSU
3/10/19
Learning to Read
Learning to read entails a complicated process progressing continuously from childhood. Orthographic knowledge and phonological awareness are ideal in the acquisition of reading and related writing skills. Their learning to read attributes to the ability of an individual and the information stored on memory to encode a spoken language. Also, the ability to comprehend, as well as detect the sound, and any units even small of distinct sounds in a speech postulate the process of learning that is unique to each.
From the empirical studies by Gray (2010), I have got to acknowledge that individuals, especially children take their primary step early in life to learn how to write and read. They develop fundamental concept understanding revolving around literacy and its importance before exhibiting production skill of reading and writing. Research postulates that children acknowledge the use of symbols, incorporating oral language, prints, pictures, and take part incoherent combination, therefore, facilitating their communication and creation of meaning in various contexts.
Children acquire substantial knowledge attributing to systems of the alphabet; begin to process the relationship between letters and sounds, as well as reading words, from their initial interaction and experiences with adults. In their continuous learning process, they effectively incorporate these formulations into structures and patterns that in turn facilitate fluency, as well as automaticity in learning. The all or nothing analogy defines the developmental continuum, thus conceptualizing acquisition of the learning skills.
Affirmatively, research on “learning to read” shows that the process develops naturally only after careful instruction and planning. Active and regular interactions with prints are of the essenceof this process. Immediate experiences with written and oral language lead to the required specific abilities critical for writing and reading. The skills one has early in their lives define the expectations and assumptions concerning inspiring a child to practice learning and becoming literate. From differentbackgrounds, the young person gets to acknowledge that writing and reading are significant elements that enable them to execute different things in their lives.
Moreover, children begin experimenting with language in their first periods of life. For instance, toddlers produce sounds imitating rhythms and tones of adult talk as they read facial expressions and gestures. Therefore, associating sequences of sounds with words frequently heard also, children delight in listening to familiar rhymes and jingles, manipulate objects like alphabet blocks and board books, as well as playing along with games such as pat-a-cake and peek-a-boo in their play. As a result, children learn to use several symbols from these first beginnings.
.
8.1 Problem Solving with AdultsStandard 1 of NAEYCs Early Child.docxalinainglis
8.1 Problem Solving with Adults
Standard 1 of NAEYC's Early Childhood Program Standards and Accreditation Criteria (2005a) states, "The program promotes positive relationships among all children and adults to encourage each child's sense of individual worth and belonging as part of a community and to foster each child's ability to contribute as a responsible community member" (p. 9). The rationale for the standard is that positive relationships and a positive, nurturing, sensitive climate are essential for the development of emotional regulation, constructive interactions, and overall learning in children (NAEYC, 2005a). Children develop a positive sense of self, and they are encouraged to respect and cooperate with others.
However, problems, conflicts, disagreements, and distrust can—and often do—develop. These can occur between the family and the program, between staff within the programs—staff to staff, directors and staff, staff and consultants—and between children in the program. When this occurs, caregivers need to engage in problem solving. While no family or early care and education program is ever totally without conflicts and issues to solve, the goal is, firstly, to create an environment where constructive problem solving can take place and, secondly, to be able to constructively solve problems.
Feelings
Conflicts, confusion, and disagreements can cause intense feelings among those involved. To address conflicts and disagreements, we must try to determine where these feelings come from. In the heat of the moment, this will probably not be possible, but once we have had time to reflect, we need to look at the feelings that disagreements and problems produce.
We all have feelings, and it is very important to accept and appreciate these feelings. We need to reflect on our feelings and on why certain things make us feel a certain way. Feelings are complex, subjective experiences that involve physical and mental aspects of self—they can be felt, expressed, acted on, and thought about (Greenspan & Greenspan, 1985). All feelings have value and are useful—even ones we view as negative. Feelings are how we react to experiences, and they help us organize and make sense of our world. The great works of art, music, drama, and dance are based on feelings—some pleasant, and some dark and tragic.
We learn about feelings from our childhood experiences. When children are young, adults label the child's emotions: "That bang scared you!" "The dog's bark upset you!" Part of this socialization process is to help children know how to respond to the environment—for safety, to develop appropriate reactions to the environment, and to teach children culturally appropriate responses to their feelings. Other feelings, such as those of love, trust, fear, excitement, and surprise, are natural responses to the environment that help us feel good about ourselves and the social environment (Rogers, 1980).
Another way we learn about feelings is through social r.
Neurodiversity and Young Children with Special NeedsThomas Armstrong
This is an article based on a keynote speech I did on October 26, 2013 at the 13th Annual International Conference on Early Childhood Education held in Monterrey, Mexico.
JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSISIMPROVING SOCIAL SKILL.docxcroysierkathey
JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
IMPROVING SOCIAL SKILLS AND DISRUPTIVE BEHAVIOR IN
CHILDREN WITH AUTISM THROUGH SELF-MANAGEMENT
LYiNN KERN Koiwom, ROBERT L. KoEGia, CsmI HuRuLy, AND
WIn"IAM D. F"A
UNIVERSITY OF CAORNIA AT SANTA BARBARA
The literature suggests that children with autism typically are unresponsive to verbal initiations
from others in community settings, and that such unresponsiveness can lead to problematic social
interactions and severely disruptive behavior. The present study assessed whether self-management
could be used as a technique to produce extended improvements in responsiveness to verbal initiations
from others in community, home, and school settings without the presence of a treatment provider.
The results showed that children with autism who displayed severe deficits in social skills could
learn to self-manage responsivity to others in multiple community settings, and that such improve-
ments were associated with concomitant reductions in disruptive behavior without the need for
special intervention. The results are discussed in terms of their significance for improved development
of social skills in children with autism.
DESCRIPTORS: autism, self-management, social skills, language, disruptive behavior
Although language researchers traditionally have
been concerned with syntax (i.e., structure) and
semantics (i.e., referential meaning), a shift in the
field has gradually emerged that emphasizes a func-
tional approach to understanding communicative
competence and stresses a social perspective of lan-
guage use (Kaiser & Warren, 1985). With the
shift toward pragmatics, a greater emphasis is now
being placed on the social interaction of commu-
nicators within a given context, thus resulting in
the study of larger units of conversation. Some
questions of prime concern for pragmatic assess-
Funding for this research was provided in part by Cali-
fornia State Department of Education Special Study Grant
No. 42-03651-N27 1-00-33 that funded pilot work (USPHS
MH28210 and MH39434 from the National Institutes of
Mental Health) and by NIDRR Cooperative Agreement
G0087CO234 from the U.S. Department of Education. The
authors thank Alfred Bimbela, Yong Cho, Amanda Damron,
Diane De la Riva, Sherri Goldstein, Trina Gravelle, Julie
Jacobson, Kimberly Mullen, Teresa Paslawski, Deborah Ru-
more Parks, Annette Smith, Jodi Smith, Kimi Stahler, Shel-
ley Weichman, Laura Wilde, school personnel, and parents
for their assistance throughout the study. In addition, we
thank Rob Homer, Ted Canf, Wayne Sailor, and Glen Dun-
lap for their feedback on earlier drafts of this study.
Requests for reprints should be addressed to Lynn Kern
Koegel, Autism Research Center, Counseling/Clinical/
School/Psychology Program, Graduate School of Education,
University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106-
9490.
ment are: (a) Does the child relay a message ac-
curately? (b) Can the child adhere to a topic without
abrupt transitions to ne ...
JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSISIMPROVING SOCIAL SKILLkarenahmanny4c
JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
IMPROVING SOCIAL SKILLS AND DISRUPTIVE BEHAVIOR IN
CHILDREN WITH AUTISM THROUGH SELF-MANAGEMENT
LYiNN KERN Koiwom, ROBERT L. KoEGia, CsmI HuRuLy, AND
WIn"IAM D. F"A
UNIVERSITY OF CAORNIA AT SANTA BARBARA
The literature suggests that children with autism typically are unresponsive to verbal initiations
from others in community settings, and that such unresponsiveness can lead to problematic social
interactions and severely disruptive behavior. The present study assessed whether self-management
could be used as a technique to produce extended improvements in responsiveness to verbal initiations
from others in community, home, and school settings without the presence of a treatment provider.
The results showed that children with autism who displayed severe deficits in social skills could
learn to self-manage responsivity to others in multiple community settings, and that such improve-
ments were associated with concomitant reductions in disruptive behavior without the need for
special intervention. The results are discussed in terms of their significance for improved development
of social skills in children with autism.
DESCRIPTORS: autism, self-management, social skills, language, disruptive behavior
Although language researchers traditionally have
been concerned with syntax (i.e., structure) and
semantics (i.e., referential meaning), a shift in the
field has gradually emerged that emphasizes a func-
tional approach to understanding communicative
competence and stresses a social perspective of lan-
guage use (Kaiser & Warren, 1985). With the
shift toward pragmatics, a greater emphasis is now
being placed on the social interaction of commu-
nicators within a given context, thus resulting in
the study of larger units of conversation. Some
questions of prime concern for pragmatic assess-
Funding for this research was provided in part by Cali-
fornia State Department of Education Special Study Grant
No. 42-03651-N27 1-00-33 that funded pilot work (USPHS
MH28210 and MH39434 from the National Institutes of
Mental Health) and by NIDRR Cooperative Agreement
G0087CO234 from the U.S. Department of Education. The
authors thank Alfred Bimbela, Yong Cho, Amanda Damron,
Diane De la Riva, Sherri Goldstein, Trina Gravelle, Julie
Jacobson, Kimberly Mullen, Teresa Paslawski, Deborah Ru-
more Parks, Annette Smith, Jodi Smith, Kimi Stahler, Shel-
ley Weichman, Laura Wilde, school personnel, and parents
for their assistance throughout the study. In addition, we
thank Rob Homer, Ted Canf, Wayne Sailor, and Glen Dun-
lap for their feedback on earlier drafts of this study.
Requests for reprints should be addressed to Lynn Kern
Koegel, Autism Research Center, Counseling/Clinical/
School/Psychology Program, Graduate School of Education,
University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106-
9490.
ment are: (a) Does the child relay a message ac-
curately? (b) Can the child adhere to a topic without
abrupt transitions to ne ...
CHILD DEVELOPMENT OBSERVATION AND REFLECTIONAngel WinslowJinElias52
CHILD DEVELOPMENT: OBSERVATION AND REFLECTION
Angel Winslow
Module 2 Assignment 1
“Child Development: Observation and Reflection”
Date Due: June 21, 2021
The goal is to provide descriptive anecdotes for each developmental domain direct observation of children aged 3 to 5. This will also provide descriptions of the observed children's developmental domains and their interrelationships. This research will also include a comment based on the observation experience on how the experience affected my decisions on how to do child observations, problems encountered, and techniques used when obtaining data.Social-emotional
Preschool-aged children are developing skills that will help them connect with others in the social-emotional developmental domain. These abilities will enable them to become more conscious of how to engage with people and reap the benefits of social support in developing and functioning healthily. Children benefit from favorable long-term interactions with adults because they foster healthy social and emotional development (California Dept. of Ed., 2015c). It is in this domain, children begin to delve deeply into their own and others' emotions. In the video, a boy is shown assisting another wheelchair-bound boy; this is evidence of this child's awareness of others' feelings and his ability to form and maintain friendships (Laureate Educ., 2015b).Cognitive
Early childhood cognitive development occurs when children engage with their surroundings and other individuals. "When children are healthy, emotionally comfortable, and socially attached, their cognitive development is enhanced." Cause and effect are included in cognitive growth to help solve problems, make predictions, and understand how their action affects others (California Dept. of Ed., 2015a). Children learn through seeing, listening, and doing, and as they become older, their cognitive growth grows in these areas. Children begin to solve issues by playing with objects, mimicking others, and employing trial and error through their cognitive development. Children's cognitive development will be enhanced if we connect with them and provide the opportunity to solve problems and engage with people and their environment. One of the children in the video was working in this developmental area to figure out how to turn the toy. Another illustration of children's cognitive growth occurred when the girls in the video sat for a lengthy period while listening to the caregiver read a book. Children at this age are more active learners and have longer attention spans during cognitive development (Cherry, 2019).Language
Language is one of the most important developmental areas during the preschool years. "Beyond simply connecting with the outside world, language development in the formative years of ages 3 to 5 is crucial for a child's healthy intellectual and social development" (Murphy, 2017). Language awareness, phonemic mindfulness (letter clues), spoken and written language are all ...
— This paper provides general information on the language of children with Trisomy 21, on their development and on the methods of educational-therapeutic intervention. I defined the means of applying of Total Communication in the development of communication and of the language in 21-trisomic children. Mental retardation in 21-trisomic children impairs learning ability in many fields, with a negative impact on children's communication ability; these communication possibilities should be improved throughout their entire life. This paper highlights the methods of intervention using Total Communication, the evolution throughout therapy; the therapy will continue in order to attain the objectives determined within the complex educational therapy program. An early educative intervention contributes to the systematisation of all chances of obtaining a more rapid psychological development of 21-trisomic children until the level becomes easy to achieve.
The Role and Strategy to Stimulate Language Development in Early Childhood Du...EvaniaYafie
The development of aspects of language in human life is very important. A
language is a tool of education and interaction between individuals. Language development
problems in early childhood that often arise are late language emergence (LLE). From some
previous studies, stimulation and education factors become guidelines for teachers and
parents in providing appropriate stimulation through the principle of play while learning and
adapted to the development and age of the child. The purpose of this study is to describe the
role and strategy of stimulating children's language development during the COVID
pandemic. The design of this study uses the method of literature study or literature review.
The results and discussion of strategies for developing children's language for 1-2 years old
can be done by 1) Mothering, 2) Recasting, 3) Echoing 4) Expanding 5) Labeling. While
strategies for developing children's language for ages 3-6 years 1) Increasing Interaction and
Communication with Children 2) Reading aloud, 3) Involving Children in Storytelling, 4)
Providing literacy activities.
Sample Summaries of Emily Raine’s Why Should I Be Nice to You.docxagnesdcarey33086
Sample Summaries of Emily Raine’s “Why Should I Be Nice to You”
Sample Summary 1
Most people at some point in their life have worked in the service industry. This particular
industry can be quite satisfying whether it be working in fine dining, as a cocktail waitress, or at a local
diner, but for Emily Raine, who had done all of these things, the only place she ever felt “whipped” was
working as a barista at one of largest specialty coffee chains in the world (358). Raine is bothered by
how the café industry has set up the impersonal server/customer relationship and feels the best way to
solve the issue is be to “be rude” (365). In 2005, Raine expanded in an essay that appeared in the
online journal, Bad Subjects, on her frustration within the service industry and what good service really
means.
Good service in the coffee industry does not require much skill these days. Most people are
usually talking on their cell phone while ordering their daily coffee and pastry while also paying and then
out as fast as they walked into the café probably not even noticing or acknowledging any interaction
with the people serving. The coffee sector has recognized this and has set up the counters as linear
coffee bars that act the same as an assembly line. The workers are trained and assigned specific jobs in
the coffee preparing process, such as taking the order, handling the money, making the drink, to
delivery. This makes the interaction with the customer very limited, mostly just seconds. This is where
Raine feels some of the problem with the customer and server interaction. Although this is the most
effective and efficient way of working, Raine describes productive work as “dreary and repetitive” (359).
Since the 1960’s companies have been branding themselves with the quality of having “good
service” distinguishing them from the rest of the competition. Raines explains that in good service there
is an exchange between two parties: “the ‘we’ that gladly serves and the ‘you’ that happily receives,”
but also a third party, the boss, which is the ultimate decider on exactly what good service will be (360).
Companies in the service industry must market their products on servers’ friendliness; therefore
it is monitored and controlled from the people on top. Raine notes that cafés “layouts and management
styles” help create a cozy atmosphere that plays a factor in good service, but in a way that will not
disrupt the output (361). In Raine’s essay, she gives the example of an employee Starbucks has
branded; “The happy, wholesome perfume-free barista” (361). She points out that the company offers
workers stock options, health insurance, dental plans, as well as other perks of discounts and giveaways,
while also using moving personal accounts from workers who “never deemed corporate America could
care so much” (362). Raines also adds that the company does not give into unionization and although
the company pay.
SAMPLEExecutive Summary The following report is an evalua.docxagnesdcarey33086
SAMPLE:
Executive Summary
The following report is an evaluation of multiple facets of the Uruguayan economy, its overall investment attractiveness, and feasibility of doing business. After conducting research and analysis on the country in areas such as legal frameworks, fiscal policy, trade relations, infrastructure, housing, and monetary policy, Uruguay proves to be an economy of strong opportunity when evaluated against its regional/continental partners, but with significant and pressing challenges that would place the nation lower when considered at a global level. The national government and political system are proven to be stable, offering legal protections and investment frameworks that are comparable to developed economies. As a member of MERCOSUR and independently, Uruguay has ratified trade agreements, particularly with developed nations and Latin America, in a variety of structures, namely goods, services, investment promotion and protection, public procurement, and double taxation avoidance. The country offers valuable exports, and derives its imports significantly from MERCOSUR members in which people, goods, and currency are permitted to move freely. Uruguay has shown strong numbers in growth, particularly GDP and unemployment rate. Having reacted appropriately to an economic and banking crisis in the early 2000s, Uruguay was one of the few countries that was not significantly impacted by the 2008-09 economic crisis. The housing market has also seen considerable growth and looks to continue growing as the level of foreign direct investment in construction increases. Challenges that have limited the country and are foreseeable as continuing to limit Uruguay’s attractiveness include a public banking system that offers limited access to credit, undesired volatility in prime rate lending, seemingly unsustainable fiscal policy, and a lack of coordination in monetary and exchange rate policies. Given the widespread availability and transparency of information on the country and having taken all these factors into consideration, we determine Uruguay to be one of best investment opportunities in terms of a Latin American scope, but as still significantly behind developed economies. A total score of 30.5 points out of a possible 55 was assigned.
Description and Analysis of Each Measured Attribute
A.1 Government Expenditure, Tax System, Rule of Law, and Education System - 2/5; This ranking reflects Uruguay’s controlled government spending and competitive tax rate. The tax free zones are a great way to incentivize companies to operating in Uruguay. However, it does take into account the difficult experiences that corporations undergo in paying taxes. Uruguay benefits from a mature democracy with a stable political system and independent judiciary system. Uruguay has a well-established education system that provides free education and equal access to all students through the university level. However, the socioeconomic gap become.
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8.1 Problem Solving with AdultsStandard 1 of NAEYCs Early Child.docxalinainglis
8.1 Problem Solving with Adults
Standard 1 of NAEYC's Early Childhood Program Standards and Accreditation Criteria (2005a) states, "The program promotes positive relationships among all children and adults to encourage each child's sense of individual worth and belonging as part of a community and to foster each child's ability to contribute as a responsible community member" (p. 9). The rationale for the standard is that positive relationships and a positive, nurturing, sensitive climate are essential for the development of emotional regulation, constructive interactions, and overall learning in children (NAEYC, 2005a). Children develop a positive sense of self, and they are encouraged to respect and cooperate with others.
However, problems, conflicts, disagreements, and distrust can—and often do—develop. These can occur between the family and the program, between staff within the programs—staff to staff, directors and staff, staff and consultants—and between children in the program. When this occurs, caregivers need to engage in problem solving. While no family or early care and education program is ever totally without conflicts and issues to solve, the goal is, firstly, to create an environment where constructive problem solving can take place and, secondly, to be able to constructively solve problems.
Feelings
Conflicts, confusion, and disagreements can cause intense feelings among those involved. To address conflicts and disagreements, we must try to determine where these feelings come from. In the heat of the moment, this will probably not be possible, but once we have had time to reflect, we need to look at the feelings that disagreements and problems produce.
We all have feelings, and it is very important to accept and appreciate these feelings. We need to reflect on our feelings and on why certain things make us feel a certain way. Feelings are complex, subjective experiences that involve physical and mental aspects of self—they can be felt, expressed, acted on, and thought about (Greenspan & Greenspan, 1985). All feelings have value and are useful—even ones we view as negative. Feelings are how we react to experiences, and they help us organize and make sense of our world. The great works of art, music, drama, and dance are based on feelings—some pleasant, and some dark and tragic.
We learn about feelings from our childhood experiences. When children are young, adults label the child's emotions: "That bang scared you!" "The dog's bark upset you!" Part of this socialization process is to help children know how to respond to the environment—for safety, to develop appropriate reactions to the environment, and to teach children culturally appropriate responses to their feelings. Other feelings, such as those of love, trust, fear, excitement, and surprise, are natural responses to the environment that help us feel good about ourselves and the social environment (Rogers, 1980).
Another way we learn about feelings is through social r.
Neurodiversity and Young Children with Special NeedsThomas Armstrong
This is an article based on a keynote speech I did on October 26, 2013 at the 13th Annual International Conference on Early Childhood Education held in Monterrey, Mexico.
JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSISIMPROVING SOCIAL SKILL.docxcroysierkathey
JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
IMPROVING SOCIAL SKILLS AND DISRUPTIVE BEHAVIOR IN
CHILDREN WITH AUTISM THROUGH SELF-MANAGEMENT
LYiNN KERN Koiwom, ROBERT L. KoEGia, CsmI HuRuLy, AND
WIn"IAM D. F"A
UNIVERSITY OF CAORNIA AT SANTA BARBARA
The literature suggests that children with autism typically are unresponsive to verbal initiations
from others in community settings, and that such unresponsiveness can lead to problematic social
interactions and severely disruptive behavior. The present study assessed whether self-management
could be used as a technique to produce extended improvements in responsiveness to verbal initiations
from others in community, home, and school settings without the presence of a treatment provider.
The results showed that children with autism who displayed severe deficits in social skills could
learn to self-manage responsivity to others in multiple community settings, and that such improve-
ments were associated with concomitant reductions in disruptive behavior without the need for
special intervention. The results are discussed in terms of their significance for improved development
of social skills in children with autism.
DESCRIPTORS: autism, self-management, social skills, language, disruptive behavior
Although language researchers traditionally have
been concerned with syntax (i.e., structure) and
semantics (i.e., referential meaning), a shift in the
field has gradually emerged that emphasizes a func-
tional approach to understanding communicative
competence and stresses a social perspective of lan-
guage use (Kaiser & Warren, 1985). With the
shift toward pragmatics, a greater emphasis is now
being placed on the social interaction of commu-
nicators within a given context, thus resulting in
the study of larger units of conversation. Some
questions of prime concern for pragmatic assess-
Funding for this research was provided in part by Cali-
fornia State Department of Education Special Study Grant
No. 42-03651-N27 1-00-33 that funded pilot work (USPHS
MH28210 and MH39434 from the National Institutes of
Mental Health) and by NIDRR Cooperative Agreement
G0087CO234 from the U.S. Department of Education. The
authors thank Alfred Bimbela, Yong Cho, Amanda Damron,
Diane De la Riva, Sherri Goldstein, Trina Gravelle, Julie
Jacobson, Kimberly Mullen, Teresa Paslawski, Deborah Ru-
more Parks, Annette Smith, Jodi Smith, Kimi Stahler, Shel-
ley Weichman, Laura Wilde, school personnel, and parents
for their assistance throughout the study. In addition, we
thank Rob Homer, Ted Canf, Wayne Sailor, and Glen Dun-
lap for their feedback on earlier drafts of this study.
Requests for reprints should be addressed to Lynn Kern
Koegel, Autism Research Center, Counseling/Clinical/
School/Psychology Program, Graduate School of Education,
University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106-
9490.
ment are: (a) Does the child relay a message ac-
curately? (b) Can the child adhere to a topic without
abrupt transitions to ne ...
JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSISIMPROVING SOCIAL SKILLkarenahmanny4c
JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
IMPROVING SOCIAL SKILLS AND DISRUPTIVE BEHAVIOR IN
CHILDREN WITH AUTISM THROUGH SELF-MANAGEMENT
LYiNN KERN Koiwom, ROBERT L. KoEGia, CsmI HuRuLy, AND
WIn"IAM D. F"A
UNIVERSITY OF CAORNIA AT SANTA BARBARA
The literature suggests that children with autism typically are unresponsive to verbal initiations
from others in community settings, and that such unresponsiveness can lead to problematic social
interactions and severely disruptive behavior. The present study assessed whether self-management
could be used as a technique to produce extended improvements in responsiveness to verbal initiations
from others in community, home, and school settings without the presence of a treatment provider.
The results showed that children with autism who displayed severe deficits in social skills could
learn to self-manage responsivity to others in multiple community settings, and that such improve-
ments were associated with concomitant reductions in disruptive behavior without the need for
special intervention. The results are discussed in terms of their significance for improved development
of social skills in children with autism.
DESCRIPTORS: autism, self-management, social skills, language, disruptive behavior
Although language researchers traditionally have
been concerned with syntax (i.e., structure) and
semantics (i.e., referential meaning), a shift in the
field has gradually emerged that emphasizes a func-
tional approach to understanding communicative
competence and stresses a social perspective of lan-
guage use (Kaiser & Warren, 1985). With the
shift toward pragmatics, a greater emphasis is now
being placed on the social interaction of commu-
nicators within a given context, thus resulting in
the study of larger units of conversation. Some
questions of prime concern for pragmatic assess-
Funding for this research was provided in part by Cali-
fornia State Department of Education Special Study Grant
No. 42-03651-N27 1-00-33 that funded pilot work (USPHS
MH28210 and MH39434 from the National Institutes of
Mental Health) and by NIDRR Cooperative Agreement
G0087CO234 from the U.S. Department of Education. The
authors thank Alfred Bimbela, Yong Cho, Amanda Damron,
Diane De la Riva, Sherri Goldstein, Trina Gravelle, Julie
Jacobson, Kimberly Mullen, Teresa Paslawski, Deborah Ru-
more Parks, Annette Smith, Jodi Smith, Kimi Stahler, Shel-
ley Weichman, Laura Wilde, school personnel, and parents
for their assistance throughout the study. In addition, we
thank Rob Homer, Ted Canf, Wayne Sailor, and Glen Dun-
lap for their feedback on earlier drafts of this study.
Requests for reprints should be addressed to Lynn Kern
Koegel, Autism Research Center, Counseling/Clinical/
School/Psychology Program, Graduate School of Education,
University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106-
9490.
ment are: (a) Does the child relay a message ac-
curately? (b) Can the child adhere to a topic without
abrupt transitions to ne ...
CHILD DEVELOPMENT OBSERVATION AND REFLECTIONAngel WinslowJinElias52
CHILD DEVELOPMENT: OBSERVATION AND REFLECTION
Angel Winslow
Module 2 Assignment 1
“Child Development: Observation and Reflection”
Date Due: June 21, 2021
The goal is to provide descriptive anecdotes for each developmental domain direct observation of children aged 3 to 5. This will also provide descriptions of the observed children's developmental domains and their interrelationships. This research will also include a comment based on the observation experience on how the experience affected my decisions on how to do child observations, problems encountered, and techniques used when obtaining data.Social-emotional
Preschool-aged children are developing skills that will help them connect with others in the social-emotional developmental domain. These abilities will enable them to become more conscious of how to engage with people and reap the benefits of social support in developing and functioning healthily. Children benefit from favorable long-term interactions with adults because they foster healthy social and emotional development (California Dept. of Ed., 2015c). It is in this domain, children begin to delve deeply into their own and others' emotions. In the video, a boy is shown assisting another wheelchair-bound boy; this is evidence of this child's awareness of others' feelings and his ability to form and maintain friendships (Laureate Educ., 2015b).Cognitive
Early childhood cognitive development occurs when children engage with their surroundings and other individuals. "When children are healthy, emotionally comfortable, and socially attached, their cognitive development is enhanced." Cause and effect are included in cognitive growth to help solve problems, make predictions, and understand how their action affects others (California Dept. of Ed., 2015a). Children learn through seeing, listening, and doing, and as they become older, their cognitive growth grows in these areas. Children begin to solve issues by playing with objects, mimicking others, and employing trial and error through their cognitive development. Children's cognitive development will be enhanced if we connect with them and provide the opportunity to solve problems and engage with people and their environment. One of the children in the video was working in this developmental area to figure out how to turn the toy. Another illustration of children's cognitive growth occurred when the girls in the video sat for a lengthy period while listening to the caregiver read a book. Children at this age are more active learners and have longer attention spans during cognitive development (Cherry, 2019).Language
Language is one of the most important developmental areas during the preschool years. "Beyond simply connecting with the outside world, language development in the formative years of ages 3 to 5 is crucial for a child's healthy intellectual and social development" (Murphy, 2017). Language awareness, phonemic mindfulness (letter clues), spoken and written language are all ...
— This paper provides general information on the language of children with Trisomy 21, on their development and on the methods of educational-therapeutic intervention. I defined the means of applying of Total Communication in the development of communication and of the language in 21-trisomic children. Mental retardation in 21-trisomic children impairs learning ability in many fields, with a negative impact on children's communication ability; these communication possibilities should be improved throughout their entire life. This paper highlights the methods of intervention using Total Communication, the evolution throughout therapy; the therapy will continue in order to attain the objectives determined within the complex educational therapy program. An early educative intervention contributes to the systematisation of all chances of obtaining a more rapid psychological development of 21-trisomic children until the level becomes easy to achieve.
The Role and Strategy to Stimulate Language Development in Early Childhood Du...EvaniaYafie
The development of aspects of language in human life is very important. A
language is a tool of education and interaction between individuals. Language development
problems in early childhood that often arise are late language emergence (LLE). From some
previous studies, stimulation and education factors become guidelines for teachers and
parents in providing appropriate stimulation through the principle of play while learning and
adapted to the development and age of the child. The purpose of this study is to describe the
role and strategy of stimulating children's language development during the COVID
pandemic. The design of this study uses the method of literature study or literature review.
The results and discussion of strategies for developing children's language for 1-2 years old
can be done by 1) Mothering, 2) Recasting, 3) Echoing 4) Expanding 5) Labeling. While
strategies for developing children's language for ages 3-6 years 1) Increasing Interaction and
Communication with Children 2) Reading aloud, 3) Involving Children in Storytelling, 4)
Providing literacy activities.
Similar to Running title Communication disorders 3NameUniversit.docx (20)
Sample Summaries of Emily Raine’s Why Should I Be Nice to You.docxagnesdcarey33086
Sample Summaries of Emily Raine’s “Why Should I Be Nice to You”
Sample Summary 1
Most people at some point in their life have worked in the service industry. This particular
industry can be quite satisfying whether it be working in fine dining, as a cocktail waitress, or at a local
diner, but for Emily Raine, who had done all of these things, the only place she ever felt “whipped” was
working as a barista at one of largest specialty coffee chains in the world (358). Raine is bothered by
how the café industry has set up the impersonal server/customer relationship and feels the best way to
solve the issue is be to “be rude” (365). In 2005, Raine expanded in an essay that appeared in the
online journal, Bad Subjects, on her frustration within the service industry and what good service really
means.
Good service in the coffee industry does not require much skill these days. Most people are
usually talking on their cell phone while ordering their daily coffee and pastry while also paying and then
out as fast as they walked into the café probably not even noticing or acknowledging any interaction
with the people serving. The coffee sector has recognized this and has set up the counters as linear
coffee bars that act the same as an assembly line. The workers are trained and assigned specific jobs in
the coffee preparing process, such as taking the order, handling the money, making the drink, to
delivery. This makes the interaction with the customer very limited, mostly just seconds. This is where
Raine feels some of the problem with the customer and server interaction. Although this is the most
effective and efficient way of working, Raine describes productive work as “dreary and repetitive” (359).
Since the 1960’s companies have been branding themselves with the quality of having “good
service” distinguishing them from the rest of the competition. Raines explains that in good service there
is an exchange between two parties: “the ‘we’ that gladly serves and the ‘you’ that happily receives,”
but also a third party, the boss, which is the ultimate decider on exactly what good service will be (360).
Companies in the service industry must market their products on servers’ friendliness; therefore
it is monitored and controlled from the people on top. Raine notes that cafés “layouts and management
styles” help create a cozy atmosphere that plays a factor in good service, but in a way that will not
disrupt the output (361). In Raine’s essay, she gives the example of an employee Starbucks has
branded; “The happy, wholesome perfume-free barista” (361). She points out that the company offers
workers stock options, health insurance, dental plans, as well as other perks of discounts and giveaways,
while also using moving personal accounts from workers who “never deemed corporate America could
care so much” (362). Raines also adds that the company does not give into unionization and although
the company pay.
SAMPLEExecutive Summary The following report is an evalua.docxagnesdcarey33086
SAMPLE:
Executive Summary
The following report is an evaluation of multiple facets of the Uruguayan economy, its overall investment attractiveness, and feasibility of doing business. After conducting research and analysis on the country in areas such as legal frameworks, fiscal policy, trade relations, infrastructure, housing, and monetary policy, Uruguay proves to be an economy of strong opportunity when evaluated against its regional/continental partners, but with significant and pressing challenges that would place the nation lower when considered at a global level. The national government and political system are proven to be stable, offering legal protections and investment frameworks that are comparable to developed economies. As a member of MERCOSUR and independently, Uruguay has ratified trade agreements, particularly with developed nations and Latin America, in a variety of structures, namely goods, services, investment promotion and protection, public procurement, and double taxation avoidance. The country offers valuable exports, and derives its imports significantly from MERCOSUR members in which people, goods, and currency are permitted to move freely. Uruguay has shown strong numbers in growth, particularly GDP and unemployment rate. Having reacted appropriately to an economic and banking crisis in the early 2000s, Uruguay was one of the few countries that was not significantly impacted by the 2008-09 economic crisis. The housing market has also seen considerable growth and looks to continue growing as the level of foreign direct investment in construction increases. Challenges that have limited the country and are foreseeable as continuing to limit Uruguay’s attractiveness include a public banking system that offers limited access to credit, undesired volatility in prime rate lending, seemingly unsustainable fiscal policy, and a lack of coordination in monetary and exchange rate policies. Given the widespread availability and transparency of information on the country and having taken all these factors into consideration, we determine Uruguay to be one of best investment opportunities in terms of a Latin American scope, but as still significantly behind developed economies. A total score of 30.5 points out of a possible 55 was assigned.
Description and Analysis of Each Measured Attribute
A.1 Government Expenditure, Tax System, Rule of Law, and Education System - 2/5; This ranking reflects Uruguay’s controlled government spending and competitive tax rate. The tax free zones are a great way to incentivize companies to operating in Uruguay. However, it does take into account the difficult experiences that corporations undergo in paying taxes. Uruguay benefits from a mature democracy with a stable political system and independent judiciary system. Uruguay has a well-established education system that provides free education and equal access to all students through the university level. However, the socioeconomic gap become.
Sample Student Industry AnalysisExecutive SummaryCom.docxagnesdcarey33086
Sample Student Industry Analysis
Executive Summary
Company Description
Seg and Cycle the City is a Koblenz, Germany based company specializing in offering rentals for recreational vehicles (Segways, bikes, tandems and inline skates), guiding and informational services to mainly tourists, locals and their visitors, students or for event entertainment purposes. The company will begin operations in April, 2010, as a Limited Liability Company (Unternehmensgesellschaft). The company will take advantage of the increasing popularity of Segway scooters: two-wheeled, self-balancing electric vehicles invented by Dean Kamen in 2001, as a new, more exiting and relaxing alternative to walking tours for tourists to enjoy the sights and atmosphere of the city. Also, the company will provide high quality MP3 Audio-City Guides to capture the large number of visitors who are more independent-minded, not willing to participate in guiding services offered by the tourism board of Koblenz and thereby gain significant market share.
Mission Statement
“Seg and Cycle the City is a speciality tour operator committed to providing a unique, entertaining, memorable and educational experience of the city that meets the needs of both kinds of tourists: those who seek a guided experience and those who are more independent minded.
We will take pride in doing our best to present our city tour in a memorable way and leave our customers with the image that Koblenz is a place to go back to. We will achieve this by building strong personal relationships with our customers during our guided tours and by suggesting journeys for the individual exploration.
As an advocate for sustainability, we want to promote the use of environmentally friendly transportation devices and, thereby, improve the image of our beloved city. We will also fulfil this mission of sustainability by providing an affordable opportunity for college students to rent a bike.”
Industry Analysis & Trends
The services provided by Seg and Cycle the City as a player in the service industry are affected by the developments in the recreational and sports equipment rental trade and by developments in the city and bike tourism industry in Germany, Rhineland Palatinate and, specifically, Koblenz.
Size and Growth
The personal service industry in Germany generally shows a stable performance with relatively stable revenue regardless of the difficult economic situation. A high employment rate, increased wages, and a decreasing inflation rate have increased disposable income, which especially benefits the leisure industry (German Chamber of Commerce e.V).The following graph shows that the service industry (blue line), as the leading sector concerning economic added value in the Koblenz (including surrounding communities) underwent major growth compared to other main sectors from 1992 to 2005. Since 2004, growth rate appears to be stable and rather low, but remains in a leading position.
Travel Germany, Rhineland-Pa.
SAMPLING MEAN DEFINITION The term sampling mean is.docxagnesdcarey33086
SAMPLING MEAN:
DEFINITION:
The term sampling mean is a statistical term used to describe the properties of statistical
distributions. In statistical terms, the sample mean from a group of observations is an
estimate of the population mean . Given a sample of size n, consider n independent random
variables X1, X2... Xn, each corresponding to one randomly selected observation. Each of these
variables has the distribution of the population, with mean and standard deviation . The
sample mean is defined to be
WHAT IT IS USED FOR:
It is also used to measure central tendency of the numbers in a database. It can also be said that
it is nothing more than a balance point between the number and the low numbers.
HOW TO CALCULATE IT:
To calculate this, just add up all the numbers, then divide by how many numbers there are.
Example: what is the mean of 2, 7, and 9?
Add the numbers: 2 + 7 + 9 = 18
Divide by how many numbers (i.e., we added 3 numbers): 18 ÷ 3 = 6
So the Mean is 6
SAMPLE VARIANCE:
DEFINITION:
The sample variance, s2, is used to calculate how varied a sample is. A sample is a select number
of items taken from a population. For example, if you are measuring American people’s weights,
it wouldn’t be feasible (from either a time or a monetary standpoint) for you to measure the
weights of every person in the population. The solution is to take a sample of the population, say
1000 people, and use that sample size to estimate the actual weights of the whole population.
WHAT IT IS USED FOR:
The sample variance helps you to figure out the spread out in the data you have collected or are
going to analyze. In statistical terminology, it can be defined as the average of the squared
differences from the mean.
HOW TO CALCULATE IT:
Given below are steps of how a sample variance is calculated:
• Determine the mean
• Then for each number: subtract the Mean and square the result
• Then work out the mean of those squared differences.
To work out the mean, add up all the values then divide by the number of data points.
First add up all the values from the previous step.
But how do we say "add them all up" in mathematics? We use the Roman letter Sigma: Σ
The handy Sigma Notation says to sum up as many terms as we want.
• Next we need to divide by the number of data points, which is simply done by
multiplying by "1/N":
Statistically it can be stated by the following:
•
• This value is the variance
EXAMPLE:
Sam has 20 Rose Bushes.
The number of flowers on each bush is
9, 2, 5, 4, 12, 7, 8, 11, 9, 3, 7, 4, 12, 5, 4, 10, 9, 6, 9, 4
Work out the sample variance
Step 1. Work out the mean
In the formula above, µ (the Greek letter "mu") is the mean of all our values.
For this example, the data points are: 9, 2, 5, 4, 12, 7, 8, 11, 9, 3, 7, 4, 12, 5, 4, 10, 9, 6, 9, 4
The mean is:
(9+2+5+4+12+7+8+11+9+3+7+4+12+5+4+10+9+6+9+4) / 20 = 140/20 = 7
So:
µ.
SAMPLING MEANDEFINITIONThe term sampling mean is a stati.docxagnesdcarey33086
SAMPLING MEAN:
DEFINITION:
The term sampling mean is a statistical term used to describe the properties of statistical distributions. In statistical terms, the sample meanfrom a group of observations is an estimate of the population mean. Given a sample of size n, consider n independent random variables X1, X2... Xn, each corresponding to one randomly selected observation. Each of these variables has the distribution of the population, with mean and standard deviation. The sample mean is defined to be
WHAT IT IS USED FOR:
It is also used to measure central tendency of the numbers in a database. It can also be said that it is nothing more than a balance point between the number and the low numbers.
HOW TO CALCULATE IT:
To calculate this, just add up all the numbers, then divide by how many numbers there are.
Example: what is the mean of 2, 7, and 9?
Add the numbers: 2 + 7 + 9 = 18
Divide by how many numbers (i.e., we added 3 numbers): 18 ÷ 3 = 6
So the Mean is 6
SAMPLE VARIANCE:
DEFINITION:
The sample variance, s2, is used to calculate how varied a sample is. A sample is a select number of items taken from a population. For example, if you are measuring American people’s weights, it wouldn’t be feasible (from either a time or a monetary standpoint) for you to measure the weights of every person in the population. The solution is to take a sample of the population, say 1000 people, and use that sample size to estimate the actual weights of the whole population.
WHAT IT IS USED FOR:
The sample variance helps you to figure out the spread out in the data you have collected or are going to analyze. In statistical terminology, it can be defined as the average of the squared differences from the mean.
HOW TO CALCULATE IT:
Given below are steps of how a sample variance is calculated:
· Determine the mean
· Then for each number: subtract the Mean and square the result
· Then work out the mean of those squared differences.
To work out the mean, add up all the values then divide by the number of data points.
First add up all the values from the previous step.
But how do we say "add them all up" in mathematics? We use the Roman letter Sigma: Σ
The handy Sigma Notation says to sum up as many terms as we want.
· Next we need to divide by the number of data points, which is simply done by multiplying by "1/N":
Statistically it can be stated by the following:
·
· This value is the variance
EXAMPLE:
Sam has 20 Rose Bushes.
The number of flowers on each bush is
9, 2, 5, 4, 12, 7, 8, 11, 9, 3, 7, 4, 12, 5, 4, 10, 9, 6, 9, 4
Work out the sample variance
Step 1. Work out the mean
In the formula above, μ (the Greek letter "mu") is the mean of all our values.
For this example, the data points are: 9, 2, 5, 4, 12, 7, 8, 11, 9, 3, 7, 4, 12, 5, 4, 10, 9, 6, 9, 4
The mean is:
(9+2+5+4+12+7+8+11+9+3+7+4+12+5+4+10+9+6+9+4) / 20 = 140/20 = 7
So:
μ = 7
Step 2. Then for each number: subtract the Mean and square the result
This is t.
sampleReportt.docx
Power Electronics
Contents Comment by adtaylor: This table of contents is clear and precise: I can see the flow of ideas and were the report will go
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Aim 2
1.3 Objectives 2
2.1 Diode Origins 3
2.1.1 Early Diodes 3
2.1.2 Thermionic Diodes 3-4
2.1.3 Crystal Diodes 4
2.2 Diode Fundamentals 5
2.2.1 Semiconductors 5
2.2.2 Doping 5-6
2.2.3 PN Junctions 6
2.2.4 Forward and Reverse Bias 7
2.3 Diode Operation 8
2.3.1 PN Junction Diode 8
2.3.2 Diode DC Operation 9
2.3.3 Diode AC Operation 10
2.4 Full Wave Bridge Rectification 11
2.4.1 Bridge Configuration 11
2.4.2 Diode Conduction Pairing 11
2.5 Three Phase Full Wave Bridge Rectification 12
2.5.1 Bridge Configuration 12
2.5.2 Diode Conduction Sequence 12-14
2.5.3 Output Voltage and current characteristics 14-15
3 Lab Report 16
3.1 Lab Report Objectives 16
3.2 Lab Report important notes 16
3.3 Output Signal 17
3.4 Output Signal (D1 removed) 18
3.5 Output Signal (D5 removed) 19
3.6 Output Signal (D6 removed) 20
4 Results, Comparisons and Discussions 21-22
5 Conclusions 23
6 References 24
1.1 Introduction
1. Rectifiers are electrical devices that convert an AC supply into a DC output through a process known as rectification. The theory of rectification has been around for over one hundred years, when early discoveries uncovered the unidirectional current flow (polarity dependent) in vacuum valves and crystal (solid state) devices. These devices were known as rectifiers; however the naming convention was changed in 1919 to diode. The name diode was derived from the Greek words ‘dia’ (through) and ‘ode’ (path). Comment by adtaylor: I don’t really think this sort of thing is necessary: the project report is supposed to be on investigating these devices or technology, not its 100 year old history.
When the marker sees this sort of thing, the first thing that springs to mind is that the student is padding out their report. It is very clear when this happens
2. Diodes are commonly known as switching devices; however due to there complex non-linear voltage and current characteristics, there applications have become numerous depending on the PN junction construction. Some special diode applications are as follows: Comment by adtaylor: This is good in an introduction, giving the reader some background on the device and what it does: this is the objective of this report after all
a. Voltage regulator (Zener diodes),
b. Tuners (Varactor diodes),
c. RF oscillators (Tunnel diodes), and
d. Light emitters (LED’s).
1.2 Aim
1. To observe the operation of a three phase uncontrolled rectifier circuit with a purely resistive load. Comment by adtaylor: This aim i.
SAMPLE Project (Answers and explanations are in red)I opened t.docxagnesdcarey33086
SAMPLE Project (Answers and explanations are in red)
I opened the Week 1 Project from Doc Sharing.
Projects
Project 1: Working With the Data Editor.
Downloading Statdisk
1) First go to the website at www.statdisk.org and then scroll down to the bottom of the page to download
the Statdisk program version 11.1.0. by clicking on the windows or the MAC version.
I went to www.statdisk.org and downloaded the statdisk 11.1.0 windows version.
Download Statdisk Version 11.1.0
Statdisk 11.1.0 Windows 2K, XP, Vista
Statdisk 11.1.0 OSX
See the included ReadMe.txt file for details.
Open A Saved Data File
2) After you have opened the Statdisk program, go to Datasets and then Elementary Stats, 9th Edition.
Open the file named SUGAR. The data will appear in column 1 in the Sample Editor.
I opened the statdisk program, went to Datasets, then Elementary Stats, 9th edition and opened the Sugar file.
Copy and Paste a Data File
3) Make a copy of the data values listed in column 1. Paste the data files into column 2. Re-name the title
of column 2 to COPY.
I went to Copy and then selected column 1. I then selected copy. Then I clicked on Paste and chose column 2. I then had 2 identical columns of the Sugar data.
Sorting Data Values
4) Make another copy of the data values listed in column 1 and paste those into column 3. Then sort only
the data values in column 3. Label the column SORT.
I selected Copy and clicked on column 1 and then pasted them into column 3. I clicked on Sort and then selected column 3.
Entering a Set of Data Values
5) Manually enter all of the data values listed below into column 4 in the Statdisk editor. Type all of the data values into the one column in vertical fashion like the other data values are listed in the other columns. It does not matter what order you input the data values. Label the data values with the name of IQ.
I typed the following data into column 4.
83
56
43
65
74
28
88
77
74
51
65
46
55
66
35
75
54
63
74
48
37
57
37
62
32
48
43
52
52
61
80
75
54
45
44
60
65
44
33
32
41
52
38
62
74
74
46
37
37
39
6) What are some of the problems that could occur when entering data values into a statistics technology
editor?
Problems that could occur when entering data values into a statistics technology editor include ………………………………………………………………………..
Sample Transformation
7) Go to the Data menu then select Sample Transformations to add 100 to all of the data values in column 4 and then paste them into column 5.
I went to the Data menu and ……………………………………………………………………………..
Classifying Variables
8) Would the grams of sugar data in column 1 be considered a sample or a population?
The grams of sugar data in column 1 would be considered a ……………..
9) State whether the sugar variable is qualitative or quantitative?
The sugar variable is ……………………………..
10) State whether the sugar variable is discrete, continuous or neither?.
Sample Questions to Ask During an Informational Interview .docxagnesdcarey33086
Sample Questions to Ask During an Informational Interview
You will not have time to ask all of the questions that you will want to ask the interviewee. Remember to
focus on the ones you feel will be most useful to you personally. Pick10-15 to use as a guideline but leave
room for the possibility that other questions will develop from your conversation.
x What is your job like?
o A typical day?
o What do you do? What are the duties/functions/responsibilities of your job?
o What kind of problems do you deal with?
o What kinds of decisions do you make?
o What percentage of your time is spent doing what?
o How does the time use vary? Are there busy and slow times or is the work activity fairly
constant?
x Why did this type of work interest you and how did you get started?
x How did you get your job? What jobs and experiences have led you to your present position?
x Can you suggest some ways a student could obtain this necessary experience?
x What are the most important personal satisfactions and dissatisfactions connected with your
occupation? What part of this job do you personally find most satisfying? Most challenging?
What do you like and not like about working in this industry?
x What things did you do before you entered this occupation?
o Which have been most helpful?
o What other jobs can you get with the same background?
x What are the various jobs in this field or organization?
x Why did you decide to work for this company?
x What do you like most about this company?
x How does your company differ from its competitors?
x Are you optimistic about the company’s future and your future with the company?
x What does the company do to contribute to its employees’ professional development?
x How does the company make use of technology for internal communication and outside
marketing?
x What sorts of changes are occurring in your occupation?
x How does a person progress in your field? What is a typical career path in this field or
organization?
o What is the best way to enter this occupation?
o What are the advancement opportunities?
o What are the major qualifications for success in this occupation?
x What are the skills that are most important for a position in this field?
x What particular skills or talents are most essential to be effective in your job? How did you learn
these skills? Did you enter this position through a formal training program? How can I evaluate
whether or not I have the necessary skills for a position such as yours?
x How would you describe the working atmosphere and the people with whom you work?
x What can you tell me about the corporate culture?
x Is there flexibility related to dress, work hours, vacation schedule, place of residence, etc.?
x What work-related values are strongest in this type of work (security, high income, variety,
independence)?
x If you job progresses as you like, what would be the next step in your career?
Kori Ryerson
Though these a.
Sample Table.pdfTopic RatingPatients Goal Able to walk .docxagnesdcarey33086
Sample Table.pdf
Topic Rating
Patient's Goal Able to walk to work instead of drive -
Gender M -
Age 24 -
height (in) 72 -
weight (lbs) 200 -
Circumference waist (in) 45 high
Table 1 Health Assessment
Value
exercise physiol.docx
I have to complete a lab in exercise physiology course..
Learning Objectives
· Health Related Physical Fitness Testing and Interpretation
· Exercise Assessment
· Anthropometric Data - height, weight, BMI, body composition
· Cardiorespiratory Fitness
I have lab report for this course, I only need you to take care of THE RESULTS SECTION.
-------------
Results – 25% – (approximately 1-2 pages)
Present in a clear, concise, logical manner the results of the data you are given and must calculate, compared to
norms listed in the texts and other resources you may select depending on which of the three lab reports you are
completing. Present the information in tables only.
----------------------
in the attachments you will see all info needed about the lab report and what you need to know about the results.
Lab Patients Fall 2014.xlsx
John JamesFALL 2014 BIO345OL.1 Patient Data SetJohn JamesTopicValueGoalExercise, lose weight, stop smokingHistory/personalsmokes socially 1/2 pk per week, does not exercise, works long hours as a produce managerHistory/familyfather died of MI age 60, he answered yes on the PAR-Q and complains of a sore right knee from a sports injury 10 yrs ago,Medicationatorvastatin, tylenol for knee painGenderMAge40height (in) 70weight (lbs)200Circumference waist (in)40Skinfolds (mm)ChestAbdomenThigh253215HR/resting80BP/resting138/84Cholesterol (mg·dL-1)242LDL Cholesterol162HDL Cholesterol58Triglycerides202*********************** EVERYTHING BELOW THIS IS FOR LAB 2 and 3 *************************
Sarah SmithFALL 2014 BIO345OL.1 Patient Data SetSarah SmithTopicValueGoalExercise to lose weight, get strongerHistory/personaldoes not exercise, teacherHistory/familyFather hypertension, obese; Mother overweightMedicationAviane, alprazolamGenderFAge30height (in) 64weight (lbs)147Circumference waist (in)34Skinfolds (mm)tricepssuprailiacthigh241820HR/resting72BP/resting124/80Cholesterol (mg·dL-1)198LDL Cholesterol132HDL Cholesterol39Triglycerides148*********************** EVERYTHING BELOW THIS IS FOR LAB 2 and 3 *************************
Larry LevineFALL 2014 BIO345OL.1 Patient Data SetLarry LevineTopicValueGoalrun a 10k without stoppingHistory/personalsoftware engineer, Gym exercise 3x/wk elliptical and weightsHistory/familyFather has Type II Diabetes Mellitus; Mother overweight mild hypertensionMedicationnoneGenderMAge30height (in) 69weight (lbs)172Circumference waist (in)39Skinfolds (mm)ChestAbdomenThigh183022HR/resting78BP/resting124/82Cholesterol (mg·dL-1)188LDL Cholesterol110HDL Cholesterol43Triglycerides152*********************** EVERYTHING BELOW THIS IS FOR LAB 2 and 3 *************************
Alice AmesFALL 2014 BIO345OL.1 Patient Data SetAlice AmesTopicValueGoalSet up a routine that she c.
SAMPLE QUESTIONExercise 1 Consider the functionf (x,C).docxagnesdcarey33086
SAMPLE QUESTION:
Exercise 1: Consider the function
f (x,C)=
sin(C x)
Cx
(a) Create a vector x with 100 elements from -3*pi to 3*pi. Write f as an inline or anonymous function
and generate the vectors y1 = f(x,C1), y2 = f(x,C2) and y3 = f(x,C3), where C1 = 1, C2 = 2 and
C3 = 3. Make sure you suppress the output of x and y's vectors. Plot the function f (for the three
C's above), name the axis, give a title to the plot and include a legend to identify the plots. Add a
grid to the plot.
(b) Without using inline or anonymous functions write a function+function structure m-file that does
the same job as in part (a)
SAMPLE LAB WRITEUP:
MAT 275 MATLAB LAB 1 NAME: __________________________
LAB DAY and TIME:______________
Instructor: _______________________
Exercise 1
(a)
x = linspace(-3*pi,3*pi); % generating x vector - default value for number
% of pts linspace is 100
f= @(x,C) sin(C*x)./(C*x) % C will be just a constant, no need for ".*"
C1 = 1, C2 = 2, C3 = 3 % Using commans to separate commands
y1 = f(x,C1); y2 = f(x,C2); y3 = f(x,C3); % supressing the y's
plot(x,y1,'b.-', x,y2,'ro-', x,y3,'ks-') % using different markers for
% black and white plots
xlabel('x'), ylabel('y') % labeling the axis
title('f(x,C) = sin(Cx)/(Cx)') % adding a title
legend('C = 1','C = 2','C = 3') % adding a legend
grid on
Command window output:
f =
@(x,C)sin(C*x)./(C*x)
C1 =
1
C2 =
2
C3 =
3
(b)
M-file of structure function+function
function ex1
x = linspace(-3*pi,3*pi); % generating x vector - default value for number
% of pts linspace is 100
C1 = 1, C2 = 2, C3 = 3 % Using commans to separate commands
y1 = f(x,C1); y2 = f(x,C2); y3 = f(x,C3); % function f is defined below
plot(x,y1,'b.-', x,y2,'ro-', x,y3,'ks-') % using different markers for
% black and white plots
xlabel('x'), ylabel('y') % labeling the axis
title('f(x,C) = sin(Cx)/(Cx)') % adding a title
legend('C = 1','C = 2','C = 3') % adding a legend
grid on
end
function y = f(x,C)
y = sin(C*x)./(C*x);
end
Command window output:
C1 =
1
C2 =
2
C3 =
3
Joe Bob
Mon lab: 4:30-6:50
Lab 3
Exercise 1
(a) Create function M-file for banded LU factorization
function [L,U] = luband(A,p)
% LUBAND Banded LU factorization
% Adaptation to LUFACT
% Input:
% A diagonally dominant square matrix
% Output:
% L,U unit lower triangular and upper triangular such that LU=A
n = length(A);
L = eye(n); % ones on diagonal
% Gaussian Elimination
for j = 1:n-1
a = min(j+p.
Sample PowerPoint Flow Week 5Select a current product with which.docxagnesdcarey33086
Sample PowerPoint Flow Week 5
Select a current product with which you are familiar, and pitch a new Integrated Marketing Communication plan (IMC) to your client.
Create a Microsoft PowerPoint presentation of 8-10 slides that includes the following components:
· Identify any considerations you will need to employ to build and maintain the brand and customer loyalty.
· Make a recommendation for an integrated marketing communications program. Include at least three of the five communication channels (Advertising, Sales Promotion, Personal Selling, Direct Marketing, Public Relations).
· First state who the target market is that you are communicating with
· Next discuss each channel of communication individually that you have selected and explain your rationale. State what the purpose of the channel is, give your objectives, and explain the strategy or how you will use this to accomplish the objectives.
-PowerPoint Outline-
Integrated Marketing Communication plan (IMC)
· Background on the product
· Target Market (describe)
· Choose at least 3 Marketing Communications to fit best with your product (most important component is that you can distinguish between the three)
1. Advertising (the purpose of advertising, explain that you know what it is)
· Purpose
· Objectives
· Strategy (How will you do this? TV, Radio, Mag, Internet)
2. Sales Promotion
· Purpose
· Objectives
· (
Only choose 3 of these Marketing Communications
)Strategy
3. Personal Selling
· Purpose
· Objectives
· Strategy
4. Direct Marketing
· Purpose
· Objectives
· Strategy
5. Public Relations
· Purpose
· Objectives
· Strategy
Please remember to include: Identify any considerations you will need to employ to build and maintain the brand and customer loyalty. (Beginning on the Background slide)
(
Remember: Identify any considerations you will need to employ to build and maintain the brand and customer loyalty.
)
Integrated Marketing Communicaitons Plan (title slide)
Background
Background of the product
Communication 3
Target Market
Communication 1
Communication 2
Purpose
Objective
Strategy
Purpose
Objective
Strategy
Purpose
Objective
Strategy
Introduction
.
Sample Of assignmentIntroductionComment by Jane Summers Introd.docxagnesdcarey33086
Sample Of assignment
Introduction Comment by Jane Summers: Introduction – The first part of your essay should describe what happened, what did you do, what was your role and what was the role of others involved? In this section you also need to make clear what the ethical issue was and why it was an issue. This section should be short, concise and factual. There is no need for emotion or feelings at this point.
The purpose of this paper is to reflect upon an ethical issue that arose in my law firm. The paper discusses what happened, what the ethical issues were, how I felt at the time, how I went about dealing with these ethical issues including what ethical approach I subconsciously took, what caused me to take that approach and what ethical approach I would take if I was in the position again. I conclude with what I learnt from the reflective process.
In 2009 a lady, Fiona, and her grandfather, Paul, attended my law firm. Fiona said Paul and her grandmother, Mary, owned a house. They were worried that Fiona’s mother, Christine, (an apparent drug user) was going to try and force the grandparents into signing the house over to her and then evict the grandparents out of the house.
Fiona indicated they had mutually agreed that to protect the grandparents from the anticipated actions of Christine, the grandparents would gift the house to Fiona. Fiona, as owner of the house and presumably someone, whom Christine couldn’t stand over, would then let them stay in the house until they died.
Fiona told me that Mary was in hospital, very ill and slowly losing her mental capacity. They wanted the transfer of house to take place urgently. Based on what Fiona and Paul said, I drafted the necessary documents and the house was transferred into Fiona’s name.
There were three ethical issues. Firstly, should I accept the word of Fiona that Christine would try to force the grandparents out of the house; after all it could be Fiona herself who was out to deceive her grandparents.
Secondly, should I make enquiries about Mary’s mental capacity, perhaps even attend the hospital? However, as I was told this was an urgent matter, I prepared the documents immediately to be taken to Mary for signing.
Finally, should I have persuaded Fiona to get her own lawyer to avoid any conflict, after all I was there to look after the interests of the grandparents? Comment by Jane Summers: This introduction is concise, explains the scenario, identifies the ethical issues that were present and does not attach a value judgement or emotion to the information.
Feelings and Emotions Comment by Jane Summers: This next section is where you describe how you felt about the issue. You should discuss what were you thinking at the time, and perhaps the emotional state you were in when taking the actions you took or after the event occurred.
I had various feelings and thoughts about this issue at the time. Initially, I was sceptical of what I was being told by Fiona. It was hard for me.
Sample Access Control Policy1.Purpose2.Scope3.Pol.docxagnesdcarey33086
Sample Access Control Policy
1. Purpose
2. Scope
3. Policy
Access control policy
Who and how is authorisation for access to systems and business applications granted?User access
How is access to information systems to be granted (eg passwords etc)?
Who is responsible for monitoring and reviewing access rights?
Who is responsible for removing and notifying of redundant User IDs and accounts and what is the process?
Who is responsible for granting access to systems utilities and privilege management?
How is access and use of systems utilities monitored?User responsibilities
How are users to be educated and made aware of access responsibilities?
What are users’ responsibilities for access and passwords?Network access
Who is responsible for authorising network access (both internally and external connections)?
What is the process for enforced network paths, user authentication for external connection, Node authentication, use of remote diagnostic ports?
How will network domains and groups be segregated?
What network connection controls will be in place – eg. times, type and size of file transfers to external source?Operating system access
How is automatic terminal identification used to authenticate connections to specific locations and portable equipment?
What is the secure logon and logoff process for access?
Are there restrictions on connection times in place?
How will passwords be issued and managed – what are the rules for passwords?
How will systems utilities’ use be controlled? Application access
Who authorises application access eg read, write?
What is the process for authorising access to information when systems share resources, eg. two separate systems are integrated to form a third application or system?Monitoring system access
What system events will be logged, eg. date, IP address, User-IDs, unsuccessful logins, alerts from intrusion detection systems (firewall)?
When and who will review and monitor system logs? And where are they stored?Mobile computing and telecommuting
Outline Agency policy for each type of mobile device – eg. physical storage, personal usage, protection of information held on the device, access mechanisms (eg password), virus protection, backup.
Policy on use of computer equipment for telecommuting, eg. authorisation process, system access, physical security, etc.
Template - Access Control Policy Page 1 of 2 June 06
.
SAMPLE GED 501 RESEARCH PAPERTechnology Based Education How.docxagnesdcarey33086
SAMPLE GED 501 RESEARCH PAPER
Technology Based Education: How can theories of learning and/or development be used to guide the use of technology in schools?
Introduction
Twenty first century learning environment is no longer a goal, but an educational reality. We are deep into the midst of a paradigm shift that spans across our entire globe. The technology we live with as a society has exponentially grown at an increasingly rapid rate. This is illustrated from the integration of computers in every facet of our lives. This includes televisions, phones, cars, and even coffee makers which all contain a microprocessor, they all think. Even more startling is how connected we all are. Access to information is available at a finger’s touch. We can connect to people, we can shop, and ask for directions from anywhere at any time. We are tethered to the world by social media such as Facebook. Google has mapped out the entire earth. We can send a text message from the middle of Antarctica. Even more startling is how corporations and the government collects data as they track our ever movement as we go online. All this is reflected upon education, which mirrors this new 21st century society. No longer is the classroom isolated from the world, but it too is connected. Learning technology is critical more than ever because it impacts skills and productivity (Hall, 2011) for both the student and the teacher.
Background
Incorporating technology into the classroom has been around since computers were invented, but it has been only recently been the norm in the last few years. This revolution no more pointedly reflected in our education system, than it is today. Johri (2011) states that although digital information technologies in education has become commonplace, there are few guiding frameworks or theories that explains the relationship between technology and learning practices. Bennett and Oliver (2011) share that view. Research has focused on practical implementation versus the theory and application of the technology. They explained once theories are developed, a better understanding of effective technology based pedagogy would occur.
Technology in Education
I believe however, all the theorists play well with technology. Technology is merely a tool. Its strength is the ability to facilitate. John Dewey is a prime example. He believed in “learning by doing”. With an iPad there is an App where by students are able to see the stars and the constellation. With the use of satellites and GPS held within the piece of technology, students are able to view exact locations of stars. Where the iPad is directed in the sky, the stars would be in that location on the handheld screen, no telescope necessary. The students interact with the material to gain knowledge.
This is further illustrated by this second example. The best way to learn about Mayan pyramids is to actually visit one in Central America. With the use of laptops, students can connect to the Discove.
Sample Action Research Report 1 Effect of Technol.docxagnesdcarey33086
Sample Action Research Report 1
Effect of Technology on Enthusiasm for Learning Science
Jane L. Hollis
Lake City Middle School
Lake City, Florida
ABSTRACT
The effect of technology on students’ enthusiasm for learning science (both at school and
away from school) was investigated. Pre- and post-student and parent surveys, student and
parent written comments, and teacher observations were used to record changes in enthusi-
asm for learning science during a six-week study period.
In this study, I investigated how the integration of technology into my middle school
science curriculum would impact my students’ enthusiasm for learning science. Enthusiasm
for learning science can be defined as the students’ eagerness to participate in science activi-
ties in the classroom, as well as away from school. My motivation for focusing on technol-
ogy was twofold. First, I have had an interest in integrating technology into my students’
studies of science for some time. Secondly, the funding for technological equipment and
software recently became available. During the 1993–1994 school year, my school was
awarded a $115,000 incentive grant to purchase equipment and software and to train
teachers in the use of this software and technological equipment. One of the stipulations of
the grant was that the equipment and software must be for student use.
According to Calvert (1994), American education is a system searching for solutions.
Our children drop out, fail to sustain interest in learning, and perform below capacity. Some
have argued that television is the culprit. Others have argued that computers may be the
answer.
Today’s middle school students have grown up in a technological world with television,
electronic toys, video games, VCRs, cellular phones, and more. They are accustomed to
receiving and processing information through multi-sensory sources.
I wanted to bring technology into my classroom and incorporate it into my science
curriculum using multimedia computer presentations. Barbara ten Brink (1993) noted, “. . .
students look to us [teachers] to prepare them for an increasingly technological world.
Fortunately, with videodiscs, we are meeting the challenge by delivering curriculums in
ways that engage, motivate, and thrill our students.” In this study my students had an
opportunity to use assorted multimedia technology as they explored a segment of a middle
school science curriculum.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS
Learning is an extremely complex human process. During my twenty-four years of teaching
I have used many strategies to enhance student learning and to teach new concepts. I am still
not convinced that I thoroughly understand how children learn. Yet, at this point, I do
believe children learn through experiences. They build on past experiences and previous
knowledge to process new concepts. As children redefine old understandings of concepts
and integrate new experiences into thei.
Sample Case with a report Dawit Zerom, Instructor Cas.docxagnesdcarey33086
Sample Case with a report
Dawit Zerom, Instructor
Case Study: Ft. Myers Home Sales
Due to a crisis in subprime lending, obtaining a mortgage has become difficult even for
people with solid credit. In a report by the Associated Press (August 25, 2007), sales of
existing homes fell for a 5th consecutive month, while home prices dropped for a record
12th month in July 2007. Mayan Horowitz, a research analyst for QuantExperts, wishes to
study how the mortgage crunch has impacted the once booming market of Florida. He
collects data on the sale price (in $1, 000s) of 25 single-family homes in Fort Myers,
Florida, in January 2007 and collects another sample in July 2007. For a valid
comparison, he samples only three bedroom homes, each with 1,500 square feet or less of
space on a lot size of 10, 000 square feet or less.
Excel data are available in Titanium page.
Use the sample information (appropriate descriptive statistics) to address the following
aspects. Your report should not exceed one page.
1. Compare the mean and median in each of the two sample periods.
2. Compare the standard deviation and coefficient of variation in each of the two sample
periods. Also incorporate quartiles.
3. Discuss significant changes in the housing market in Fort Myers over the 6-month
period.
Sample Case with a report
Dawit Zerom, Instructor
Sample Report
The steady stream of dismal housing market statistics lately is a clear indication that the national
real estate market is in a serious crisis. The uncertainty is also forcing lenders to slow down on
their lending, and as a result obtaining a mortgage is becoming increasingly difficult even for
people with solid credit. In light of this situation, Mayan Horowitz conducts a small study to
learn if the national trend also affects the once booming market of Florida by focusing on Fort
Myers, Florida. To see the trend of the housing market over a 6-month period, he obtains price of
25 single family homes in January 2007 and another comparable 25 single family homes in July
2007. Table 1 below shows the most relevant descriptive analysis.
The average home price in January of 2007 was $231, 080 versus $182, 720 in July of the same
year. That is about a 21% drop in the average home price. Also in January, half of the homes
sold for more than $205,000, versus only $180,000 in July (see the median). Since the mean is
more effected by outliers (in this case, a few relatively high prices), the median is an appropriate
measure of central location.
While measures of central location typically represent where the data clusters, these measures do
not relay information about the variability in the data. Both the standard deviation and the
coefficient of variation are higher in January indicating that home prices were more dispersed in
January. Further, while 25% of the houses were sold at the price of $158, 000 or less in Janua.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
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Running title Communication disorders 3NameUniversit.docx
1. Running title: Communication disorders 3
Name:
University:
Professor:
Date:
Explain how understanding the conceptual model of working
memory helps you in selecting strategies to take in helping a
child that may have a communicative disorder. Please give an
example of a strategy that you might use with a child with a
specific communicative disorder.
Construct a scenario of a team approach that could be
developed when working with a child that has a specific
communicative disorder. You should identify the
communicative disorder that the child has in this scenario and
provide research and techniques/strategies that are known to be
effective with this type of communicative disorder.
Evaluate the benefits for family and children in being
connected to organizations associated with a specific
2. communicative disorder. These organizations can be found from
the list in your chapter reading or from an internet search.
Explain how understanding the conceptual model of working
memory helps you in selecting strategies to take in helping a
child that may have a communicative disorder. Please give an
example of a strategy that you might use with a child with a
specific communicative disorder.
Understanding the communication disorder is quite convenient
towards the selection of the best mode of commiunication with a
disabled child. (Sigman & Norman,1999). When am able to
know some causes of communication disorders that the child is
facing and this includes hearing loss in a child, neurological
disorders, brain injury, mental retardation, drug abuse, physical
impairments such as cleft lip or palate, emotional or psychiatric
autism, and developmental disorders (Howlin, Mawhood, &
Rutter, 2000), I will be able to freely interact with the child
with the disorder without making him feel bad. This might
include the use of include joint attention, imitation, and toy
play to socialize with the autistic disorder. (Adamson &
Bakeman,1985,1991)
At 14 years, 8 months of age, Sam spontaneously imparted his
aims, through nonverbal means, which included outward
appearances (e.g., looking to staff to demand a nibble), physical
motions (e.g., pulling his educators' hands to his head to
demand a head rub), and more ordinary signals (e.g., indicating
solicitation and a head shake to reject). He likewise utilized
offbeat nonverbal flags that included gnawing his hand to
impart positive and negative feelings and squeezing to dissent.
Sam every so often utilized a couple of verbal word rough
guesses (e.g., "no," "yes," "more," and "inflatable"), the sign for
"help," and picture images on a voice yield gadget. Be that as it
may, he commonly utilized these images latently, regularly
3. because of a direct verbal brief from his social accomplice.
From research, this shows that this is Autistic Disorder due to
the fact that, he uses a variety of communication modes
including speech, facial expressions, conventional gestures
(e.g., pointing), unconventional signals (e.g., hand-flapping),
vocalizations, picture symbols, and assistive technology (e.g.,
speech-generating devices) McCune, 1995; Ungerer & Sigman,
1984).
There are several advantages that have been analysed in this
article, just to state some, the connection of the family and
disabled children or rather autistic persons is quite important
due to the fact that they are able to connect and understand each
other in their communication and thus makes it easy for the
disabled one to fall in place and they are able to assist the child
Kasari et al. (2004)
References:
Adamson, L., & Bakeman, R. (1985). Affect and attention:
Infants observed with mothers and peers. Child Development,
56, 582–593.
Adamson, L., & Bakeman, R. (1991). The development of
shared attention during infancy. In R. Vasta (Ed.), Annals of
child development (Vol. 8, pp. 1–41). London: Jessica Kingsley
Publishers, Ltd
Clift, S., Stagnitti, K., & Demello, L. (1988). A validation study
of the test of pretend play using correlations and classifica-
tional analyses. Child Language Teaching and Therapy, 14,199–
209.
Dawson, G. (1991). A psychobiological perspective on the early
socioemotional development of children with autism. In S. Toth,
& D. Cicchetti (Eds.), Rochester symposium on developmental
psychopathology
(Vol. 3, pp. 207–234). Erlbaum: Mahwah, NJ
4. O R I G I N A L P A P E R
Early Predictors of Communication Development in Young
Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Joint Attention,
Imitation, and Toy Play
Karen Toth Æ Jeffrey Munson Æ Andrew N. Meltzoff Æ
Geraldine Dawson
Published online: 15 July 2006
� Springer Science+Business Media, Inc. 2006
Abstract This study investigated the unique contribu-
tions of joint attention, imitation, and toy play to language
ability and rate of development of communication skills in
young children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD).
Sixty preschool-aged children with ASD were assessed
using measures of joint attention, imitation, toy play, lan-
guage, and communication ability. Two skills, initiating
protodeclarative joint attention and immediate imitation,
were most strongly associated with language ability at age
3–4 years, whereas toy play and deferred imitation were
5. the best predictors of rate of communication development
from age 4 to 6.5 years. The implications of these results
for understanding the nature and course of language
development in autism and for the development of targeted
early interventions are discussed.
Keywords Autism Æ Language Æ Communication Æ Joint
attention Æ Imitation Æ Play
Introduction
It is well established that there is tremendous variability in
outcome in autism. Long-term outcome studies have shown
that while a majority of individuals exhibit poor to very
poor outcomes, many individuals with autism go on to
achieve adequate levels of academic, social, and occupa-
tional functioning (Gillberg & Steffenburg, 1987; Lotter,
1978; Nordin & Gillberg, 1998; Sigman & Norman, 1999).
In a recent study that followed children with autism from
age 2 to 9, as many as 40% were found to have good
outcomes based on language and cognitive scores (Stone,
6. Turner, Pozdol, & Smoski, 2003). One of the strongest
predictors of positive long-term outcomes for children with
autism is the acquisition of spoken language (Bartak, Rutter,
& Cox, 1975; Gillberg, 1991; Gillberg & Steffenburg, 1987;
Lincoln, Courchesne, Kilman, Elmasian, & Allen, 1988;
Lotter, 1978; Rutter, 1970). Early language ability (i.e.,
meaningful speech by 5–6 years of age) has been associated
with both later academic achievement and social
competence in individuals with autism (Howlin, Mawhood,
& Rutter, 2000; Sigman & Ruskin, 1999; Venter, Lord, &
Schopler, 1992). Given the critical importance of early
language development for later prognosis, a better under-
standing of developmental factors that underlie, facilitate,
and predict language acquisition in autism would shed light
on the nature of this disorder and allow for the refinement
of targeted early interventions.
Early abilities that have been associated with the
development of language and communication skills both in
7. typically developing children and children with autism
include joint attention, imitation, and toy play. Joint
attention—shared attention between social partners
in relation to objects or events—typically emerges by
9–12 months of age (Adamson & Bakeman, 1985, 1991;
Adamson & Chance, 1998; Brooks & Meltzoff, 2002;
Bruner, 1983; Butterworth & Jarrett, 1991; Carpenter,
Nagell, & Tomasello, 1998), with some aspects emerging
as early as 6 months of age (Morales, Mundy, & Rojas,
1998). By 12 months of age, most typical infants display
all aspects of joint attention, including sharing attention
(e.g., through the use of alternating eye gaze), following
the attention of another (e.g., following eye gaze or a
K. Toth (&) Æ J. Munson Æ A. N. Meltzoff Æ G. Dawson
Department of Psychology, UW Autism Center, CHDD,
University of Washington, 357920, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
J Autism Dev Disord (2006) 36:993–1005
DOI 10.1007/s10803-006-0137-7
8. 123
point), and directing the attention of another (Carpenter
et al., 1998). Through joint attention interactions, the infant
begins to link words and sentences with objects and events
(Baldwin, 1995). Importantly, it is within the context of
joint attention episodes that infants also begin to commu-
nicate intention by using sounds and gestures, such as
reaching to request objects, and pointing and vocalizing to
direct attention to objects. Joint attention skills correlate not
only with early language learning, but also with later lan-
guage ability in typically developing children (Carpenter
et al., 1998; Meltzoff & Brooks, 2004; Morales et al.,
1998, 2000; Mundy & Gomes, 1998).
Children with autism, however, show impairments in
joint attention skills as compared to children with delayed
and typical development (Bacon, Fein, Morris, Water-
house, & Allen, 1998; Charman, 1998; Charman et al.,
9. 1998; Dawson, Meltzoff, Osterling, & Rinaldi, 1998;
Dawson et al., 2002a, 2004; Mundy, Sigman, Ungerer, &
Sherman, 1986; Sigman, Kasari, Kwon, & Yirmiya, 1992).
Impairments in protodeclarative joint attention behav-
iors—sharing attention for purely social purposes—appear
to be more severe than impairments in protoimperative
joint attention (e.g., requesting) behaviors in children with
autism (Mundy et al., 1986; Mundy, Sigman, & Kasari,
1990; Sigman, Mundy, Sherman, & Ungerer, 1986). Fur-
ther, in preschool age children with autism, joint attention
is predictive of both current language ability, and future
gains in expressive language skills (Bono, Daley, &
Sigman, 2003; Charman et al., 2003; Dawson et al., 2004;
Landry & Loveland, 1988; Mundy et al., 1990; Mundy,
Sigman, Ungerer, & Sherman, 1987; Rogers & Hepburn,
2003; Sigman & Ruskin, 1999; Toth, Dawson, Munson,
Estes, & Abbott, 2003). In a longitudinal study of social
competence and language skills in children with autism and
10. Down syndrome, Sigman and Ruskin (1999) found that
protodeclarative joint attention skills were associated with
early language ability for both groups, and predicted both
short-term (i.e., 1 year later) and long-term (i.e., 8–9 years
later) gains in expressive language ability for children with
autism. Initiating protodeclarative joint attention in early
childhood (3–6 years of age) was also correlated with later
peer interactions (10–12 years of age). Further, protoim-
perative joint attention skills correlated with early language
ability and short-term, but not long-term, gains in expres-
sive language for children with autism. In a recent inter-
vention study that targeted joint attention skills, young
children with autism showed greater gains in language
12 months post-treatment compared to controls (Kasari,
Freeman, & Paparella, 2004). It may be that joint attention
ability lays a foundation not only for the development of
language, but also other complex abilities such as pretend
play and theory of mind, as argued by developmental
11. theorists (Bruner, 1983; Carpenter et al., 1998; Meltzoff,
2005; Meltzoff & Brooks, 2001) as well as in the literature
more specifically focusing on children with autism
(Charman, 1997, 2003; Mundy & Crowson, 1997; Sigman,
1997).
Motor imitation ability has also been associated with the
development of language and social communication skills.
In typically developing infants, the ability to imitate is
present at birth. Neonates are able to imitate simple facial
movements, such as tongue protrusion and mouth opening
(Meltzoff & Moore, 1977, 1997). By 9 months of age,
infants are able to imitate actions on objects, both in
immediate and deferred contexts (Carver, 1995; Meltzoff,
1988a). Infant imitation appears to serve several general
functions, providing the child with shared social experi-
ences, a sense of mutual connectedness, and a means of
communication between social partners (Meltzoff, 2005;
Trevarthen, Kokkinaki, & Fiamenghi, 1999). Through
12. imitation, infants also learn about others’ actions and
intentions (Meltzoff, 1999; Uzgiris, 1981, 1999). Deferred
imitation serves to index infant recall memory and the
child’s ability to produce actions based on stored mental
representations of social events and action sequences (Klein
& Meltzoff, 1999; Meltzoff, 1988b). It has been theorized
that a failure to engage in early social imitative play may
interfere with the development of joint attention, social
reciprocity, and later theory of mind abilities (Dawson,
1991; Meltzoff, 1999, 2005; Meltzoff & Gopnik, 1993;
Rogers & Pennington, 1991). Imitation not only plays an
important role in early social development, but has also
been shown to predict language ability in typically devel-
oping children (Bates, Benigni, Bretherton, Camaioni, &
Volterra, 1979).
While typically developing children demonstrate the
ability to imitate others from birth, children with autism
demonstrate significant impairments in object imitation,
13. imitation of facial and body movements, and deferred
imitation of actions on objects (Charman, 1997; Dawson
et al., 1998; Rogers, Bennetto, McEvoy, & Pennington,
1996; Rogers, Hepburn, Stackhouse, & Wehner, 2003;
Sigman & Ungerer, 1984; Stone, Ousley, & Littleford,
1997). In children with autism, imitation skills have been
found to correlate with early language ability (Dawson &
Adams, 1984) and to predict later language ability (Charman
et al., 2000, 2003; Stone et al., 1997; Stone & Yoder,
2001). In a recent study, immediate imitation of actions on
objects at 20 months correlated with receptive language at
42 months in a small sample of children with autism
(Charman et al., 2003). In a similar study, motor imitation
at 24 months predicted expressive language ability at
48 months, even after controlling for initial language level,
in young children with autism (Stone & Yoder, 2001).
Play—both functional and symbolic—is a third skill
domain that has been associated with language and social
14. 994 J Autism Dev Disord (2006) 36:993–1005
123
communication ability. Play provides the child with
opportunities for social interaction and social communi-
cation, as well as a context for constructing representations
of intentional states and knowledge (Bloom, 1993; Lifter &
Bloom, 1989, 1998; Piaget, 1952). In typical development,
functional, or pre-symbolic, play emerges during the first
year, while symbolic play begins to emerge around 1 year
of age and becomes increasingly complex over the second
year of life. Both functional and symbolic play skills have
been shown to correlate with language ability in typical
children (Bates et al., 1979; McCune, 1995; Ungerer &
Sigman, 1984). Symbolic play is correlated with both
receptive and expressive language ability (Clift, Stagnitti,
& Demello, 1988; Doswell, Lewis, Boucher, & Sylva,
1994; Lewis, Boucher, Lupton, & Watson, 2000), while
15. functional play is correlated with expressive language level
in preschool age children (Lewis et al., 2000). Longitudinal
studies have also demonstrated a relation between early
play skills and later language ability (McCune, 1995;
Ungerer & Sigman, 1984). Ungerer and Sigman (1984)
demonstrated that functional play at 13 months correlated
with language ability at 22 months. Bates et al. (1979)
found that both combinatorial (i.e., manipulative) and
symbolic play correlated with gains in language from 9 to
13 months of age, with manipulative play predicting both
receptive and expressive language abilities through the
9–13 month period, while symbolic play was related more
to expressive language and was a stronger predictor toward
the end of the 9–13 month period. McCune (1995) dem-
onstrated that first word acquisition was associated with the
emergence of symbolic play, both self-pretend (e.g.,
drinking from an empty cup) and other-pretend play (e.g.,
giving a stuffed animal a drink), and that combining
16. actions in symbolic play (e.g., drinking from an empty cup,
then giving a doll a drink) was associated with the onset of
combining words.
In contrast to typically developing children, children
with autism show specific impairments in symbolic play as
early as 18 months of age relative to children with delayed
and typical development (Baron-Cohen et al., 1996;
Charman et al., 1998; Dawson et al., 1998; Mundy et al.,
1987; Ungerer & Sigman, 1981; Wing & Gould, 1979).
When children with autism do acquire symbolic play skills,
their level of symbolic play tends to remain below that of
their language level (Amato, Barrow, & Domingo, 1999;
Ungerer, 1989; Wing, 1978) and is often less diverse and
elaborate compared to that of developmentally delayed and
typical children (Ungerer & Sigman, 1981). Associations
between play and language have also been demonstrated in
young children with autism. Mundy et al. (1987) found
that, at 3–6 years of age, receptive language ability cor-
17. related with functional play involving a doll, and both
expressive and receptive language skills correlated with
symbolic play. Sigman and Ruskin (1999) demonstrated
that, in 3–6-year-old children with autism, both functional
and symbolic play in early childhood correlated with early
language ability, and functional play correlated with long-
term (i.e., 8–9 years later) gains in expressive language. A
recent intervention study that targeted symbolic play skills
found that young children with autism showed greater
gains in language 12 months post-treatment compared to
controls (Kasari et al., 2004).
Although correlational and longitudinal research have
demonstrated that joint attention, imitation, and play are
associated with the development of language and com-
munication skills in children with autism, the present
study represents a unique contribution in two ways: First,
the contributions of each of these three early abili-
ties—joint attention, imitation, and toy play—were
18. simultaneously examined as predictors of current lan-
guage ability in a large sample of preschool age children
with autism. Second, growth curve modeling was used to
examine the relationship between these early skills and
rate of development of communication skills across the
preschool and early school age years in children with
autism.
Method
Participants
Sixty children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD),
comprised of 42 children with Autistic Disorder and 18
children with Pervasive Developmental Disorder, Not
Otherwise Specified (PDD-NOS), participated in the study.
Participants were recruited from local parent advocacy
groups, public schools, clinics, hospitals, and the
Washington State Division of Developmental Disabilities.
Exclusionary criteria included the presence of a neurolog-
ical disorder of known etiology, significant sensory or
19. motor impairment, major physical abnormalities, and his-
tory of serious head injury and/or neurological disease.
Table 1 presents demographic and descriptive information,
including gender, socioeconomic status, chronological age,
composite mental age and IQ, and verbal age equivalents
for the children who participated in the study. At the
beginning of the study, children ranged in age from 34 to
52 months and were followed until 65 to 78 months of age.
Ethnicity for the sample was as follows: 43 European-
American, 3 African-American, 11 Multi-racial, and 3
Asian/Pacific Islander. Twelve children (20%) displayed an
expressive language age equivalence of 36 months or
higher on the Mullen Scales of Early Learning. Based on
the ADI-R, 20 children were reported to have lost some
level of spontaneous, meaningful communicative speech.
J Autism Dev Disord (2006) 36:993–1005 995
123
20. Eighty-two percent of mothers had some college or a col-
lege degree.
Diagnosis of autism was based on the Autism Diag-
nostic Interview—Revised (ADI-R; LeCouteur, Lord, &
Rutter, 2003; Lord, Rutter, & LeCouteur, 1994) and the
Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS; Lord
et al., 2000; Lord, Rutter, DiLavore, & Risi, 1999; Lord,
Rutter, Goode, & Heemsbergen, 1989). Both instruments
assess the symptoms of Autistic Disorder listed in the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th
ed. (DSM-IV; American Psychiatric Association, 1994). In
addition, clinicians made a clinical judgment of diagnosis
based on presence/absence of autism spectrum symptoms
as defined in the DSM-IV. Diagnosis of autism was defined
as meeting criteria for autism on the ADOS and autism
spectrum on the ADI-R and meeting DSM-IV criteria for
Autistic Disorder based on clinical judgment. In addition, if
a child received a diagnosis of autism on the ADOS and
21. based on DSM-IV clinical diagnosis, and came within 2
points of meeting autism spectrum criteria on the ADI-R,
the child was also considered to have autism. Diagnosis of
PDD-NOS was defined as meeting criteria for autism
spectrum on the ADOS and on the ADI-R, or missing
criteria on the ADI-R by 2 or fewer points, and meeting
DSM-IV criteria for PDD-NOS based on clinical judgment.
Procedure
The following measures were gathered over the course of
three or more sessions when children were 3–4 years old.
Each child was individually tested while seated at a table.
The child’s parent remained in the room, seated behind the
child or at the table with the child on the parent’s lap.
Children were given food snacks and praise as reward for
sitting at the table when necessary and provided breaks as
needed. The ADOS, ADI-R, and Mullen Scales of Early
Learning: AGS Edition (Mullen, 1997) were administered
during the child’s first laboratory visit, the Early Social
22. Communication Scales (ESCS) was administered during
the second visit, and experimental assessments of imitation
and functional and symbolic toy play were administered
during subsequent visits. The Vineland Adaptive Behavior
Scales: Survey Form (Sparrow, Balla, & Cicchetti, 1984)
was administered to the parent(s) in person when the child
was 3–4 years of age, and every 6 months thereafter by
phone up to 6 years, 6 months of age.
Predictor Variables
The Early Social Communication Scales (ESCS; Mundy,
Delgado, Hogan, & Doehring, 2003; Seibert & Hogan,
1982) was used to measure both protodeclarative and
protoimperative joint attention behaviors. In this proce-
dure, the child was seated at a table across from a familiar
examiner. A set of toys including a hat, comb, pair of
glasses, book, ball, car, wind-up and hand-operated toys,
and a plastic jar was in view, but out of reach of the child.
Three wall posters hung 90 degrees to the child’s right and
23. left, and 180 degrees behind the child. The examiner pre-
sented a sequence of wind-up and hand-operated toys,
activating each three times per trial (6 trials). Intermit-
tently, the examiner attracted the child’s attention, then
turned to point and gaze at each poster while calling the
child’s name three times (2 trials of 3 probes each), made
simple gestural and verbal requests of the child (‘‘Give it to
me’’), and presented the child with turn-taking opportuni-
ties, consisting of a tickle game (2 trials), taking turns with
an object (2 trials), and taking turns wearing a hat, comb,
and glasses (3 trials). The examiner also gave the child the
opportunity to look at pictures in a book and follow the
examiner’s point (1 trial). This 20-min structured assess-
ment was videotaped from behind a one-way mirror to
include a full view of the child and a profile view of the
examiner. Behavioral ratings were made from the video-
tapes by trained observers blind with respect to diagnosis
(these same observers also coded tapes of children with
24. delayed and typical development as part of a larger study)
and hypotheses. A more complete discussion of the ESCS
procedure is available elsewhere (Mundy et al., 2003).
Initiating and Responding to Protodeclarative Joint
Attention
Behavioral observations from the 20-min ESCS procedure
yielded scores in two categories of protodeclarative joint
attention. Initiating Protodeclarative Joint Attention could
Table 1 Sample characteristics
a
N M:F SES+ CA (mos) Mullen Composite MA (mos) Mullen
Composite IQ Mullen Verbal AE (mos)
b
60 51:9 46.2 43.6 25.4 58.1 22.9
SD (11.2) (4.3) (8.6) (19.8) (10.3)
Range 22–66 34–52 11.8–46.8 30–101 8–50
a
Numbers in the first row represent means; second row, standard
deviations (SDs) in parentheses; third row, range
b
The Mullen verbal age equivalent is the average of the Mullen
receptive language and Mullen expressive language age
25. equivalents
996 J Autism Dev Disord (2006) 36:993–1005
123
occur at any time during the assessment and consisted of
the number of times the child used eye gaze, alternating
eye gaze, showing, and/or pointing behaviors to direct and/
or share attention with the examiner with respect to an
active toy. Responding to Protodeclarative Joint Attention
was the percentage of six trials on which the child accu-
rately oriented with eyes and/or head turn beyond the
examiner’s finger and in the direction of the examiner’s
point and gaze to the posters.
Initiating Protoimperative Joint Attention
A frequency score was obtained for Initiating Protoim-
perative Joint Attention based on observations from the
ESCS, which could occur at any time during the assess-
ment and consisted of the number of times the child used
26. eye gaze, reaching with coordinated eye gaze, pointing,
and/or giving to request a toy or to request help. Dyadic
behaviors (e.g., a reach without coordinated eye contact)
were not included in this category.
Reliability of the behavioral coding of the ESCS task
occurred in two phases. First, initial reliability was
assessed by independent paired ratings using 15 taped
ESCS sessions provided by Peter Mundy. Each of five
raters (undergraduate research assistants) independently
coded the 15 tapes and these ratings were then compared to
those obtained by Peter Mundy using intra-class correlation
coefficients. The coefficients for the three variables used in
the present study—initiating and responding to protode-
clarative joint attention and initiating protoimperative joint
attention—ranged from .83 to .94. After achieving this
initial reliability, the five raters then began coding data for
the study using a detailed coding manual developed by the
first author based on conversations with Mundy and staff
27. that occurred during the process of obtaining initial reli-
ability. A second phase of reliability was assessed using
independent paired ratings made from videotapes for a
randomly selected group of participants (10% of total
sample). Intra-class correlation coefficients for this second
phase of reliability were .80 for initiating protodeclarative
joint attention, .75 for responding to protodeclarative joint
attention, and .86 for initiating protoimperative joint
attention.
Imitation and Deferred Imitation
Immediate and deferred motor imitation abilities were
assessed based on a battery developed by Meltzoff (1988a,
b) and previously used with children with autism (Dawson
et al., 1998) and Down syndrome (Rast & Meltzoff, 1995).
The battery consisted of 10 motor imitation items admin-
istered in 2 blocks, 5 immediate and 5 deferred. Items
involved simple actions on novel objects, such as pressing
a light panel with one’s forehead, hitting two red blocks
28. together, and inverting and collapsing a camping cup.
Block order was counterbalanced and order of presentation
of specific items within each block was randomly deter-
mined. The child was seated at a table across from a
familiar examiner. After gaining the child’s attention, the
examiner demonstrated each target action 3 times in about
20 s. In the immediate condition, after demonstrating all
5 actions, the examiner then handed the object(s) to the
child one at a time and said, ‘‘It’s your turn.’’ No other
verbal or physical prompts were used to elicit a response.
In the deferred condition, after demonstrating all 5 actions,
a 10-min delay was introduced during which the child was
escorted out of the test room. After the delay, the child
returned to the test room and the examiner handed the
object(s) to the child one at a time and said, ‘‘Here’s a toy
for you to play with.’’ In both conditions, the child’s
behavior was coded during a test period of 20 seconds,
which began from the time the child first touched the
29. object(s). Behavioral ratings were made live by a trained
clinician and from an immediate review of the videotapes
when a judgment could not be made live (this occurred
infrequently). The same clinician administered this mea-
sure to all children in the study. The dependent measure
was the total number of acts imitated, ranging from 0 to 5
for each condition. Intra- and inter-observer agreement
were both high. Intra-observer agreement was assessed by
having the initial coder rescore a randomly selected 10% of
the children from videotape. The coder waited more than
4 months after the first coding and was uninformed as to
the initial scoring. For the inter-observer assessment, a
second independent coder reviewed the videotapes of the
same randomly selected children, while remaining unin-
formed as to the initial scoring. There were few disagree-
ments: Intra- and inter-observer agreement, as assessed by
Pearson rs, were respectively .99 and .99 for immediate
imitation and 1.00 and .96 for deferred imitation.
30. Toy Play
In this structured assessment of functional and symbolic
toy play skills, the child was seated at a table across from
a familiar examiner. Six dolls and sets of stimuli, func-
tional and representational, were presented to the child
one at a time, with functional and symbolic conditions (3
dolls and sets of stimuli per condition) counterbalanced
across participants. Representational stimuli included a
block to represent a sandwich, a plastic lid and bag to
represent a blanket and pillow, a tongue depressor to
represent a comb, a small plastic object to represent a
cup, a shoebox to represent a bathtub, and a blue wooden
J Autism Dev Disord (2006) 36:993–1005 997
123
cylinder to represent a toothbrush. Functional objects for
each of these (e.g., a plastic sandwich, a comb, etc.) were
also included. For each condition, the child was presented
31. with a doll and object(s) and told, ‘‘You can play with
these.’’ Every 20 seconds, if the child was playing with
only some of the toys or not at all, the examiner repeated
the statement, ‘‘You can play with all of these’’ and
gestured to all of the toys. No further verbal or physical
prompts were provided. After 1 min, the toys were
removed from the table and the next doll and object(s)
were presented. The dolls were first presented unprompted
for each condition. For any target actions not performed
by the child, prompted trials were then given. Prompted
trials consisted of a verbal and gestural prompt, such as
‘‘Wally is hungry, give him a sandwich’’ while the
examiner patted her own stomach, but the examiner did
not model the target action on the doll. The child’s re-
sponses were scored in the following way: target action
was performed on the doll, on self, or on another person
(both prompted and unprompted trials were credited a
score of ‘1’ if the target action was performed); another
32. symbolic action was performed to self or other (these
actions were not included in the score); target action was
not performed (score of ‘0’). Functional and symbolic
play were highly correlated in this sample (r = .68) and
were therefore summed together to create one total play
score ranging from 0 to 6 (score of 0–3 possible for
functional play acts and 0–3 for symbolic play acts). The
same clinician administered this measure to all children in
the study. Behavioral ratings were made live by a trained
clinician (and in a few instances of ambiguity from
immediate review of the videotapes). Intra-observer
agreement was assessed by having the initial coder re-
score a randomly selected 10% of the children from
videotape (more than 4 months after the first coding,
while remaining uninformed as to the first judgments).
For the inter-observer assessment, a second independent
coder reviewed the same videotapes while uninformed as
to the initial scoring. Intra- and inter-observer agreement
33. for the total play score were, respectively, r = .97and .96.
Language Measures
Mullen Scales of Early Learning: AGS Edition
Receptive and expressive language age equivalents and
standard scores were derived from subscales of the Mullen
Scales of Early Learning (Mullen, 1997), which is a stan-
dardized measure of cognitive function for infants and
preschool age children. The Mullen was administered to
each child at age 3–4 years to obtain a measure of overall
cognitive ability as well as separate scores for both
receptive and expressive language abilities.
Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales: Survey Form
The Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (Sparrow et al.,
1984) is a standardized parent interview that includes
assessment of communication skills (i.e., receptive,
expressive, and written communication). The Vineland was
administered by phone every 6 months from age 3–4 to
6.5 years. Although the Vineland norms were based on in-
34. person administration of the instrument, the decision was
made to administer the Vineland by phone for this sample
in order to lessen the burden on parents. Interviewers were
blind to the Vineland responses obtained previously, and
each time the Vineland was administered, a new basal and
ceiling were obtained. In addition, the same parent was
interviewed at each time point. Interviewers followed the
procedure as outlined in the Vineland manual, beginning
with a broad interview format followed by more targeted
questions to gather the information necessary to score each
item. The overall communication subscale age equivalent
score every 6 months up to 6.5 years of age was used in
growth curve analyses, with an average of 6 data points per
child. Age equivalent scores were chosen over raw scores
as they provide a more meaningful metric with which to
interpret change over time (i.e., increase in months rather
than Vineland points). Communication ability as assessed
by the Vineland was highly correlated with language
35. ability as assessed by standardized language tests, both at
the outset of the study and at final follow-up at age 6 years.
This suggests that, for this sample, Vineland communica-
tion scores were a reasonably good measure of receptive
and expressive language ability. At age 3–4 years, the
Mullen verbal age equivalent and the Vineland communi-
cation age equivalent were correlated .78 (Vineland and
Mullen receptive language age equivalents were correlated
.48, and Vineland and Mullen expressive language age
equivalents were correlated .81). At age 6 years, the
Vineland communication standard score and the verbal
standard score as measured by the Differential Ability
Scales (DAS) were correlated .72.
Results
Means, standard deviations (SD), and ranges for the pre-
dictor variables are presented in Table 2. Correlations
among predictor variables were moderate, ranging from .20
to .67 (Table 3). The various language variables used in the
36. regression analyses were highly correlated with each other
(r = .89–.97 among Mullen variables, and .71–.79 between
Mullen and Vineland variables). Correlations between
predictor variables and initial language ability are shown in
Table 4. To determine the unique contributions of each of
the predictor variables to concurrent language, multiple
998 J Autism Dev Disord (2006) 36:993–1005
123
regression analyses were conducted. Although predictors
were moderately correlated with one another, multicollin-
earity diagnostics indicated adequate tolerance levels.
Contributions of Joint Attention, Imitation, and Toy
Play to Language Ability at Age 3–4 years
Multiple regression analyses were conducted with all of the
predictor variables entered in one step, in which case
the test of the partial regressions weight controls for all the
other predictors in the model. Results are presented in
37. Table 5 and indicate that across a range of language
variables—receptive and expressive language, parent
report and direct observation—initiating protodeclarative
joint attention and immediate imitation were most strongly
associated with concurrent language ability in 3–4-year-old
children with autism.
Predicting Rate of Communication Development
Next, to examine the degree to which these three early
abilities—joint attention, imitation, and toy play—
accounted for the variability in rate of communication
development over the preschool and early school age per-
iod, growth trajectories using repeated Vineland measure-
ments were modeled using Hierarchical Linear Modeling
(HLM; Raudenbush & Bryk, 2002) with two parameters,
an intercept (absolute communication level at 48 months)
and a linear slope.
1
Time was thus coded in months and
centered around 48. The six individual predictor variables
38. were standardized and entered as predictors of individual
differences in the growth trajectories (both intercepts and
slopes). As shown in Table 6, immediate imitation and toy
play abilities were significantly related to individual dif-
ferences in children’s communication ability at 48 months
as measured with the Vineland, partially replicating results
examining predictors of early language using the Mullen
language scores reported above. (Note that the correlations
with the Mullen Language Scores were computed at entry
into the study when children were slightly younger, 3–4
years of age). The coefficients at the intercept indicate that
children whose immediate imitation ability was 1 SD
above the mean had communication scores over 3 months
higher than those at the sample mean, and children with toy
play ability 1 SD above the mean had communication
scores 3 months higher than those at the sample mean.
Examining individual differences in the slope (rate of
change), it was found that both toy play and deferred
39. imitation were significantly and positively related to rate of
acquisition of communication skills over the next 2 years
(see Fig. 1). The average rate of change for the sample was
.75, meaning that the sample as a whole showed 3
4
of a
month’s growth in communication ability for each chro-
nological month that passed. Two skills, toy play and
deferred imitation, were related to rate of change. Children
who had toy play scores 1 SD above the sample mean
(while controlling for all other variables) showed a rate of
change of .91 month/chronological month (or 11 months
for every year), whereas children with toy play scores 1 SD
below the sample mean had a rate of change of only
.59 month/chronological month (7 months for every year).
Similarly, children with deferred imitation scores 1 SD
above the sample mean showed a rate of change of
.96 month/chronological month (11.5 months per year),
40. whereas children with deferred imitation scores 1 SD
below the sample mean had a rate of change of only
.54 month/chronological month (6.5 months per year).
Inasmuch as both these variables—toy play and deferred
imitation—predicted unique variability in the rate of
change, their additive effect was even greater. Thus, the
combination of better toy play ability and more developed
deferred imitation skills was associated with faster rates of
change in communication skills across the preschool and
early school age period. These positive associations
Table 2 Descriptive statistics for predictor variables
Predictor M (SD) Range
Init Protodecl JA
a
7.9 (8.7) 0–43
Resp Protodecl JA (%)
b
.51 (.35) 0–1 (%)
Init Protoimp JA
c
41. 11.2 (8.8) 0–36
Imitation-Immediate
d
2.9 (1.7) 0–5
Imitation-Deferred
e
1.9 (1.6) 0–5
Toy Play
f
4.0 (2.2) 0–6
a
Initiating protodeclarative joint attention was a frequency score
consisting of the number of times the child used eye gaze,
alternating
eye gaze, showing, and/or pointing behaviors to direct and/or
share
attention with the examiner with respect to an active toy
b
Responding to protodeclarative joint attention was the
percentage of
six trials on which the child accurately oriented with eyes
and/or head
turn beyond the examiner’s finger and in the direction of the
42. exam-
iner’s point and gaze to the posters
c
Initiating protoimperative joint attention was a frequency score
consisting of the number of times the child used eye gaze,
reached
with coordinated eye gaze, gave objects, and/or pointed to
request a
toy or to request help
d
Immediate imitation consisted of the total number of immediate
imitation items imitated
e
Deferred imitation consisted of the total number of deferred
imitation
items imitated
f
Toy play consisted of the number of functional and symbolic
play
acts performed, prompted or unprompted
1
An unconditional model with both linear and quadratic terms
was
also run. The quadratic term in this model was not significantly
dif-
ferent from zero (coeff. = .001134, std error = .0031, t(59) =
43. .365,
P = .716) and showed much less variability than the linear term
(variance component: linear term = .34247, quadratic term =
.00025), thus the model with the single linear slope was deemed
most
appropriate for these data.
J Autism Dev Disord (2006) 36:993–1005 999
123
remained for deferred imitation (t = 2.07, P < .05) and
nearly so for toy play (t = 1.81, P = .076) even after
controlling for child IQ.
Discussion
One purpose of the present study was to better understand
the contributions of each of three early abilities—joint
attention, imitation, and toy play—to early language ability
in young children with autism. Previous studies have pri-
marily demonstrated correlations between each of these
skill domains, and early and later language ability in
44. children with autism. In the present study, when these three
abilities were examined simultaneously, initiating
protodeclarative joint attention and immediate imitation
abilities were most strongly associated with language skills
in 3–4-year-old children with autism.
Table 6 HLM growth curve
analyses predicting rate of
acquisition of communicative
skills in young children with
autism
Intercept is Vineland
communication score at
48 months; *P < .05,
**P < .01
Intercept (48 mos.) Slope (Rate of change)
Coeff t Coeff t
Constant 22.61 27.95** .75 14.34**
Joint attention—protodeclarative
45. Initiate 1.10 1.20 –.06 –1.27
Respond 1.30 1.10 .03 .38
Joint attention—protoimperative
Initiate –1.28 –1.29 –.01 –.11
Imitation objects
Immediate 3.20 3.47** –.01 –.80
Deferred 2.08 1.61 .21* 2.61*
Toy Play 3.02 2.54* .16* 2.34*
Table 3 Correlations among predictor variables: joint attention,
imitation, and toy play
Init Protodecl JA Resp Protodecl JA Init Protoimp JA Symbolic
Play Imitation immediate Imitation deferred
Functional Play .31* .51*** .23 .67*** .43** .41**
Init Protodecl JA .43** .39** .48*** .28* .45***
Resp Protodecl JA .38** .58*** .44*** .66***
Init Protoimp JA .24 .20 .20
Symbolic Play .37** .50***
Imitation-Immediate .53***
*P < .05, **P < .01, ***P < .001
46. Table 4 Relations between joint attention, imitation, and toy
play, and language ability
Init Protodecl JA Resp Protodecl JA Init Protoimp JA Toy Play
Immediate imitation Deferred imitation
Mullen Verbal AE .53** .60** .23 .54** .66** .67**
Mullen Rec Lang AE .49** .58** .20 .50** .64** .66**
Mullen Expr Lang AE .53** .59** .25
a
.56** .64** .63**
Vineland Comm AE .53** .62** .30* .51** .56** .65**
*P < .05, **P < .001
a
P = .05
Table 5 Relations between joint attention, imitation, and toy
play, and current language ability in 3–4-year-old children with
autism
Mullen Verbal AE Mullen Rec Lang AE Mullen Expr Lang AE
Vineland Comm AE
Init Protodecl JA .25* .23* .25* .25*
Resp Protodecl JA .16 .16 .15 .23
Init Protoimp JA –.06 –.08 –.04 .02
Toy play .08 .03 .12 –.02
47. Imitation immediate .39*** .38** .37** .26*
Imitation deferred .22 .26* .17 .26
Total R
2
.65 .62 .62 .58
Numbers are standardized betas; *P < .05, **P < .01, ***P <
.001
1000 J Autism Dev Disord (2006) 36:993–1005
123
A second aim of this study was to better understand the
relationship between these early skills and rate of acqui-
sition of communication skills during the preschool and
early school age years in children with autism. Using
growth curve modeling, it was found that toy play and
deferred imitation were associated with higher rates of
acquisition of communication skills between 4 and
6.5 years of age. That is, children with autism who had
better toy play and deferred imitation abilities at age 4
48. acquired communication skills at a faster rate than those
with less developed toy play and deferred imitation skills.
For example, children who performed 1 SD above the
sample mean in both toy play and deferred imitation skills
had communication acquisition rates that were comparable
to typical children (13.4 months of communication growth
per 1 year of chronological age). (However, because the
children with autism started out at a lower level, their
language skills were still below age level at outcome.) In
comparison, children who performed 1 SD below the mean
in both toy play and deferred imitation skills acquired
communication skills at a rate of only 4.5 months per
1 year of chronological age.
These findings have important implications for under-
standing the nature and course of language development in
autism, and for designing targeted early interventions.
While initiating protodeclarative joint attention and
immediate imitation contributed to language ability at the
49. outset, toy play and deferred imitation were predictive of
rate of development of communication skills over the next
few years. These findings suggest that while all three
abilities might be important for laying a foundation for
language development in autism, toy play and deferred
imitation skills might contribute to the continued expansion
of language and communication skills over the preschool
and early school age period. This is not to suggest that joint
attention is not related to later language ability in autism.
Children with stronger joint attention skills also began with
better language at 3–4 years of age. That is, our findings
showed that children with better-developed initial joint
attention skills also had better-developed initial language
ability, and these children continued to show higher lan-
guage and communication skills across the preschool and
early school age years. Overall, however, when joint
attention was examined together with imitation and toy
play, only deferred imitation and toy play remained sig-
50. nificantly associated with rate (i.e., slope) of change in
communication skills over time.
We can speculate that joint attention and immediate
imitation are important ‘‘starter set’’ skills that set the
stage for social and communicative exchanges in which
language can develop, as described in the introduction.
Once this stage is set and the child begins to learn to use
language in a communicative manner, representational
skills become important in the continued acquisition of
words and phrases during the preschool and early school
age period. Toy play and deferred imitation abilities often
involve shared attention, but they also index higher level
cognitive skills that are important for the continued
development and expansion of language and social com-
munication abilities: an active interest, curiosity in, and
exploration of the environment; representational thought,
memory; and cognitive planning. While joint attention
episodes occur in a social context, both toy play (particu-
51. larly as it was measured here with dolls) and deferred
imitation require that the child actively attend to the
immediate environment, observe the events and actions
taking place, then reproduce these events and socially-
mediated actions at a later time. The ability to demonstrate
these skills requires an active interest in people and/or
things (capturing the child’s attention), representational
thinking (forming and storing a mental representation),
intact recall memory (calling up that representation at a
later time), and both cognitive and motor planning skills in
order to reproduce the action or event (Klein & Meltzoff,
1999; Meltzoff, 1988b, 1999). Additionally, the child’s
ability to reproduce actions at a later time reflects not only
symbolic thinking and intact recall memory, but also a
‘‘shared attitude toward objects,’’ as the child demonstrates
the same actions on objects that he has witnessed of others
(Meltzoff, 2005; Meltzoff & Gopnik, 1993). Thus, through
toy play and imitation, the child not only comes to an
52. understanding of the world around him—what people do
and think and how objects work—but also has the oppor-
tunity to demonstrate that understanding.
The results of the present study also have implications
for early intervention. All three skill domains—joint
attention, imitation, and toy play—are related to the
development of language and communication abilities in
young children with autism and are therefore important
Child's Age in Months
45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
V
in
e
la
n
d
C
o
m
m
u
55. wth
Fig. 1 Comparison of rates of acquisition of communication
skills in
children with autism who have toy play and imitation skills
either
1 SD above, or 1 SD below, the sample mean
J Autism Dev Disord (2006) 36:993–1005 1001
123
targets for early intervention. A number of studies have
shown promising results in facilitating the development of
joint attention in children with autism (Klinger & Dawson,
1992; Siller & Sigman, 2002; Whalen & Schreibman,
2003). Kasari et al. (2004) recently conducted a treatment
study that examined two interventions, one that targeted
joint attention skills and one that targeted play skills. The
play intervention focused not only on symbolic acts, but
also overall level of play. Children with autism were ran-
domly assigned to one of three groups—the joint attention
treatment group, the play treatment group, or the control
56. group—upon admission to the program. The control group
participated in a general early intervention program.
Results showed that children in the joint attention inter-
vention group showed significantly more pointing and
showing, more responses to joint attention, and more child-
initiated joint attention in mother–child interactions than at
pre-treatment. Similarly, children in the play group showed
significantly greater frequencies and types of play acts and
higher play levels on both a structured play assessment and
during mother–child interactions than at pre-treatment.
Further, over a 14-month period, the two experimental
groups showed an average of 15–17 months gain in
expressive language ability compared to only 7.5 months
for the control group. Although this study did not examine
pre-treatment differences among groups on a range of
variables, the results demonstrate that skills such as joint
attention and play may be modified and may contribute to
gains in other skill areas, such as expressive language
57. ability, in children with autism.
Another treatment study examined the behavioral pro-
files of responders and non-responders to Pivotal Response
Training (PRT) (Sherer & Schreibman, 2004 in press).
Children with responder profiles tended to have better-
developed toy play skills at pre-treatment, demonstrated
greater gains in language, play, and social skills during
treatment sessions than non-responders, and also general-
ized these skills to no-treatment environments and
untrained stimuli. Although the study design used in the
Sherer and Schreibman study precludes conclusions as to
whether improvement occurred in response to treatment or
in response to treatment plus other factors, it does tell us
that certain skills, such as toy play skills, might influence
the acquisition of language and other abilities that are
targeted in the treatment of children with autism.
It should be noted that due to the wide heterogeneity in
language skills in autism, meaningful speech, that is,
58. speech that is frequent or consistent, referential, and
communicative, is difficult to assess with any one measure.
Standardized cognitive tests sample behavior over the
course of 1 h, while parent report measures such as the
Vineland provide a summary of behavior over a broader
time frame and range of settings. Each of these measures
captures some, but not all, aspects of meaningful commu-
nication. In the current study, the Vineland was shown to
be highly correlated with direct assessment of language in
this sample, and was therefore deemed a suitable measure
of rate of language acquisition over time in young children
with autism. The Vineland also allowed for a repeated
measure appropriate for growth curve analysis that was not
confounded by test practice effects. The broader issue of
what measure best captures meaningful or useful speech
remains an important one, but one that lies outside the
scope of this study.
In summary, the results of the present study shed light
59. on the relationship between early skill domains and the
development of language and communication in young
children with autism, and suggest specific targets for early
intervention. Early abilities involved in social exchange
and communication, namely, joint attention and immediate
imitation, appear to be important for setting the stage for
early language learning in autism, while representational
skills, demonstrated through toy play and deferred imita-
tion, contribute to the continued expansion of language and
communication skills over the preschool and early school
age years. Each of these skill areas represents an important
target for early intervention programs that promote com-
municative competence and improved outcomes for young
children with autism.
Acknowledgments This research was funded by a program
project
grant from the National Institute of Child Health and Human
Development and the National Institute on Deafness and
Communi-
60. cation Disability (U19HD35465), which is part of the
NICHD/NID-
CD Collaborative Program of Excellence in Autism and by a
center
grant from the National Institute of Mental Health
(U54MH066399),
which is part of the NIH Studies to Advance Autism Research
and
Treatment (STAART) Centers Program. We gratefully
acknowledge
the contributions of the parents and their children who
participated in
this study and several other people who made significant
contributions
to this research: Craig Harris and several undergraduate
research
assistants.
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123
Working Memory and Specific Language
Impairment: An Update on the Relation and
Perspectives on Assessment and Treatment
James W. Montgomery
Beula M. Magimairaj
84. Mianisha C. Finney
Ohio University, Athens
Purpose: Children with specific language im-
pairment (SLI) demonstrate significant language
impairments despite normal-range hearing and
nonverbal IQ. Many of these children also show
marked deficits in working memory (WM) abilities.
However, the theoretical and clinical character-
ization of the association between WM and
language limitations in SLI is still sparse. Our
understanding of this association would benefit
greatly from an updated and thorough review of
the literature.
Method: We review the newest developments in
these areas from both a theoretical and clinical
perspective. Our intent is to provide researchers
and practicing clinicians (a) a conceptual frame-
work within which the association between WM
and language limitations of children with SLI
can be understood and (b) potentially helpful
suggestions for assessing and treating the
memory-language difficulties of children with SLI.
Conclusions: In the past 10 years, important
new theoretical insights into the range and nature
of WM deficits and relation between these
limitations and the language difficulties in SLI
have occurred. New, robust diagnostic assess-
ment tools and computerized treatment methods
designed to enhance children’s WM functioning
have also been developed. The assessment,
diagnosis, and treatment of the language diffi-
culties in SLI should consider the potential
influence of WM.
85. Key Words: children, specific language
impairment, working memory, language
M
any children with specific language impairment
(SLI) exhibit significant working memory (WM)
deficits relative to same-age peers. In 2002,
Montgomery published a review article on what was known
about the WM deficits of children with SLI and the relation
of these deficits to these children’s language problems. Since
then, new and important insights into WM and language in
children with SLI and typically developing (TD) children
have occurred. We review these new developments. We cast
the WM deficits and their relation to SLI in broad theoretical
terms, which allows us to contextualize the WM issues
defining the current SLI literature. During this same period,
new WM assessment tools and computerized training meth-
ods designed to remediate the WM deficiencies of children
have been developed. Many of these tools are available to
the practicing speech-language pathologist (SLP). These new
developments and their clinical relevance to SLI will be
reviewed.
Children with SLI demonstrate normal-range hearing and
nonverbal intelligence and an absence of developmental
disability (e.g., autism or fragile X syndrome) yet marked
expressive and/or receptive language difficulties for their
age. Many children with SLI also exhibit limitations in WM.
WM refers to the mental processes allowing limited infor-
mation to be held in a temporary accessible state during
cognitive processing (Cowan, Nugent, Elliott, Ponomarev, &
Saults, 2005); that is, WM involves concurrent informa-
tion processing and storage. Because WM is considered a
primitive of higher level cognition (e.g., Unsworth & Engle,
86. 2007), including fluid intelligence, language learning/
performance, and academic learning, it is important to un-
derstand its nature. The WM system includes various mech-
anisms and properties. Over the past decade, the range of
WM problems exhibited by children with SLI has broadened,
and the evidence implicating an association between the WM
and language difficulties in children with SLI has grown.
This said, it should be noted that children with SLI repre-
sent a heterogeneous population not only with respect to the
linguistic deficits they exhibit (Leonard, 1998) but also as to
whether they demonstrate WM limitations. Although WM
Tutorial
American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology • Vol. 19 •
78–94 • February 2010 • A American Speech-Language-Hearing
Association78
limitations characterize many children with SLI, not all chil-
dren with SLI evidence such deficits (Archibald & Joanisse,
2009). The information in the present article reflects what
is known about children with SLI who do demonstrate WM
problems.
WM in TD Children
A Theoretical Backdrop
To better understand the SLI literature, it is important to
have some familiarity with the key issues defining the re-
cent developmental memory literature. The majority of WM
research has been conducted within Baddeley’s original
tripartite framework (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974). This model
describes WM as a multidimensional system comprising
three separable yet interactive mechanisms (Bayliss, Jarrold,
87. Baddeley, Gunn, & Leigh, 2005; Gathercole, 1999; Gavens
& Barrouillet, 2004; Towse, Hitch, & Hutton, 1998). One is
a domain-general central executive responsible for coordi-
nating and controlling the different activities within WM.
The executive has finite attentional resources (mental energy/
capacity) that are controlled in a flexible manner. Attentional
control is key, and its regulatory functions include such
things as allocation (the ability to devote mental energy to
different levels of a task), updating (changing the contents
of WM through attention switching), sustained attention
(the ability to attend selectively to a stimulus in the midst of
interference), and inhibition (the ability to block irrelevant
stimuli from WM or focus of attention; Baddeley, 1996;
Barkley, 1996; Lehto, Juujarvi, Kooistra, & Pulkkinen, 2003).
The executive is roughly similar to the view of WM espoused
by Cowan (Cowan, 1997; Cowan et al., 2005) as the acti-
vation of a subset of representations (e.g., words) stored in
long-term memory that momentarily occupy the focus of
attention, and by Engle (Engle & Kane, 2004; Unsworth &
Engle, 2007) as attentional capacity and control.
The second and third mechanisms correspond to two
domain-specific storage devices, one devoted to the tempo-
rary retention of verbal material, the phonological loop, and
the other to visuospatial input, the visuospatial sketchpad.
In this article, we focus on the loop, hereafter referred to as
phonological short-term memory (pSTM). Recently, Baddeley
(2000, 2003) proposed a fourth mechanism, the episodic
buffer. The buffer is assumed to function as a temporary
storage device and a processing system capable of integrating
inputs from pSTM and the visuospatial sketchpad into a
coherent episode/representation. It is thought to be important
to the processing and retention of large chunks of language
material such as connected speech. Because the buffer is a
newly proposed mechanism, it does not enjoy the same theo-
retical specificity and empirical validation as the other com-
88. ponents (Baddeley, 2003). Finally, though not a mechanism,
developmental memory researchers have begun to examine
processing speed as an important property of WM and a
potential factor in defining the capacity limits of WM (Bayliss
et al., 2005; Towse & Hitch, 1995; Towse et al., 1998). In-
terest in speed derives from earlier work revealing reliable
intercorrelations among processing speed, short-term mem-
ory (STM), chronological age, and higher level cognitive
abilities (Fry & Hale, 1996, 2000; Gathercole & Baddeley,
1993; Kail, 1991). We are interested in processing speed
because of its emerging association with WM and central
focus in the SLI literature.
The basic architecture of the tripartite model—that is,
central executive, pSTM, and visuospatial STM—seems to
be developed by about age 6 (Gathercole, Pickering, Ambridge,
& Wearing, 2004). The capacity of each component increases
from early childhood into adolescence (Gathercole, 1999;
Gathercole et al., 2004). The executive is significantly linked
to both storage devices beginning in early childhood. This
finding indicates that the executive is associated with the
coordination of the flow of information throughout WM
(Baddeley, 1996; Gathercole et al., 2004), and different WM
mechanisms develop in an integrated fashion from an early
age. Finally, pSTM and visuospatial STM appear to develop
relatively independently of each other, revealing their domain-
specificity (Gathercole et al., 2004; Jarvis & Gathercole,
2003).
WM capacity is assessed using various concurrent
processing-storage tasks. In listening span tasks, children
listen to sets of sentences that increase in number (e.g.,
“Pumpkins are purple” and “Fish can swim”) and are asked
to respond to the truth value of each sentence (processing
component) and recall as many sentence-final words from
89. each set (storage component; Gathercole et al., 2004; Pickering
& Gathercole, 2001). In counting span tasks, children count
arrays of dots while remembering the sums of dots on each
array; at the end of a set, they recall the sums from each array.
In operation span tasks, children perform multiple arithmetic
problems, store the answer to each problem or a separate
word presented after each problem, and then recall all the
answers or words at the end of the set. The developmental
pattern is that processing accuracy is high while storage
significantly improves. WM capacity is typically indexed by
item recall—that is, availability of storage in the face of
processing/interference.
Much developmental work has focused on explaining
increases in children’s WM capacity, examining the roles of
the central executive and STM (Barrouillet & Camos, 2001;
Barouillet, Gavens, Vergauwe, Gaillard, & Camos, 2009;
Bayliss et al., 2005; Bayliss, Jarrold, Gunn, & Baddeley,
2003; Gathercole et al., 2004; Irwin-Chase & Burns, 2000;
Karatekin, 2004). Research has shown that gains in capacity
are associated with increases in both of these mechanisms.
Some researchers have investigated the impact of processing
speed/efficiency (Bayliss et al., 2005; Towse & Hitch, 1995;
Towse et al., 1998). The idea behind the association between
speed and WM capacity centers on the possibility that the
slower the processing activity of a WM task is completed, the
greater the opportunity for the stored items to decay or be
forgotten. Only recently have researchers begun to investi-
gate the collective contributions of STM and processing
speed on WM performance (Bayliss et al., 2003, 2005;
Magimairaj, Montgomery, Marinellie, & McCarthy, 2009).
Bayliss et al. (2005) examined the individual and combined
contributions of storage and processing speed on 6–10-year-
old children’s WM capacity. Hierarchical linear regression
and structural equation modeling showed that age-related
increases in STM and processing speed contributed to
90. Montgomery et al.: Working Memory and Language in SLI 79
developmental changes in WM capacity, with STM ac-
counting for greater variance than speed. Magimairaj et al.
(2009) replicated these findings in 6–12-year-old children.
Some have argued that increases in WM capacity may
also be driven by changes in attentional control. As children
grow older they become better at rapidly switching their
attention between the processing part of the task and remem-
bering the items in STM (Barrouillet et al., 2009; Conlin,
Gathercole, & Adams, 2005; Portrat, Camos, & Barrouillet,
2009). It is not difficult to see that attentional control (Engle,
2002; Unsworth & Engle, 2007) is closely related to the
idea of scope or focus of attention (Cowan, 1997; Cowan
et al., 2005) in that only a small bit of information can oc-
cupy the focus of attention at any given moment.
Relation of WM to Spoken Language Development
and Functioning
Lexical learning. Much developmental work investigat-
ing the relation between WM and language has centered on
word learning (Avons, Wragg, Cupples, & Lovegrove, 1998;
Gathercole & Baddeley, 1990b; Gathercole, Willis, Emslie,
& Baddeley, 1992). Most of this work has focused on pSTM,
which has been argued to function as an important language
learning device (Baddeley, Gathercole, & Papagno, 1998;
Gathercole, 2006; Gathercole & Baddeley, 1990b). Word
learning involves mapping sound to meaning. Using a variety
of methods, robust associations between pSTM and new
word learning have been reported for preschool-age children
through about age 8 (Bowey, 2001; Gathercole & Baddeley,
91. 1989, 1990b; Gathercole, Service, Hitch, & Martin, 1997;
Jarrold, Thorn, & Stephens, 2009). The ability to hold novel
speech material in pSTM presumably permits children to
establish stable, long-term phonological representations of
new words in long-term memory (e.g., Jarrold et al., 2009).
As the lexicon grows, word entries become more phonolog-
ically refined and better organized, with one organizational
scheme involving words beginning with the same sound
being stored together (Luce & Pisoni, 1998). Phonological
STM and the ability to temporarily store new sound pat-
terns may be an important factor in young children’s lexical
learning and organization. Although the relation of pSTM
and word learning weakens after age 8 (Gathercole, 1995;
Gathercole, Tiffany, Briscoe, Thorn, & the ALSPAC Team,
2005), there continues to be a significant link through ado-
lescence into adulthood (Atkins & Baddeley, 1998; Gupta,
2003).
Morphological and syntactic learning and functioning.
Some researchers (Plunkett & Marchman, 1993; Tomasello,
2000) argue that young children do not possess morpho-
logical rules (e.g., past tense), grammatical categories (e.g.,
subjects, verbs, and objects), and syntactic structure (e.g.,
subject-verb-object [SVO] and passive). Rather, children
initially learn whole phrases and only later discover under-
lying rules, categories, and structures by using the distribu-
tional properties/regularities of the input (Nelson, 1987;
Plunkett & Marchman, 1993; Tomasello, 2000). Phonolog-
ical STM may serve as a mediating or moderating mecha-
nism for this analytic process. Some support for this idea
comes from Adams and Gathercole (1995), who reported
that pSTM predicts quantity and quality of spontaneous
speech in 3-year-old children. They showed that high-
pSTM capacity children, compared with low-capacity chil-
dren, produced longer utterances containing a greater range
92. of syntactic structures and lexical diversity. Blake, Austin,
Cannon, Lisus, and Vaughan (1994) showed that STM is a
better predictor of mean length of utterance in preschoolers
than chronological or mental age. Because morphological
and syntactic learning entails building relational knowledge,
it is likely that several executive functions are involved;
however, little empirical work has directly addressed the
issue.
The influence of WM capacity in language comprehen-
sion is only beginning to receive attention. At the sentence
level, the more controlled studies have focused on the relation
of WM and complex sentence comprehension. WM has been
linked to the comprehension of object relative clause forms
(e.g., “The hippo that the lion kissed on the nose was running
into the jungle”) in young children (Roberts, Marinis, Felser,
& Clahsen, 2007). Children with greater WM capacity show
more accurate comprehension than low-capacity children.
Comprehension minimally involves storing a prior element
(noun phrase [NP] 1) in WM while processing new, incoming
input. However, WM capacity is likely just one important
mechanism. Being able to reactivate a stored element and
then integrate it into a developing local structure in a timely
manner are other WM-related skills underlying complex
sentence comprehension (Lewis, Vasishth, & Van Dyke,
2006; McElree, Foraker, & Dyer, 2003; Van Dyke, 2007).
Support for this wider view comes from a recent study by
Montgomery, Magimairaj, and O’Malley (2008). These
authors showed that 6–12-year-old children’s spoken com-
prehension of verbal be passives (“The little girl was kissed
by the woman”) is associated with WM capacity and pro-
cessing speed. At a more global level, children’s comprehen-
sion of narrative is predicted by WM capacity and processing
speed (Montgomery, Polunenko, & Marinellie, 2009). Be-
cause narratives entail large amounts of input and keeping
track of many representations, developing a coherent mental
93. model requires the storage, retrieval, and rapid integration
of multiple representations across large stretches of input.
WM and Speed of Processing in SLI
Relative to age peers, many children with SLI show
significant limitations in nearly all WM mechanisms as well
as speed of processing (see Table 1). Appreciation of these
limitations and the relation of these limitations to the lan-
guage deficits of these children have important practical
implications. Such knowledge may translate into building
more informed clinical profiles of these children’s cognitive-
linguistic strengths and weaknesses. Such knowledge, in
turn, may help inform clinical assessment, diagnosis, and
treatment.
STM Storage
Many children with SLI show marked limitations in STM
capacity. Gathercole and Baddeley (1990b) proposed the
phonological storage deficit hypothesis of SLI, claiming that
80 American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology • Vol. 19 •
78–94 • February 2010
the language impairment in SLI is secondary to a deficit in
phonological storage. Phonological STM is assessed using
various tasks such as digit span, word span, and nonword
repetition. In digit and word span, children are presented
increasingly longer lists of items and recall each list in serial
order. In nonword repetition, children imitate nonwords
varying in length. Regardless of task, children with SLI gen-
erally exhibit reduced pSTM relative to age peers (Archibald
& Gathercole, 2006; Ellis Weismer et al., 2000; Gathercole
94. & Baddeley, 1990b; R. Gillam, Cowan, & Day, 1995;
Montgomery, 2004; Montgomery & Evans, 2009).
Whether children with SLI evidence a developmental
increase in STM capacity has been little studied. Gray (2004)
reported an increase in capacity between 3 and 6 years. How-
ever, capacity may level off by about 11 years, as suggested
by findings of a longitudinal study by Conti-Ramsden and
Durkin (2007). Their findings are inconsistent with the de-
velopmental literature showing that pSTM capacity does not
asymptote until about 14–15 years in TD children (Gathercole,
1999; Gathercole et al., 2004). Finally, there is evidence that
the STM deficit of children with SLI may be confined to the
verbal modality, as children with SLI and age peers tend to
perform similarly on visuospatial STM tasks (Alloway &
Archibald, 2008; Archibald & Gathercole, 2006, 2007).
Central Executive
It has only been recently that SLI researchers have begun
to study the central executive, primarily in the context of
WM tasks. Aspects of the executive that have been assessed
include attentional capacity and several attentional functions—
that is, allocation, inhibitory control, updating, and sustained
attention.
Attentional capacity. Attentional capacity refers to the
limited mental activation/energy available to a person to
perform a given task (Just & Carpenter, 1992). Most SLI
studies have tested attentional capacity using verbal tasks
(Ellis Weismer, Evans, & Hesketh, 1999; Mainela-Arnold &
Evans, 2005; Montgomery, 2000a), but some investigators
have also begun to include nonlinguistic tasks (Alloway
& Archibald, 2008; Archibald & Gathercole, 2006, 2007;
Windsor, Kohnert, Loxtercamp, & Kan, 2008). Irrespective
95. of the nature of the task, many children with SLI show re-
duced performance relative to age peers.
Ellis Weismer et al. (1999) compared the attentional
capacity of children with SLI and age peers. Using the
Competing Language Processing Task (CLPT; Gaulin &
Campbell, 1994), these investigators reported that both groups
yielded similar comprehension, but the SLI group yielded
significantly poorer word recall. Similar results have been
reported by others (Archibald & Gathercole, 2006, 2007;
Mainela-Arnold & Evans, 2005; Marton & Schwartz, 2003;
Montgomery, 2000a, 2000b; Montgomery & Evans, 2009).
Because all these studies show that children with SLI can
manage both comprehension and recall when the demands
for recall are light (i.e., few items need to be recalled), the
interpretation has been that children with SLI have reduced
attentional capacity compared to age peers. Archibald and
Gathercole (2006, 2007) and Windsor et al. (2008) have
extended these findings and interpretation to the nonlinguistic
domain. Im-Bolter, Johnson, and Pascual-Leone (2006) cor-
roborated the capacity limitation hypothesis using a variety
TABLE 1. Working memory (WM) and processing speed of
children with specific language impairment
(SLI) relative to age-matched peers.
WM/speed Relative to age peers
Short-term memory capacity
Verbal storage Poor
(Archibald & Gathercole, 2006, 2007; Ellis Weismer et al.,
2000; Gathercole &
Baddeley, 1990b; Montgomery, 1995, 2004)
Visuospatial storage Similar
96. (Alloway & Archibald, 2008; Archibald & Gathercole, 2006,
2007)
WM capacity
Concurrent processing stor-
age
Poor
(Archibald & Gathercole, 2006, 2007; Ellis Weismer et al.,
1999; Marton &
Schwartz, 2003; Montgomery, 2000a, 2000b; Montgomery &
Evans, 2009)
Central executive
Attentional capacity Poor
(Archibald & Gathercole, 2006, 2007; Ellis Weismer et al.,
1999;
Im-Bolter et al., 2006; Mainela-Arnold & Evans, 2005;
Montgomery & Evans, 2009)
Attentional allocation/shift-
ing
Similar
(Montgomery, 2000a, 2000b; Im-Bolter et al., 2006)
Updating Poor
(Im-Bolter et al., 2006)
Inhibition Poor
(Im-Bolter et al., 2006; Marton et al., 2007; Seiger-Gardner &
Schwartz, 2008)
Sustained attention Poor
97. (Finneran et al., 2009; Montgomery, 2008; Montgomery,
Polunenko,
& Marinellie, 2009; Spaulding et al., 2008)
Processing speed Poor
(Leonard et al., 2007; Miller et al., 2001; Windsor & Hwang,
1999; Windsor
et al., 2008)
Montgomery et al.: Working Memory and Language in SLI 81
of independent measures of attentional capacity. Collectively,
such findings and interpretation are consistent with the gen-
eral WM literature characterizing attentional capacity as a
domain-general cognitive attribute (Baddeley, 1996; Cowan,
1997; Cowan et al., 2005; Unsworth & Engle, 2007). Finally,
it is not clear whether children with SLI exhibit develop-
mental increase in attentional capacity, as there are no studies
directly addressing the issue.
Attentional control. Im-Bolter et al. (2006) evaluated three
attentional control functions in children with SLI. Using a
variety of independent tasks, they assessed shifting, updating,
and inhibitory control. Shifting, which is roughly analogous
to Baddeley’s (1996) resource allocation, is the ability to
devote attention between two different levels of a task (e.g.,
the processing and storage parts of a WM task) or to two
different tasks (Im-Bolter et al., 2006). Updating refers to
maintaining focus at a given level of a task and adding new
content to the focus of attention (e.g., adding to a list of to-be-
remembered items in storage in a WM task). Inhibition refers
to preventing irrelevant stimuli from entering WM or focus
