The Roman Republic transitioned to the Roman Empire over centuries as Rome expanded from a small city-state into a massive empire through military conquests. Key events included the overthrow of the Etruscan kings in 509 BCE to establish the Republic, the Punic Wars in the 3rd-2nd centuries BCE which made Rome dominant in the Mediterranean, and the civil wars and rise of powerful generals in the 1st century BCE which weakened the Republic. The Republic ended and the Empire began when Octavian, as the first emperor Augustus, established the Principate and 200 year period of Pax Romana and stability from 27 BCE-180 CE.

1. Rome:Rome:
RepublicRepublic
toto
EmpireEmpire

3. Etruscans
• Etruscan civilization dominated central Italy
between Arno & Tiber Rivers from 8th
– 3rd
C.
BCE (height – 6th
c. BCE)
• Busy seaports – trading with Phoenicians &
Greeks
• Etruscan League – 12 cities
• Non-Indo European language – developed
writing from Greek alphabet
• Like Egyptians – strong focus on the afterlife --
the soul continued to live on– elaborate
sarcophagi and tombs
• Master metal smiths & potters
• Religion & art – influenced Romans

4. Founding of Rome
• Indo-European migrations c. 1500 BCE –
brought the Italics – Latin-speaking tribe
into region
• Legend – founded by twins Romulus and
Remus in 753 BCE on site where a she-
wolf had suckled them as abandoned
infants saving their lives (father was the
god Mars)
• Small, poor city-state in early 8th
C. BCE –
in the shadow of the growing Etruscan
power (Etruria)
• Slowly Rome began to expand
• 509 BCE—threw off the monarchy (last
of the Etruscan kings)—Republic
established by the aristocracy

5. Roman Republic
• Wealthy patricians controlled the Senate while the plebeians
(poor) had limited voice in the Plebeian Council
• 2 Consuls (top magistrates)—1 year terms, checked each other
power, advised by the Senate, 1 consul had dictatorial powers in
times of crisis, ex-consuls -> senate
• Senate had the real power (controlled money & directed
government policies)
• Structure evolved over 3 centuries due to constant power
struggles between the plebeians and patricians
• By the late 3rd
C. BCE – the plebeians had gained more rights and
had their own representative body called the tribunes who
looked after their interests (had veto power)
• Periods of strife – some tribunes became too popular with the
people – assassinations

9. The Roman Forum Today
• Forum was the political, judicial, economic, and religious
center of the Republic—emerged in the 7th
c. BCE and
abandoned by the 4th
c. CE

11. Foundations -Foundations -
Roman LawRoman Law• Roman law code is the most important political contribution that Rome
left the Western world
• First written laws —The Laws of the Twelve Tables (c. 450 BCE)
– Civil law code to protect individual rights – victory for plebeians
– Concept of “innocent until proven guilty” originated here
• Law code evolved over a period of 1,000 years
– Republic: Roman law was enlarged by the Senate and interpreted by
the judiciary to meet changing times
– Empire: Emperor became solely responsible for the law
– Empire – became an international law code applied to the conquered
territories
– 6th
c. CE: laws became further codified and preserved—passed down to
antiquity—medieval church based many of its laws on the Roman
canon

12. Foundations -Foundations -
Latin LanguageLatin Language
• Latin would quickly spread over a larger part of Italy, in direct
correlation to Roman conquests.
• With the foundation of the Roman Empire, a large portion of
the Western world would come to speak various forms of
Latin or have it intermingled with their own tongues.
• The Romance Languages of Spain, France, Italy, Portugal, and
Romania developed from a hybrid version of spoken Latin and
native tongues
• Latin became the official language of the medieval Christian
Church – also influenced scholarship

14. Foundations -Foundations -
Family in AncientFamily in Ancient
Rome –Rome –
Pater FamiliasPater Familias• Basic unit of Roman society was the family
• The family often included extended kin living together
• Patriarchal authority – eldest male controlled family and
property
• Women had considerable power behind the scenes in their
own families and many ran businesses and managed estates
• Freeborn women were citizens but couldn’t vote
• Ancestor worship was extremely important to the family
(similar to ancient China)

15. Foundations -Foundations -
Roman SlaveryRoman Slavery
• Slavery—defining element of Roman society
• By the 1st
C. CE—slaves made up over 30% of the empire’s
population
• Most slaves were prisoners of war (not race based or defined
by an ethnic group ) while others were bought by merchants
through the vast trade networks of the time
• Status passed down to children
• Poor orphaned children often enslaved
• Slaves worked in all aspects of the Roman economy
• Rural areas—slaves farmed the latifundia—huge plantations
• City—some slaves who had skills were employed in various
occupations, others worked under brutal conditions on public
works projects
•Slaves lacked all rights
• Quality of life depended on their masters
• Manumission (setting free) was pretty common

16. Foundations - Roman Military
• In addition to government, the Romans invested a lot of
authority in the military
• Citizen-soldier ideal – all male citizens required to serve in army
– Officer positions – required 10 years of duty
• Divided into large military units called legions (5,000 armed
foot soldiers) –had a cavalry that supported each legion
• Legions divided into centuries (80 men)
• Highly organized military, highly trained – key to Rome’s
expansion and greatness
• Influential on the government

17. Roman Republican Values
• Values of Republic: rule of law, rights of citizens, discipline,
moral behavior, honesty, ancestor worship, citizen-soldier
• Values formed basis of Rome’s expansion—by 270 BCE
mighty Roman army controlled entire Italian peninsula

18. Rome’s EarlyRome’s Early
Road SystemRoad System

19. Roman Roads:Roman Roads:
TheThe Appian WayAppian Way
*Oldest and most important of the
Roman roads
*”queen road”
*321 BCE completed
*Connected Rome to Brandisi—part
of the route to Greece
*”All roads lead to Rome”

20. ImperialImperial
Roman RoadRoman Road
SystemSystem **Much like Darius I’s
Royal Road, the
Romans’ masterful
engineers created a
highway system that
connected the entire
empire
**Fast, efficient
transportation—
helped bring Rome
into its golden age of
peace and prosperity
(Pax Romana)

21. Hannibal vs. Scipio
Second Punic War 264-201 BCE
• Rome and the powerful city-state
of Carthage fought a series of 3
wars over control of the
Mediterranean trade routes
– Legendary general Hannibal
attempted a surprise attack on Rome
in the Second Punic War by crossing
the Alps with a herd of war elephants
• Rome defeated Hannibal at the
Battle of Zama but Carthage
remained a regional competitor
until the Romans completely
destroyed the city in the 3rd
war
(149-146 BCE)
– sold off its inhabitants as slaves

22. **Punic Wars gave Rome control over the western
Mediterranean
**Made Rome a naval power

23. Roman RepublicanRoman Republican
ConquestsConquests
• After Rome defeated Carthage in 146 BCE, it seemed no
Mediterranean force could stop the Romans
• Victory over Carthage gave Rome a taste of imperialism—wealth
from plunder, slaves for cheap labor, new farm lands, control of
trade routes, provinces for taxation, glory for generals (who
could resist all of this?)
• Rome then launched a series of wars on the Eastern
Mediterranean
• One by one, Macedonia, Greece, and parts of Asia Minor
(Turkey) surrendered and became Roman provinces
• Other regions, like Egypt, allied with Rome
• After brutality of conquest, usually generous treatment of the
conquered
23

24. 24
By 133 BCE , Romans called the
Mediterranean Mare Nostrum, or “Our Sea”

25. The Decline ofThe Decline of
the Republicthe Republic
• Roman imperialism brought with it a set of growing
problems that weakened the Republic:
1. Growing gap between rich and poor
2. Rise of slave agriculture and the decline of
free peasant farmers (became landless urban poor)
3. Breakdown in military order
4. Greed and self-interest replaced virtues such as
simplicity, hard work, and devotion to Rome
5. Corruption

26. Slave RevoltsSlave Revolts
• Rome faced a series of slave revolts
between 135-71 BCE
• Slaves--1/3 of the population
• Rebellion led by the gladiator Spartacus
was the most serious one
• General Crassus put down revolt in 71 BCE
—lined the Appian Way with 6,000
crucified slaves

27. 27
Gladiator GamesGladiator Games

28. Military Upheaval –Military Upheaval –
Expansion ImpactsExpansion Impacts
MilitaryMilitary
• Old system: citizen-soldiers showed allegiance to
the Republic—loyal and patriotic
• New order: victorious generals promised soldiers
land and other rewards for good service---allegiance
given to powerful commanders who used the army
as they saw fit—dangerous situation for the
Republic

29. General Marius:General Marius:
Professional ArmyProfessional Army
• General in the Roman army.
• Marius transformed Rome’s
army into a professional
military with the best training
and equipment
• Civil war breaks out in Rome
and Marius seizes Rome in 87
BCE as a dictator.
• He recruited a private army
from landless residents to
support him.

30. The Dictatorship ofThe Dictatorship of
the Firstthe First
TriumvirateTriumvirate
 Julius Caesar (Marius’ nephew—
elected consul in 60 BCE)
 Crassus (wealthy citizen—made
governor of Syria where he was killed)
 Pompey—(popular general—waged a
civil war against Caesar—lost & was
assassinated in 47 BCE)

31. Julius Caesar
Conquers Gaul
*58-50 B.C.E.
*Caesar’s military genius
is displayed
*Wrote the book The
Gallic Wars—
propaganda—presents
himself as the greatest
living Roman
*“Veni, vidi, vici” – “I
came, I saw, I
conquered”

32. **Caesar represents the rise of
military power seen during the
political crisis of the 1st
C. BCE

33. Julius CaesarJulius Caesar
• In 47 BCE he seized power in Rome and was made dictator. A short time
later, in 44 BCE he was given the title dictator for life.
• His soldiers were loyal to him, not to Rome
• Gave public land to the poor, started a job program, granted citizenship
to more people in the provinces
• He increased the Senate to 900 members and then packed it with
supporters of his reforms.
• Caesar’s most lasting reform was the introduction of the Julian Calendar
based on Egyptian knowledge – 365 day/year calendar—July named after
him
• Popularity breeds contempt

34. Beware theBeware the
Ides of March!Ides of March!Caesar is assassinated on March 15 44 BCE
by members of the Senate led by Cassius
and his friend Brutus—”Et tu Brute?”—
stabbed over 20 times

35. The SecondThe Second
TriumvirateTriumvirate
43-31 B.C.E.43-31 B.C.E.
 Octavian Augustus (age 18—
grandnephew of Caesar)
 Marc Antony (experienced
general—Caesar’s favorite)
 Marcus Lepidus (powerful
politician)

36. The Second Triumvirate:The Second Triumvirate:
Octavian, Mark Antony,Octavian, Mark Antony,
Marcus LepidusMarcus Lepidus

37. Antony &
Cleopatra
• While in Egypt, Mark Antony married Cleopatra (the mother of
Caesar’s child Caesarian)
• Antony wanted Cleopatra for Egypt’s wealth, and Cleopatra
wanted Antony for his Roman armies
• This marriage outraged Octavian---Antony was already married
to his sister Octavia
• Rumors spread that Antony & Cleopatra planned to form an
empire
• Antony & Cleopatra  defeated by Octavian Augustus in 31 BCE
at the naval battle of Actium
• Victory helped secure Octavian’s power

38. 38

39. Defeat at Actium—
Doomed Lovers
Commit Suicide
Deadly asp used by
Cleopatra to commit
suicide
Antony falls on his sword

41. 41
Emperor AugustusEmperor Augustus
27 BCE – 14 CE27 BCE – 14 CE

42. Octavian becameOctavian became
AugustusAugustus
• The senate gave the triumphant Octavian the
title of Augustus, or Exalted One
• Augustus exercised absolute power but didn’t
take title “king” (“first man” instead)
• Under Augustus, who ruled from 27 BCE to 14
CE, the 500-year-old Roman Republic came to an
end—but Augustus was careful to still keep some
of the old trappings of the Republic in tact, esp.
the Senate
• Reality – Augustus had sole authority
• New age had dawned--Augustus' reign laid
foundations of a regime that lasted until the
Empire’s decline 42

43. Octavian Augustus:Octavian Augustus:
Rome’s First EmperorRome’s First EmperorAugustus was a
master at using art
for propaganda
purposes—this
statue represents
Augustus in the
process of giving a
formal speech---
Bacchus is at his feet
—he is no longer a
general who needs
to win victories
through battle—he
convinces people
through speeches—
peace in exchange
for absolute power

46. Pax RomanaPax Romana
Ara Pacis — ALTAR OF
PEACE--monument
commissioned by Augustus
to glorify his reign of peace
and prosperity—symbolic
relief sculptures represent
the benefits of the Pax
Romana
Pax Romana, Age of
Peace, lasted 207
years! Rome is at its
height of power.

48. The GreatestThe Greatest
Extent of theExtent of the
Roman Empire –Roman Empire –
14 CE14 CE

49. Augustus:Augustus:
Provides Basis forProvides Basis for
StabilityStability
• Stabilized the frontier regions
• Laws were passed giving citizens more rights
• Romans were the first people to take a census
• Civil service founded—paid employees to manage the affairs of
the government
• A professional army of 150,000 formed

51. Augustus:Augustus:
Provides Basis forProvides Basis for
Stable EmpireStable Empire• Roads were built connecting
ever corner of the empire
• New government buildings—
glorify Rome—public baths,
libraries, temples, basilicas
• Agriculture became most
important industry—90%
--basis for supporting the huge
empire (latifundia =
plantations)
• Aqueducts---example of
Roman engineering and
building skills
• 14 aqueducts stretching
over 250 miles--brought 50
gallons of water daily into
Rome for each inhabitant

52. The Five GoodThe Five Good
Emperors 96-180Emperors 96-180
CECE
• Five Good Emperors—kept the empire stable, followed Augustus’
model and reforms, promoted Pax Romana
• Emperors like Trajan and Hadrian continued to expand the
empire and keep it prosperous (despite increasing revolts in the
far provinces—Germany, Austria, Great Britain)
• Flourishing in literature, arts, philosophy, science, architecture
• Marcus Aurelius (last Good Emperor)—philosopher emperor— a
Stoic--wrote the Meditations  discusses good gov’t , service,
duty

53. Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius
ca. 180 CE

54. The Long Decline:The Long Decline:
Instability at BordersInstability at Borders
• Diocletian (284-305 CE) divided the Empire into Eastern and
Western halves and shared power with a co-Augustus in an
attempt at stabilization.

55. Constantine theConstantine the
GreatGreat• Constantine the Great (306-337 CE) brought the Empire
back under a single imperial rule and tried to further
unite it through his legalization of Christianity in 313 CE –
made it Rome’s official religion
– Converted Rome into a Christian city by building large churches
near the borders
• Growing popularity of Christianity did not support the
workings of the empire – it often had the opposite effect
• Created a Christian capital in the East in 324 CE by
founding Constantinople and calling it the 'new Rome’
• Rome continued its decline even as Christianity
flourished –offering hope
• Vandals (“vandalism”) successfully sacked Rome in 455
CE

56. Triumphal Arch of Constantine 315 CE
• Triumph arch—another
unique form of Roman
propaganda celebrating
a ruler’s victory over an
enemy of Rome
• Placed at one of the
main gates into the city
• Comparing the arch’s
recycled 2nd
c. CE
sculptural reliefs with
the 4th
c. reliefs offers a
telling example of
Rome’s declining culture

58. Decline of Roman Empire
• Internal opposition – series of weak, corrupt
emperors
• Elites in the government plotted to gain power
further weakening the government
• Difficulties in administering vast empire creates
rivalries and divisions of authority
• Eastern and Western Empire split under
Constantine- capital moved to Constantinople

59. Decline of Roman Empire
• Germanic invasions by Vandals, Ostrogoths, and Visigoths –
blend their cultures with remnants of the Greco-Roman past
• 476 CE--- final Western Roman Emperor deposed
• Trade disrupted, population fell
• Eastern Roman Empire becomes Byzantine Empire - lasts
another 1000 years (Orthodox Christian Church)
• No re-unification of the empire – Western Europe declined into
a series of feudal kingdoms
• Italian ports, such as Naples and Venice, remained the most
connected to the East
• Christian Church in the West remained the last vestige of
learning, culture, wealth, and power for the next three
centuries (until Charlemagne ruled the Franks)