[Asian Steel Watch] Vol.1(2016.1)
Steel is one of the most fundamental industrial materials that has sustained human civilization for millennia. Backed by rich steelmaking esources and reserves, the steel industry has continued to grow thanks to the superior characteristics of steel materials, economic and efficient mass production, and the evolution of steel technology. While adapting to the changing business environment, the steel industry will continue to develop in step with the progress of human civilization. This article examines the evolution of steel technology throughout history, and forecasts the future development of the steel production process.
Kang, Chang-oh
Former President and CTO, POSCO
A Brief History of Steel & The Mysterious EutecticKen Newell
The second agricultural revolution coincided with the Industrial Revolution; it was a revolution that would move agriculture beyond subsistence to generate the kinds of surpluses needed to feed thousands of people working in factories instead of in agricultural fields. Bessemer’s invention of cheap steel was the cornerstone of both revolutions.
A Brief History of Steel & The Mysterious EutecticKen Newell
The second agricultural revolution coincided with the Industrial Revolution; it was a revolution that would move agriculture beyond subsistence to generate the kinds of surpluses needed to feed thousands of people working in factories instead of in agricultural fields. Bessemer’s invention of cheap steel was the cornerstone of both revolutions.
STEEL - As a Building material:
A 20-minute brief presentation on STEEL for a seminar session.
This presentation covers the areas of :
Origin of Steel, Discovery of STEEL, History of steel making, Classification of STEEL , Properties of steel, Mild Steel , Characteristic tension test curve, Medium Carbon Steel, High Carbon Steel, TOR Steel, Manufacturing processes.
Why STEEL is preferred to concrete?
Disadvantages of STEEL
Some Important Steel Structures
Steel - used as a building material. What is steel - history, manufacturing, production, basic oxygen process, steel companies , cost, type of steel, heat treatment, grades of steel and examples
Steelmaking and Iron Products (Cast Iron, Compacted Graphite Irons, Ductile I...Ajjay Kumar Gupta
The iron and steel industry is one of the most important industries in India. Most iron and steel in India is produced from iron ore. The Indian Ministry of Steel is concerned with: the coordination and planning of the growth and development of the iron and steel industry in the country, both in the public and private sectors; formulation of policies with respect to production, pricing, distribution, import and export of iron and steel, Ferro alloys and refractories; and the development of input industries relating to iron ore, manganese ore, chrome ore and refractories etc., required mainly by the steel industry.
Tags
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Thanx to see our report again, this time we talked every single information about steel just like properties and manufacturing, advantages and disadvantages, properties with classification of steel. So if you have any questions or you notice mistakes you can send a message to me to this email
Alirizgar234@gmail.com
STEEL - As a Building material:
A 20-minute brief presentation on STEEL for a seminar session.
This presentation covers the areas of :
Origin of Steel, Discovery of STEEL, History of steel making, Classification of STEEL , Properties of steel, Mild Steel , Characteristic tension test curve, Medium Carbon Steel, High Carbon Steel, TOR Steel, Manufacturing processes.
Why STEEL is preferred to concrete?
Disadvantages of STEEL
Some Important Steel Structures
Steel - used as a building material. What is steel - history, manufacturing, production, basic oxygen process, steel companies , cost, type of steel, heat treatment, grades of steel and examples
Steelmaking and Iron Products (Cast Iron, Compacted Graphite Irons, Ductile I...Ajjay Kumar Gupta
The iron and steel industry is one of the most important industries in India. Most iron and steel in India is produced from iron ore. The Indian Ministry of Steel is concerned with: the coordination and planning of the growth and development of the iron and steel industry in the country, both in the public and private sectors; formulation of policies with respect to production, pricing, distribution, import and export of iron and steel, Ferro alloys and refractories; and the development of input industries relating to iron ore, manganese ore, chrome ore and refractories etc., required mainly by the steel industry.
Tags
Cast Iron Production, Development of iron and steel industry in India, Foundry process of cast iron, Grey cast iron, How iron is made, How is iron manufactured?, How is iron produced?, How is Steel Produced, How to Start a Steel Business, How to Start a Steel Production Business, How to start a successful Steel iron business, How to Start an Iron & Steel Business, How to Start an Iron Business, How to Start an Iron Production Business, How to Start Iron Business, How to Start Iron making Industry in India, How to start steel factory, How to Start Steelmaking Industry in India, Indian Iron Industry, Indian Steel Industry, Iron & Steel Business ideas and Opportunities, Iron and steel industry in India, Iron and Steel Manufacturing, Iron and steel manufacturing process, Iron and Steel Production, Iron and Steel, Iron Based Profitable Projects, Iron business in India, Iron industry in India, Iron making Industry in India, Iron making process, Iron making Projects, Iron Production Process, Ironmaking and Steelmaking, Major Iron and Steel Plants of India, Malleable cast iron, Manufacture of steel, Manufacturing Process for Iron and Steel, Modern steel making technology, Most Profitable Steel Iron Business Ideas, New small scale ideas in Iron making industry, New small scale ideas in Steelmaking industry, Process of making steel from iron ore, Process of steelmaking, Production of compacted graphite irons, Production of ductile iron, Profitable Iron & Steel Business Ideas, Profitable Small Scale Steel iron manufacturing, Raw Materials for Steelmaking, Setting up a Steel Factory Business in India, Setting up and opening your Steel iron Business, Small scale Commercial Steel iron making, Small scale Steel iron production line, Starting a Steel Business, Starting a Steelmaking Business, Starting an Iron Business, Starting an Iron making Business, Starting Steel Mini Mill Startup Business, Start-up Business Plan for Iron and Steel, Steel and iron Business, Steel and iron industry, Steel and iron production, Steel business plan, Steel Industry in India, Steel iron making machine factory, Steel iron Making Small Business Manufacturing, Steel making process in detail, Steel making process steps, Steel making Projects, Steel manufacturing process
Thanx to see our report again, this time we talked every single information about steel just like properties and manufacturing, advantages and disadvantages, properties with classification of steel. So if you have any questions or you notice mistakes you can send a message to me to this email
Alirizgar234@gmail.com
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1. How new modern materials prompted changes in architecture in the .pdfaquastore223
1. How new modern materials prompted changes in architecture in the late nineteenth century in
reference to the construction of the Crystal Palace or Eiffel Tower.
After the Baroque faded slowly away, eighteenth-century architecture consisted primarily of
revivals of previous periods. This time was to be the calm before the storm, for the approaching
Industrial Revolution was to change everything about the world as it was then, including
architecture. Previously, building materials had been restricted to a few manmade materials
along with those available in nature: timber, stone, timber, lime mortar, and concrete. Metals
were not available in sufficient quantity or consistent quality to be used as anything more than
ornamentation. Structure was limited by the capabilities of natural materials. The Industrial
Revolution changed this situation dramatically.
In 1800, the worldwide tonnage of iron produced was 825,000 tons. By 1900, with the Industrial
Revolution in full swing, worldwide production stood at 40 million tons, almost 50 times as
much. Iron was available in three forms. The least processed form, cast iron, was brittle due to a
high percentage of impurities. It still displayed impressive compressive strength, however.
Wrought iron was a more refined form of iron, malleable, though with low tensile strength. Steel
was the strongest, most versatile form of iron. Through a conversion process, all of the impurities
were burned out of the iron ore, then precise amounts of carbon were added for hardness. Steel
had tensile and compressive strength greater than any material previously available, and its
capabilities would revolutionize architecture.
This change did not happen over night. Prior to the introduction of bulk iron, architecture relied
on compressive strength to hold buildings up. Even great structures like the Chartres Cathedral
or the Parthenon were essentially orderly piles of stone. Architects were accustomed to thinking
of certain ways of creating structure, and though they glimpsed some of the possibilities of the
new materials, the first applications were made using the old ideas.
The explosion in the development of iron and steel structures was driven initially by the advance
of the railroads. Bridges were required to span gorges and rivers. In 1779, the first iron bridge
was built across the Severn River in Coalescence, England. It was not an iron bridge as we might
conceive of it today, but rather a traditional arch made of iron instead of stone. The compressive
strength of limestone is 20 tons per square foot. The compressive strength of cast iron is 10 tons
per square inch, 72 times as high, permitting significantly larger spans. Later, the truss, long used
in timber roofs, became the primary element of bridge building. A triangle is the strongest
structural element known, and applied force only makes it more stable. When a diagonal is added
to a square, the form can be viewed as two triangles sharing a side, the fundam.
This slide show accompanies the learner guide "Mechanical Technology Grade 10" by Charles Goodwin, Andre Lategan & Daniel Meyer, published by Future Managers Pty Ltd. For more information visit our website www.futuremanagers.net
billet, rod, or tube are continuous cast, defined
as the continuous solidification and withdrawal
of product from an open-ended shaping mold.
Methods include both vertical and horizontal
casting, depending on product size, shape, and
volume. Casting vertically has certain inherent
technical advantages. The symmetry of cooling
promotes a uniform and predictable solidification
growth pattern and uniform axial loading
on the freshly solidified shell as it is withdrawn
from the mold. In tube or hollow section casting,
the vertical process has particular merit.
The disadvantages of vertical casting are
mostly logistic: difficulty in handling long
lengths of section; cut-off can be more difficult
to engineer and control; and it is generally a
semicontinuous operation. Horizontal casting
requires lower capital investment, is compatible
with lower production rates, and is a continuous
operation.
This article briefly reviews the history and
methods of copper alloy continuous casting;
the information is drawn from the very detailed
and extensive coverage of the subject in Ref 1
and the numerous publications of equipment
supply companies such as Rautomead, SMS
Meer, and so on
Similar to Revisiting the history of steel production process and its future direction (Chang-Oh Kang, Former President & CTO of POSCO) (20)
Challenges and responses in the Chinese steel industry (Author: Yu Yong)POSCO Research Institute
1) HBIS Group’s business and vision
2) HBIS Group’s experience in integration and restructuring
3) The Chinese government’s restructuring in the future
4) How HBIS is preparing for strengthening environmental regulations
5) Smartization of the Chinese steel industry
6) Global trade conflicts and the steel industry
How steel is helping to achieve a global circular economy (Author: Clare Broa...POSCO Research Institute
There is an increasing focus on making products last longer, reusing or mending them, or even remanufacturing them. This new concept has been branded a circular economy where the focus is on reduce, reuse, remanufacture and recycle (4Rs). The steel industry is well placed to contribute to a circular economy and is part of the solution in addressing environmental concerns for many products and services. Key properties of steel (strength, durability, magnetic properties) make steel a key enabler of a circular economy. This article outlines how the steel industry is addressing current environmental issues as well as how regulations can be utilized to generate an overall environmental improvement of products and services.
Improving sustainable competitiveness in preparation for a circular economy ...POSCO Research Institute
In terms of sustainability and a circular economy, steel is not free from environmental concerns, but steel can become a cornerstone for a sustainable circular economy considering lightweighting, long service life, and rich iron ore reserves, Based on whole life cycle, POSCO is applying life cycle assessment (LCA) to develop products from the perspective of sustainable competitiveness and improve their eco-friendliness. Representative products to which LCA was applied include advanced high strength steel (AHSS), Hyper NO electrical sheet, Giga Steel, and PosMAC.
AHSS applied to gasoline vehicles reduces vehicle body weight, improving fuel efficiency and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Motor cores with Hyper NO minimize core losses, thereby improving the power efficiency of home appliances and cut greenhouse gas emissions. In terms of PosMAC and Giga Steel, POSCO is preparing for a low-carbon circular economy through a full life cycle database and third-party certification. Developing “PosMent” with a higher slag content, POSCO is strengthening the circular industry ecosystem and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
The decoupling of gdp and steel demand cyclical or structural (Author: Cheol...POSCO Research Institute
In the 2000s, global steel demand growth consistently surpassed global GDP growth. The dip in global steel demand after 2012 can be mostly explained by the slowdown in global investment and exports. China shifted its growth strategy from investment and exports to consumption as President Xi Jinping took power in November 2012.
∙ The decoupling of GDP and steel demand will last for the time being on several aspects: global investment and exports, raw materials prices forecast, mega trend (aging populations, the sharing economy and the Fourth Industrial Revolution), and major forecast institutions’ prospects. Just as the decoupling of global GDP and steel demand persisted until China emerged as a new growth engine for steel demand after the early 2000s, there is a possibility that the decoupling will repeat. The global steel industry should prepare for this.
A Comprehensive Survey of Steel Demand Forecasting Methodologies and their Pr...POSCO Research Institute
This article classifies and compiles the methodologies through a comprehensive review of the literature, and then finds clues to enhance the accuracy of steel demand forecasting.
The approaches for forecasting steel demand can broadly be classified into the econometric and intensity of use (IU) approaches.
Econometric approaches are divided into the econometric demand model and vector autoregression (VAR). The econometric approach widely uses a simple single equation or a simultaneous equation to forecast steel consumption, considering that steel demand is affected by macroeconomic variables including GDP, industrial production, trade structure, and economic volatility. The VAR methodology has the merit of avoiding the weakness of econometric demand model that requires forecasts of exogenous variables since VAR assumes all variables in a model are endogenous.
The intensity of use (IU) approaches rose to prominence in the early 1970s when some OECD member countries observed their steel demand fall while macroeconomic indicators grew. The IU approach is a useful concept that attempts to link steel consumption to the technological and structural changes in an economy.
Mathematical methodologies and computational approaches
Hybrid mathematical methodologies seek to enhance predictability based on the grey model, algorithm, and fuzzy ARIMA model. The steel weighted industrial production (SWIP) index is broadly used by worldsteel and other steel associations.
To complement the weakness of top-down macro methodologies which directly predict total steel demand, POSRI is concurrently applying a bottom-up micro methodology to predict demand for 16 steel products and summing them to forecast total demand.
The korean steel industry in retrospect : lessons for developing countries(D...POSCO Research Institute
[Asian Steel Watch] Vol.4 (2017.12)
Featured Articles
The Korean Steel Industry in Retrospect : Lessons for Developing Countries
Rising from the ashes of war, Korea has joined the ranks of advanced countries. The rapid development of the Korean steel industry offers lessons to developing countries. The development patterns differ before and after the financial crisis of 1998. Examining the changes that took place around the crisis of 1998 based on factors related to steel use, there are some distinctive items: a significant slowing in the urbanization rate after 1996, gross capital formation as percentage of GDP declining after peaking in 1996, and the Korean economy being shifted from government-driven to market-driven. The author adopted various theories to re-examine the success factors and offer implications for developing nations—catch-up theory, infant industry argument, fourth factor of production, Lewis turning point, and endogenous growth theory.
Based on its analysis on the development and success factors of the Korean steel industry, this article offers several policy implications for developing countries. The first is the importance of the government’s role and strategic decisions. The second implication is entrepreneurial leadership and a “can-do” attitude. The third is the importance of industrial policy based on medium- to long-term outlook for supply and demand. Finally, there is the importance of determined drive of technological development and R&D investment.
Restructuring Scenario of the Indian Steel lndustry to Enhance Its Global Com...POSCO Research Institute
On the Cover
Restructuring Scenario of the Indian Steel lndustry to Enhance Its Global Competitiveness
The Indian government has recently released the“National Steel Policy (NSP) 2017,”which declares the aim of increasing steel production capacity from 122 Mt in 2015 to 300 Mt in 2030 in order to attain self-sufficiency. However, the insolvency issue recently looming large in the Indian steel industry makes this goal appear somewhat hollow. As of March 2016, the Indian steel industry’s debt surpassed INR 3 trillion, and between INR 1.15 to 2 trillion within it is categorized as non-performing assets. However, steel imports are not the only culprit in the insolvency of the Indian steel industry. There are other fundamental reasons underlying the insolvency. The first relates to policies based on the ripple effect from the NSP 2005. The second cause of insolvency is investment fervor among Indian steelmakers, which left huge aftermath within the industry. Restructuring of the Indian steel industry will be mainly led by Tata and JSW.
Now is the right time for the Indian government to seek not only quantitative growth, but also qualitative improvement to enhance the global competitiveness of the domestic steel industry.
[Asian Steel Watch] Vol.3 (2017.6)
Featured Articles
Chinese Steel Moves along the One Belt, One Road
After President Xi unveiled the concept of a“New Silk Road”in September, the Chinese government began to actualize the“New Silk Road”and announced One Belt, One Road (OBOR) in March 2015. China has contributed USD 40 billion to a Silk Road Fund to finance OBOR and established the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB). China also held a major OBOR summit in May 2017. The Chinese steel industry has begun to search for a way forward through OBOR for the following reasons: falling steel consumption; prolonged oversupply with declining steel prices; and the spike in financial, environmental, and labor costs. The OBOR project is positive in that it boosts steel demand and address overcapacity; however, it needs adjustment and balance to prevent any dispute and side effect.
The Impact of Sino-Indian Economic Cooperation on the Indian Steel Industry(J...POSCO Research Institute
[Asian Steel Watch] Vol.3 (2017.6)
Featured Articles
The Impact of Sino-Indian Economic Cooperation on the Indian Steel Industry
In the mid-2000s, Sino-Indian trade and investment began to expand. In light of India’s strategic culture, the economic cooperation between India and China will continue. India exports iron ore to China, while it imports steel products from China. India’s trade deficit with China is surging, dragging India down into chronic steel deficits with China. In early this year, the Indian government released draft National Steel Policy of 2017 (NSP) with an aim to boost its crude steel capacity to 64 Mt by 2030 to satisfy the continuously rising domestic steel demand and to export some steel products.
[Asian Steel Watch] Vol.3 (2017.6)
On the Cover
The Steel Industry over the Next Two Decades
Global steel demand will rise by around 1% for the next 20 years, reaching 1.69 billion tonnes by 2025 and 1.86 billion tonnes by 2035. Despite some concerns, global steel demand has not yet peaked and will not do so within the next two decades. Steel-consuming industries’ requirements for steel products will become stricter and more diverse under the influence of evolving megatrends. Their needs will become more sophisticated mainly in three areas: high strength and high toughness, high corrosion resistance, and high performance. The rising megatrend of global climate action will compel steelmaking processes to become more eco-friendly. For the long term, the steel industry is gearing up to develop carbon-free technologies such as the hydrogen reduction process. Under the other emerging megatrend of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, the steel industry will seek a smart transformation using IoT, Big Data and AI.
[Asian Steel Watch] Vol.3 (2017.6)
On the Cover
Will the Shipbuilding Industry Flourish Again?
The shipbuilding industry will be recovered in the long term backed by global economic growth and highly influenced by environmental issues and technological advances. Under strict environmental regulations, demand for eco-friendly ships will rise. Ships will be required to use low-sulfur fuel oil. A wide range of technologies will bring about differentiated and innovative types of ships. Under the influence of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, remotely controlled or fully autonomous ships will become available in the future. Emerging technology will not only change ships, but also shipyards and the shipping and port industries. The changing steel industry will result in qualitative changes of steel products. As vessels become larger and lighter, the steel intensity of ship’s tonnage will fall continuously, and then decline even further following the rise of electric propulsion, unmanned, and autonomous ships.
The Impact of China’s Early "Peak Steel" and Scrap Generation on Steel Raw Ma...POSCO Research Institute
[Asian Steel Watch] Vol.1 (2016.1)
On the Cover
The Impact of China’s Early "Peak Steel" and Scrap Generation on Steel Raw Materials Prices (Dr. Jin-Seok Huh)
The Demographic Cliff: How It Will Impact Asia’s Steel Demand (Cheol-Ho Chung)POSCO Research Institute
[Asian Steel Watch] Vol.2 (2016.10)
Featured Articles
The Demographic Cliff: How It Will Impact Asia’s Steel Demand
Changes in working-age population determine economic fundamentals. They are directly related to steel demand, because the working-age population is the main consumer group of houses and vehicles, the key sources of steel demand. Therefore, the acceleration of decline in working-age population will have a negative impact on economic growth and steel consumption.
Learning lessons from advanced countries about the experience of population aging, there are some characteristics in common: the share of manufacturing shrinks in the economic structure, while the share of service increases; and steel consumption declines after a peak. Particularly in the case of Japan, which is the world’s most aged society, changes in working-age population has a strong correlation with changes in the steel-consuming industries and steel consumption.
The decrease in working-age population in Korea, China, and Japan, which have led growth of the global steel industry until now, will have a negative impact on global steel demand in the medium to long term. It is unlikely that India and the ASEAN’s demand will grow fast enough to offset the decline in steel demand in the three East Asian countries.
[Asian Steel Watch] Vol.2 (2016.10)
Interview - Ask the Guru: Roads Ahead for the Steel Industry
Edwin Basson, Director General of worldsteel talked to Asian Steel Watch about major issues and future of the steel industry: 1) Causes of sluggish global steel demand and forecast for 2017, 2) China’s peak steel and long-term forecast for China’s steel demand, 3) solutions to overcapacity, 4) future of the Asian steel industry, and 5) influence of the Fourth Industrial Revolution on the steel industry.
Accelerating digital transformation with smart factory to unlock new value c...POSCO Research Institute
[Asian Steel Watch] Vol.2 (2016.10)
On the Cover
Accelerating Digital Transformation with Smart Factory to Unlock New Value: Case of POSCO
In the face of the great paradigm shift brought on by the Fourth Industrial Revolution, many Asian steelmakers are taking preemptive measures to maintain competitiveness and contribute to the advancement of manufacturing. POSCO is also one of the leading global steelmakers in this arena. POSCO is building the world’s first continuous-process steel plant model in its Gwangyang Steelworks plate factory that houses integrated processes for steelmaking, continuous casting, and rolling. POSCO has achieved major outcomes in the realization of a smart factory, such as the development of the “digital genome map” to tackle challenges of smart factory initiatives and the construction of PosFrame—POSCO’s smart factory platform for continuous process industries. It also has conducted various smart factory projects, including material to final product defect tracking, minimizing unnecessary scarfing in the continuous casting process, and new product development simulation in cyberspace.
[Asian Steel Watch] Vol.1(2016.1)
Market Trend and Analysis
Asian Steel Market Outlook: Next Ten Years
(Author: Cheol-Ho Chung, Moon-Kee Kong, Bu-Sik Choi, Ji-Mi Chu, Center for Economic Research and Information Analysis)
The ASEAN Economy:Assessment and Outlook
KOREA
CHINA
JAPAN
INDONESIA
VIETNAM
THAILAND
MALAYSIA
INDIA
Korea's next big manufacturing leap innovation based on culture, creative wo...POSCO Research Institute
[Asian Steel Watch] Vol.1(2016.1)
Featured Articles
Korea's Next Big Manufacturing Leap: Innovation Based on Culture, Creative Workforce, and Technology
The myth and reality of global steel overcapacity (Jun H. Goh, Moon-Kee Kong)POSCO Research Institute
[Asian Steel Watch] Vol.1(2016.1)
Overcapacity has long been blamed as the main cause of the recession in the steel industry (especially the price decline), but this claim has not yet been backed by enough systematic analysis.
For this reason, the exact amount of overcapacity continues to be a controversial topic, and a consensus on realistic measurement of capacity is nonexistent. Therefore, one is hard-pressed to provide an insightful answer to the question of whether the current overcapacity level is more serious than the past.
In this article, we will first examine how serious global steel overcapacity is in terms of nominal amount. Reliable annual historical data for China and other countries are derived mainly from OECD data on nominal crude steel capacity, and are compared to annual crude steel consumption data. Next, we will try to measure the genuine steel overcapacity by introducing the concept of effective capacity, and investigate whether the steel industry’s recession after the financial crisis was triggered by overcapacity....
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[Note: This is a partial preview. To download this presentation, visit:
https://www.oeconsulting.com.sg/training-presentations]
Sustainability has become an increasingly critical topic as the world recognizes the need to protect our planet and its resources for future generations. Sustainability means meeting our current needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs. It involves long-term planning and consideration of the consequences of our actions. The goal is to create strategies that ensure the long-term viability of People, Planet, and Profit.
Leading companies such as Nike, Toyota, and Siemens are prioritizing sustainable innovation in their business models, setting an example for others to follow. In this Sustainability training presentation, you will learn key concepts, principles, and practices of sustainability applicable across industries. This training aims to create awareness and educate employees, senior executives, consultants, and other key stakeholders, including investors, policymakers, and supply chain partners, on the importance and implementation of sustainability.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Develop a comprehensive understanding of the fundamental principles and concepts that form the foundation of sustainability within corporate environments.
2. Explore the sustainability implementation model, focusing on effective measures and reporting strategies to track and communicate sustainability efforts.
3. Identify and define best practices and critical success factors essential for achieving sustainability goals within organizations.
CONTENTS
1. Introduction and Key Concepts of Sustainability
2. Principles and Practices of Sustainability
3. Measures and Reporting in Sustainability
4. Sustainability Implementation & Best Practices
To download the complete presentation, visit: https://www.oeconsulting.com.sg/training-presentations
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Revisiting the history of steel production process and its future direction (Chang-Oh Kang, Former President & CTO of POSCO)
1. Vol.01 January 2016 76 Asian Steel Watch
The age of pig iron and steel
Mankind first began making steel using charcoal
to reduce iron ore in the Iron Age, circa 2000
BCE. The early genesis of the Iron Age is attrib-
uted to the fact that iron ore is relatively common
and easily acquired compared to other metals,
and iron ore can be reduced easily using charcoal
(carbon), at a relatively low temperature (over
450ºC). At that time, semi-solid steel, produced
by simply reducing iron ore, was forged to cre-
ate farm implements and weapons. It was not
until the mid-14th Century that liquid iron was
extracted directly from iron ore. This became pos-
sible because high temperatures were reached
with furnace bellows operated by waterwheels.
As steel production increased, forests were de-
stroyed in the process of securing charcoal for
charcoal blast furnace. Coke was used in place of
charcoal starting in the early 18th Century. In the
late 18th Century, during the Industrial Revolu-
tion in England, the invention of the steam en-
gine by James Watt enabled blasting air into the
blast furnace (BF) with a machine, thus making
mass production of iron possible. This coke blast
furnace technology has evolved continuously for
300 years.
In the mid-19th Century, about a century af-
ter mass production of iron began in Europe with
the coke blast furnace, mass production of mol-
ten steel began with the invention of the Besse-
mer converter (1856) by the Englishman Henry
Bessemer, and the appearance of the Siemens-
Martin open hearth furnace shortly thereafter.
The emergence of the blast furnace-based
integrated steel mill
In the 1860s, after the Civil War, the USA un-
derwent industrialization, transitioning from an
agrarian to an industrial nation. Steel demand
skyrocketed with the development of the West,
and the construction of intercontinental rail-
roads. At first, the USA was dependent on steel
imports from Europe. With the rapid introduc-
tion of the Bessemer converter and the open
hearth furnace, new technologies developed in
Europe (England), the USA became the largest
The Evolution
of the Steel Production Process
Revisiting the History of
Steel Production Process
and Its Future Direction
Special Report
PRESENT
Iron Age
18C
19C
20C
Steel is one of the most fundamental industrial materials, that has sustained
human civilization for millennia. Backed by rich steelmaking resources and
reserves, the steel industry has continued to grow thanks to the superior
characteristics of steel materials, economic and efficient mass production, and
the evolution of steel technology. While adapting to the changing business
environment, the steel industry will continue to develop in step with the progress
of human civilization. This article examines the evolution of steel technology
throughout history, and forecasts the future development of the steel production
process.
Kang, Chang-Oh
Former President and CTO
POSCO
6 Asian Steel Watch
Revisiting the History of Steel Production Process and Its Future Direction
2. Vol.01 January 2016 76 Asian Steel Watch
The age of pig iron and steel
Mankind first began making steel using charcoal
to reduce iron ore in the Iron Age, circa 2000
BCE. The early genesis of the Iron Age is attrib-
uted to the fact that iron ore is relatively common
and easily acquired compared to other metals,
and iron ore can be reduced easily using charcoal
(carbon), at a relatively low temperature (over
450ºC). At that time, semi-solid steel, produced
by simply reducing iron ore, was forged to cre-
ate farm implements and weapons. It was not
until the mid-14th Century that liquid iron was
extracted directly from iron ore. This became pos-
sible because high temperatures were reached
with furnace bellows operated by waterwheels.
As steel production increased, forests were de-
stroyed in the process of securing charcoal for
charcoal blast furnace. Coke was used in place of
charcoal starting in the early 18th Century. In the
late 18th Century, during the Industrial Revolu-
tion in England, the invention of the steam en-
gine by James Watt enabled blasting air into the
blast furnace (BF) with a machine, thus making
mass production of iron possible. This coke blast
furnace technology has evolved continuously for
300 years.
In the mid-19th Century, about a century af-
ter mass production of iron began in Europe with
the coke blast furnace, mass production of mol-
ten steel began with the invention of the Besse-
mer converter (1856) by the Englishman Henry
Bessemer, and the appearance of the Siemens-
Martin open hearth furnace shortly thereafter.
The emergence of the blast furnace-based
integrated steel mill
In the 1860s, after the Civil War, the USA un-
derwent industrialization, transitioning from an
agrarian to an industrial nation. Steel demand
skyrocketed with the development of the West,
and the construction of intercontinental rail-
roads. At first, the USA was dependent on steel
imports from Europe. With the rapid introduc-
tion of the Bessemer converter and the open
hearth furnace, new technologies developed in
Europe (England), the USA became the largest
The Evolution
of the Steel Production Process
Revisiting the History of
Steel Production Process
and Its Future Direction
Special Report
PRESENT
Iron Age
18C
19C
20C
Steel is one of the most fundamental industrial materials, that has sustained
human civilization for millennia. Backed by rich steelmaking resources and
reserves, the steel industry has continued to grow thanks to the superior
characteristics of steel materials, economic and efficient mass production, and
the evolution of steel technology. While adapting to the changing business
environment, the steel industry will continue to develop in step with the progress
of human civilization. This article examines the evolution of steel technology
throughout history, and forecasts the future development of the steel production
process.
Kang, Chang-Oh
Former President and CTO
POSCO
6 Asian Steel Watch
Revisiting the History of Steel Production Process and Its Future Direction
3. Vol.01 January 2016 98 Asian Steel Watch
steel producing nation by the 1880s. Recogniz-
ing the necessity of consolidating myriad small
and medium-sized steel mills in order to gain a
competitive edge in steel production over Eu-
rope, JP Morgan led the merger of twelve steel
companies (including Carnegie, Illinois, and
Federal) in 1901 to form the United States Steel
Corporation (US Steel). US Steel constructed
the world’s first modern integrated steel mill,
Gary Works, near Chicago. The historic open-
ing of Gary Works was in 1908. Gary Works
was equipped for seven production processes,
with facilities including a sinter plant and a
coke oven, starting from iron ore down to hot-
rolled products, to turn iron ore into hot-rolled
products. The new steel mill was revolutionary
in its logical layout and rail connections between
plants, its generation of electricity from gas by-
produced in steel production, its use of this elec-
tricity to power the steel mill, and other innova-
tions. It was the first model for today’s BF-based
integrated steel mills, which seek to improve lo-
gistics and energy efficiency between processes.
Gary Works remained the largest steel works in
the world until the early 1960s.
The development of
new steel production technologies
While the ironmaking process has been centered
on the coke blast furnace for 300 years, since
its first appearance in the early 18th Century,
the steel production process has made leaps and
bounds in the past 160 years. The Bessemer con-
verter, invented in 1856, utilizes the miraculous
industrial process of simply blowing air through
molten iron, with no external heat source, to
produce molten steel in little more than ten min-
utes. The introduction of this process garnered
considerable attention from the steel industry.
However, iron resources that could be used in
this process were limited, and the molten steel
produced was poor in quality. For these reasons,
steel production using the Bessemer converter,
and the later-developed (1870) Thomas con-
verter, was discontinued in most areas. Around
this time, the S-Martin open hearth furnace
appeared. Though it required an external heat
source and its productivity was relatively low, it
permitted a wide range of iron resources (i.e. pig
iron, steel scrap), and allowed easy control of the
temperature and composition of molten steel.
Thus the S-Martin open hearth furnace became
the predominant method of producing liquid
steel for about a century, until the appearance of
Basic Oxygen Steelmaking (BOF) in the 1950s.
Electric arc furnace (EAF)-based steelmaking,
which was commercialized in the early 20th
Century, was initially used mainly for produc-
tion of alloy steel and special steel. It was later
BF-based integrated steel mills consist of three major production segments:
iron-making segment comprising sinter-making, coke-making, and BF processes;
steel-making segment comprising BOF and continuous cast processes;
and rolling segment.
Iron Ore
BF BOF
Slab
Sinter
Plant
Coke
Oven
Coking
Coal
Source: Development and Prospect of Global Steel Industry, Kang Chang-Oh, May 2015
HSM
RM FM
C.Caster
Development of BF-based Integrated Steel Mill
Special Report
SRF
used for production of long products of carbon steel in
the 1960s. The use of the process was expanded in the
1990s to include flat products of carbon steel. At pres-
ent, global crude steel production is divided into BOF
and EAF processes, at a ratio of 70:30 (BOF:EAF).
The age of large-scale seaside steel works
BOF and continuous casting processes developed in the
early 1950s are considered as the most innovative tech-
nologies in the history of the steel industry. The two
processes replaced the open hearth furnace, ingot cast-
ing, and slabbing and blooming process in integrated
steel mills. In 1960s, Japan carried out the “Revamping
Revisiting the History of Steel Production Process and Its Future Direction
1000
800
600
400
200
1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 2000
20
40
60
80
100World
crude steel
production
(Mt/year)
Share of
process (%)
Bessemer
Converter Open
Hearth
Thomas
Converter
Steel
Production
EAF
BOF
Source: worldsteel, Development and Prospect of Global Steel Industry, Kang Chang-Oh, May 2015
Development of Steel Production Process
1990
4. Vol.01 January 2016 98 Asian Steel Watch
steel producing nation by the 1880s. Recogniz-
ing the necessity of consolidating myriad small
and medium-sized steel mills in order to gain a
competitive edge in steel production over Eu-
rope, JP Morgan led the merger of twelve steel
companies (including Carnegie, Illinois, and
Federal) in 1901 to form the United States Steel
Corporation (US Steel). US Steel constructed
the world’s first modern integrated steel mill,
Gary Works, near Chicago. The historic open-
ing of Gary Works was in 1908. Gary Works
was equipped for seven production processes,
with facilities including a sinter plant and a
coke oven, starting from iron ore down to hot-
rolled products, to turn iron ore into hot-rolled
products. The new steel mill was revolutionary
in its logical layout and rail connections between
plants, its generation of electricity from gas by-
produced in steel production, its use of this elec-
tricity to power the steel mill, and other innova-
tions. It was the first model for today’s BF-based
integrated steel mills, which seek to improve lo-
gistics and energy efficiency between processes.
Gary Works remained the largest steel works in
the world until the early 1960s.
The development of
new steel production technologies
While the ironmaking process has been centered
on the coke blast furnace for 300 years, since
its first appearance in the early 18th Century,
the steel production process has made leaps and
bounds in the past 160 years. The Bessemer con-
verter, invented in 1856, utilizes the miraculous
industrial process of simply blowing air through
molten iron, with no external heat source, to
produce molten steel in little more than ten min-
utes. The introduction of this process garnered
considerable attention from the steel industry.
However, iron resources that could be used in
this process were limited, and the molten steel
produced was poor in quality. For these reasons,
steel production using the Bessemer converter,
and the later-developed (1870) Thomas con-
verter, was discontinued in most areas. Around
this time, the S-Martin open hearth furnace
appeared. Though it required an external heat
source and its productivity was relatively low, it
permitted a wide range of iron resources (i.e. pig
iron, steel scrap), and allowed easy control of the
temperature and composition of molten steel.
Thus the S-Martin open hearth furnace became
the predominant method of producing liquid
steel for about a century, until the appearance of
Basic Oxygen Steelmaking (BOF) in the 1950s.
Electric arc furnace (EAF)-based steelmaking,
which was commercialized in the early 20th
Century, was initially used mainly for produc-
tion of alloy steel and special steel. It was later
BF-based integrated steel mills consist of three major production segments:
iron-making segment comprising sinter-making, coke-making, and BF processes;
steel-making segment comprising BOF and continuous cast processes;
and rolling segment.
Iron Ore
BF BOF
Slab
Sinter
Plant
Coke
Oven
Coking
Coal
Source: Development and Prospect of Global Steel Industry, Kang Chang-Oh, May 2015
HSM
RM FM
C.Caster
Development of BF-based Integrated Steel Mill
Special Report
SRF
used for production of long products of carbon steel in
the 1960s. The use of the process was expanded in the
1990s to include flat products of carbon steel. At pres-
ent, global crude steel production is divided into BOF
and EAF processes, at a ratio of 70:30 (BOF:EAF).
The age of large-scale seaside steel works
BOF and continuous casting processes developed in the
early 1950s are considered as the most innovative tech-
nologies in the history of the steel industry. The two
processes replaced the open hearth furnace, ingot cast-
ing, and slabbing and blooming process in integrated
steel mills. In 1960s, Japan carried out the “Revamping
Revisiting the History of Steel Production Process and Its Future Direction
1000
800
600
400
200
1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 2000
20
40
60
80
100World
crude steel
production
(Mt/year)
Share of
process (%)
Bessemer
Converter Open
Hearth
Thomas
Converter
Steel
Production
EAF
BOF
Source: worldsteel, Development and Prospect of Global Steel Industry, Kang Chang-Oh, May 2015
Development of Steel Production Process
1990
5. Vol.01 January 2016 1110 Asian Steel Watch
Plan for the Steel Industry” to restore its steel
production facilities, which had been devastated
during the Pacific War. Japan resolutely embraced
the new technologies in its new large steel mills
built at seaside locations, emerging as the world’s
largest steel producer. Nippon Steel’s Oita Works,
a large-scale integrated steel works that went into
operation in the early 1970s, employed large-
scale blast furnaces, converters, and hot-rolling
facilities, and was the first in the world to adopt
all continuous casting process. Oita Works con-
structed large-scale port facilities and established
long-term contracts with overseas suppliers to
import all of its raw materials by large vessels.
Oita Works became the model for large scale
seaside steel works. At this time, hegemony of
the global steel industry shifted from the USA to
Japan.
The development of
BF-based integrated steel mill
BF-based integrated steel mills consist of three
major production segments: iron-making seg-
ment comprising sinter-making, coke-making,
and BF processes; steel-making segment com-
prising BOF and continuous cast processes; and
rolling segment. The integrated steel mills have
many advantages such as high productivity, cost
competitiveness, and the ability to produce a
wide range of high-quality steel products. How-
ever, they require large-scale facility groups with
complex process configurations across a large
land area. Other disadvantages include their de-
pendence on high-grade raw materials, which are
pre-processed to make sinter and coke, decreased
efficiency due to batch operations between each
process, and the generation of large quantities of
environmental pollutants from the use of fossil
fuels. In the late 1980s, major global steel com-
panies and research institutes led research and
development activities to address the disadvan-
tages of BF-based integrated steel mills. The focus
was placed mainly on developing new processes
to replace the existing blast furnace in ironmak-
ing, and improving the efficiency of the processes
from continuous casting to hot-rolling.
Heat flow between processes in
BF-based integrated steel mill
By nature, the steel industry is high in energy
consumption, and its improvement of energy
efficiency is very important to increase the com-
petitiveness of an integrated steel mill. In the
ironmaking process, iron ore and coking coal are
heated to 1250-1300ºC to produce sinter and
coke, which are cooled to room temperature be-
fore being charged into a blast furnace.
The 1300ºC slabs produced in the continuous
casting process are cut into fixed lengths, then
cooled to room temperature before being re-
heated to 1200ºC in a furnace at a scheduled time
to be hot-rolled into finished products. Heat ef-
ficiency can be greatly improved in an integrated
steel mill if the process of producing sinter and
coke can be skipped in the ironmaking process,
and iron ore and coking coal can be charged di-
rectly into the blast furnace to produce molten
iron, and if the 1300ºC slabs produced by the con-
tinuous casting process can be sent directly to the
hot-rolling process without cooling.
The development of
alternative process technology to BF
From the late 1980s, research projects to develop
an “alternative process to BF” to resolve issues of
BF-based ironmaking were carried out through-
out the world, but most of them were discontin-
ued by the late 1990s. POSCO’s FINEX is the only
steel production process that was commercialized
successfully as a result of these efforts, and is in
operation today. POSCO initiated basic research
on FINEX technology in 1992, and successfully
launched a pilot plant with an annual production
capacity of 600,000 tonnes in 2003. At present,
two FINEX facilities are in operation at POSCO
Pohang Steelworks: one plant, launched in 2007,
has an annual capacity of 1.5 million tonnes, and
the other plant, opened in 2014, has an annual
capacity of 2 million tonnes. FINEX combines the
three ironmaking processes of sintering, coke-
making, and BF into one process, and allows direct
use of low-grade fine ore and coal without prelimi-
nary processing. This process dramatically reduces
the generation of air pollutants such as SOx, NOx,
POSCO FINEX Plant #2 and #3
Note : Plant #2 and #3 have annual iron-making capacities of 1.5 Mt and 2.0 Mt, respectively.
Heat Flow Between Each Process
in BF-based Integrated Steel Mill
Process (time)
Temperature
Raw
materials
Cold
rolling Finishing
Annealing
Hot
rolling
Casting
Steelmaking
Ironmaking
700ºC
1200ºC
1300ºC
1550ºC
1650ºC
1500ºC
Cokemaking
1250ºC~1300ºC
Sintering
Raw
materials
Source: worldsteel, Development and Prospect of Global Steel Industry, Kang Chang-Oh, May 2015
Special Report Revisiting the History of Steel Production Process and Its Future Direction
6. Vol.01 January 2016 1110 Asian Steel Watch
Plan for the Steel Industry” to restore its steel
production facilities, which had been devastated
during the Pacific War. Japan resolutely embraced
the new technologies in its new large steel mills
built at seaside locations, emerging as the world’s
largest steel producer. Nippon Steel’s Oita Works,
a large-scale integrated steel works that went into
operation in the early 1970s, employed large-
scale blast furnaces, converters, and hot-rolling
facilities, and was the first in the world to adopt
all continuous casting process. Oita Works con-
structed large-scale port facilities and established
long-term contracts with overseas suppliers to
import all of its raw materials by large vessels.
Oita Works became the model for large scale
seaside steel works. At this time, hegemony of
the global steel industry shifted from the USA to
Japan.
The development of
BF-based integrated steel mill
BF-based integrated steel mills consist of three
major production segments: iron-making seg-
ment comprising sinter-making, coke-making,
and BF processes; steel-making segment com-
prising BOF and continuous cast processes; and
rolling segment. The integrated steel mills have
many advantages such as high productivity, cost
competitiveness, and the ability to produce a
wide range of high-quality steel products. How-
ever, they require large-scale facility groups with
complex process configurations across a large
land area. Other disadvantages include their de-
pendence on high-grade raw materials, which are
pre-processed to make sinter and coke, decreased
efficiency due to batch operations between each
process, and the generation of large quantities of
environmental pollutants from the use of fossil
fuels. In the late 1980s, major global steel com-
panies and research institutes led research and
development activities to address the disadvan-
tages of BF-based integrated steel mills. The focus
was placed mainly on developing new processes
to replace the existing blast furnace in ironmak-
ing, and improving the efficiency of the processes
from continuous casting to hot-rolling.
Heat flow between processes in
BF-based integrated steel mill
By nature, the steel industry is high in energy
consumption, and its improvement of energy
efficiency is very important to increase the com-
petitiveness of an integrated steel mill. In the
ironmaking process, iron ore and coking coal are
heated to 1250-1300ºC to produce sinter and
coke, which are cooled to room temperature be-
fore being charged into a blast furnace.
The 1300ºC slabs produced in the continuous
casting process are cut into fixed lengths, then
cooled to room temperature before being re-
heated to 1200ºC in a furnace at a scheduled time
to be hot-rolled into finished products. Heat ef-
ficiency can be greatly improved in an integrated
steel mill if the process of producing sinter and
coke can be skipped in the ironmaking process,
and iron ore and coking coal can be charged di-
rectly into the blast furnace to produce molten
iron, and if the 1300ºC slabs produced by the con-
tinuous casting process can be sent directly to the
hot-rolling process without cooling.
The development of
alternative process technology to BF
From the late 1980s, research projects to develop
an “alternative process to BF” to resolve issues of
BF-based ironmaking were carried out through-
out the world, but most of them were discontin-
ued by the late 1990s. POSCO’s FINEX is the only
steel production process that was commercialized
successfully as a result of these efforts, and is in
operation today. POSCO initiated basic research
on FINEX technology in 1992, and successfully
launched a pilot plant with an annual production
capacity of 600,000 tonnes in 2003. At present,
two FINEX facilities are in operation at POSCO
Pohang Steelworks: one plant, launched in 2007,
has an annual capacity of 1.5 million tonnes, and
the other plant, opened in 2014, has an annual
capacity of 2 million tonnes. FINEX combines the
three ironmaking processes of sintering, coke-
making, and BF into one process, and allows direct
use of low-grade fine ore and coal without prelimi-
nary processing. This process dramatically reduces
the generation of air pollutants such as SOx, NOx,
POSCO FINEX Plant #2 and #3
Note : Plant #2 and #3 have annual iron-making capacities of 1.5 Mt and 2.0 Mt, respectively.
Heat Flow Between Each Process
in BF-based Integrated Steel Mill
Process (time)
Temperature
Raw
materials
Cold
rolling Finishing
Annealing
Hot
rolling
Casting
Steelmaking
Ironmaking
700ºC
1200ºC
1300ºC
1550ºC
1650ºC
1500ºC
Cokemaking
1250ºC~1300ºC
Sintering
Raw
materials
Source: worldsteel, Development and Prospect of Global Steel Industry, Kang Chang-Oh, May 2015
Special Report Revisiting the History of Steel Production Process and Its Future Direction
7. Vol.01 January 2016 1312 Asian Steel Watch
The changing environment of
the global steel industry
Due to the stagnation of steel demand in China,
global steel demand is expected to increase
very slowly. Since 2000, developing countries
have led an increase in global steel demand,
while steel demand has been at a standstill in
advanced countries. Steel demand is expanding
from coastal regions to inland regions, includ-
ing India, China, Middle East, and Central Asia.
The attention of global steel companies is now
focused on reducing greenhouse gas emissions
and the tightened global regulations on air pol-
lution. In particular, China’s new Environmental
Protection Law, which went into effect in May
2015, includes strict regulations on SOx, NOx,
dust, and CO₂, which are being generated in
large amounts in steel mills. These regulations
are expected to expedite the restructuring of
steel production facilities. For reference, in the
USA, strengthened environmental regulations
for steel companies following the launch of the
EPA in the 1970s led to the restructuring of the
steel industry, for example, the replacement of
blast furnaces with electric arc furnaces.
In Australia, which supplies 30% of global
iron ore, production of low-grade limonite is on
the rise, to replace high-grade hematite, because
high-grade raw material reserves are dwindling.
Due to the sudden increase in global crude steel
production after 2000, steel scrap generation is
expected to soar in the near future. Meanwhile,
commercialization of environment-friendly and
innovative ironmaking technologies is expected,
enabling the use of low-grade raw materials, which
are distributed over vast areas across the globe.
With the development and expanded utilization of
new clean energy sources, such as shale gas, steel
production will depend increasingly on utilization
of economically produced DRI (Direct Reduced
Iron) and other virgin iron resources through EAF.
The global steel industry and
the Kondratiev cycle
World-renowned Soviet economist Kondratiev
asserted early in his book The Major Economic
Cycles, “Technological innovation and productiv-
ity usually last for 50-60 years.” The global steel
industry seems to follow Kondratiev’s theory.
With the above-mentioned Bessemer converter,
an innovative technology developed in the 1850s,
mass production of molten steel became possible
for the first time in the history of the global steel
industry. About half a century later, in the 1900s,
the USA succeeded in developing technologies for
integrated steel mill processes, opening the era of
and dust. The FINEX process unseated a conven-
tional idea that had been fixed for 300 years, that
coke is crucial in the production of molten iron.
The development of direct connection
between the caster and hot rolling processes
In the conventional integrated steel mill, thick
slabs produced in the continuous casting process
are cut into fixed lengths and cooled, to remain
on standby until the next process. This is to check
slab surface quality, but is also due to a gap in
productivity with the rolling process that follows.
The slabs are then reheated in a furnace according
to the production schedule, before going through
the hot-rolling process. Issues of conventional
integrated steel mills have long been discussed:
production and rolling of excessively thick slabs
necessitates large-scale continuous casting and
rolling facilities; cooling the slabs from a high
temperature and reheating generates heat loss;
and batch-rolling each slab at a time decreases
operational efficiency. In the late 1980s, coun-
tries around the world initiated research and
development projects to resolve these issues, and
several types of slab mills (mini flat mills) were
commercialized in the 1990s. However, these ef-
forts failed to connect the caster and hot rolling
processes to resolve the operational inefficiency
of the batch rolling process. POSCO applied its
independently developed high-speed continu-
ous casting technology to refurbish the mini flat
mills at POSCO Gwangyang Steelworks, directly
connecting a continuous supply of thin slabs pro-
duced in a caster to a hot strip mill that rolls steel
at a constant speed. In 2009, POSCO successfully
commercialized the world’s first compact endless
cast-rolling mill (CEM; 1.8 Mt/year). The CEM
process can be summarized as follows: through a
direct connection between the caster and the hot
rolling process, thin slabs produced in the caster
are fed continuously into the hot rolling process
at a constant speed, resulting in reduced facility
scale and improved productivity, energy efficien-
cy, and product quality.
Special Report
FINEX-CEM Integrated Steel Mill
Source: Development and Prospect of Global Steel Industry, Kang Chang-Oh, May 2015
CEM ProcessBOFFINEX Process
Hot Metal
Non-coking Coal
HRM FM
Fine Ore
The Changing Landscape of the Global Steel Industry
and the Future of Steel Production Processes
Revisiting the History of Steel Production Process and Its Future Direction
8. Vol.01 January 2016 1312 Asian Steel Watch
The changing environment of
the global steel industry
Due to the stagnation of steel demand in China,
global steel demand is expected to increase
very slowly. Since 2000, developing countries
have led an increase in global steel demand,
while steel demand has been at a standstill in
advanced countries. Steel demand is expanding
from coastal regions to inland regions, includ-
ing India, China, Middle East, and Central Asia.
The attention of global steel companies is now
focused on reducing greenhouse gas emissions
and the tightened global regulations on air pol-
lution. In particular, China’s new Environmental
Protection Law, which went into effect in May
2015, includes strict regulations on SOx, NOx,
dust, and CO₂, which are being generated in
large amounts in steel mills. These regulations
are expected to expedite the restructuring of
steel production facilities. For reference, in the
USA, strengthened environmental regulations
for steel companies following the launch of the
EPA in the 1970s led to the restructuring of the
steel industry, for example, the replacement of
blast furnaces with electric arc furnaces.
In Australia, which supplies 30% of global
iron ore, production of low-grade limonite is on
the rise, to replace high-grade hematite, because
high-grade raw material reserves are dwindling.
Due to the sudden increase in global crude steel
production after 2000, steel scrap generation is
expected to soar in the near future. Meanwhile,
commercialization of environment-friendly and
innovative ironmaking technologies is expected,
enabling the use of low-grade raw materials, which
are distributed over vast areas across the globe.
With the development and expanded utilization of
new clean energy sources, such as shale gas, steel
production will depend increasingly on utilization
of economically produced DRI (Direct Reduced
Iron) and other virgin iron resources through EAF.
The global steel industry and
the Kondratiev cycle
World-renowned Soviet economist Kondratiev
asserted early in his book The Major Economic
Cycles, “Technological innovation and productiv-
ity usually last for 50-60 years.” The global steel
industry seems to follow Kondratiev’s theory.
With the above-mentioned Bessemer converter,
an innovative technology developed in the 1850s,
mass production of molten steel became possible
for the first time in the history of the global steel
industry. About half a century later, in the 1900s,
the USA succeeded in developing technologies for
integrated steel mill processes, opening the era of
and dust. The FINEX process unseated a conven-
tional idea that had been fixed for 300 years, that
coke is crucial in the production of molten iron.
The development of direct connection
between the caster and hot rolling processes
In the conventional integrated steel mill, thick
slabs produced in the continuous casting process
are cut into fixed lengths and cooled, to remain
on standby until the next process. This is to check
slab surface quality, but is also due to a gap in
productivity with the rolling process that follows.
The slabs are then reheated in a furnace according
to the production schedule, before going through
the hot-rolling process. Issues of conventional
integrated steel mills have long been discussed:
production and rolling of excessively thick slabs
necessitates large-scale continuous casting and
rolling facilities; cooling the slabs from a high
temperature and reheating generates heat loss;
and batch-rolling each slab at a time decreases
operational efficiency. In the late 1980s, coun-
tries around the world initiated research and
development projects to resolve these issues, and
several types of slab mills (mini flat mills) were
commercialized in the 1990s. However, these ef-
forts failed to connect the caster and hot rolling
processes to resolve the operational inefficiency
of the batch rolling process. POSCO applied its
independently developed high-speed continu-
ous casting technology to refurbish the mini flat
mills at POSCO Gwangyang Steelworks, directly
connecting a continuous supply of thin slabs pro-
duced in a caster to a hot strip mill that rolls steel
at a constant speed. In 2009, POSCO successfully
commercialized the world’s first compact endless
cast-rolling mill (CEM; 1.8 Mt/year). The CEM
process can be summarized as follows: through a
direct connection between the caster and the hot
rolling process, thin slabs produced in the caster
are fed continuously into the hot rolling process
at a constant speed, resulting in reduced facility
scale and improved productivity, energy efficien-
cy, and product quality.
Special Report
FINEX-CEM Integrated Steel Mill
Source: Development and Prospect of Global Steel Industry, Kang Chang-Oh, May 2015
CEM ProcessBOFFINEX Process
Hot Metal
Non-coking Coal
HRM FM
Fine Ore
The Changing Landscape of the Global Steel Industry
and the Future of Steel Production Processes
Revisiting the History of Steel Production Process and Its Future Direction
9. Vol.01 January 2016 1514 Asian Steel Watch
ability and low-cost production of DRI using shale
gas will increase the economic feasibility of procur-
ing iron resources. With strengthened regulations
related to global warming, EAF-based integrated
steel mills in regions with abundant iron resources
will maintain competitiveness through capital
investment, focusing on production of general-
purpose steel. In regions where economical procure-
ment of virgin iron resources is possible, production
offlatproductswillcontinue toincrease.
Third, inland regions in China, India, and oth-
er large continent countries are at a disadvantage
in logistics to procure raw materials and trans-
port final products to end users. In these regions,
simplified and compact, environment-friendly
alternatives to BF, such as the FINEX-CEM in-
tegrated steel mill (3-4 Mt/year), are expected
to replace outdated blast furnaces or be newly
constructed. The advantages of FINEX-CEM in-
tegrated steel mill technology include its use of
low-grade local raw materials, production of high-
quality steel using liquid iron, and the easy supply
to local customers.
Ultimately, the three steel production process-
es will coexist to suit varying regional conditions,
which will provide the resolution for various is-
sues—for example, increasing generation of steel
scrap, and low-grade raw materials meeting en-
vironmental regulations, and securing a smooth
supply of steel products in inland regions where
demand is expected to grow. As the steel produc-
tion technologies mentioned above evolve, bal-
anced and continuous growth is projected for the
global steel industry.
Kondratiev Cycle of Steel Production Technology
the BF-based integrated steel mill.
Another half a century later, in the 1950s,
new innovative technologies of BOF steelmaking
and continuous casting were developed, dramati-
cally improving the productivity of integrated
steel mills, giving rise to large-scale seaside inte-
grated steel mill systems in the 1960s.
Fifty years later, in the 2000s, POSCO devel-
oped FINEX-CEM integrated steel mill technol-
ogy. I believe that this new technology has the
potential to lead an age of mid-sized integrated
steel mills with annual capacities of 3-4 million
tonnes, meeting new demand from inland re-
gions around the world. China has set out a re-
structuring plan to increase the competitiveness
of the Chinese steel industry, and is forced to ini-
tiate replacement of countless outdated small and
medium-sized facilities in inland regions with
environment-friendly steel production facilities
that can make use of raw materials produced do-
mestically. These new facilities will supply gener-
al-purpose steel, which is in the highest demand,
to the domestic market. I believe that POSCO’s
FINEX-CEM technology could be a good alterna-
tive solution for restructuring the steel mills in
inland regions with domestic raw materials, such
as low grade iron ore and non-coking coals.
The future direction of
the steel production process
The steel production processes of the global steel
industry are projected to move in the following
three directions.
First, large-scale seaside integrated steel
works, the most competitive model to date, will
continue to be highly competitive, taking advan-
tage of location in economical procurement of
imported raw materials by large vessels, as well
as large-scale facilities and their use of high-grade
raw materials for mass production of high value-
added, high-quality products.
Second, the expected increase in steel scrap avail-
EAF-based Integrated Process
Steel scrap
Iron ore
Natural gas
Iron ore
Coal
Pellet
Plant
midrex
/hyl
Mini mill
Pellet
Plant
Rotary
Kiln
Long
Products
Flat
Products
Pellet
Pellet DRI
Caster/Hot-rolling
The three steelmaking processes will
coexist to suit varying regional conditions,
which will provide the resolution for
various issues.
Start Innovative Technology Influence on Steel Industry Related Location
1st 1850s Bessemer converter Mass production of molten steel UK/USA
2nd 1900s
Integrated steel mill
Process technology
BF-based integrated steel mill USA
3rd 1950s
•BOF steelmaking
•Continuous casting
Large-scale seaside integrated steel mill Austria/Japan
4th 2000s
FINEX-CEM
Integrated steel mill
Mid-sized,inland,integrated steel mill Korea/China
DRI
EAF
Source: Development and Prospect of Global Steel Industry, Kang Chang-Oh, May 2015 Source: Development and Prospect of Global Steel Industry, Kang Chang-Oh, May 2015
Special Report Revisiting the History of Steel Production Process and Its Future Direction
10. Vol.01 January 2016 1514 Asian Steel Watch
ability and low-cost production of DRI using shale
gas will increase the economic feasibility of procur-
ing iron resources. With strengthened regulations
related to global warming, EAF-based integrated
steel mills in regions with abundant iron resources
will maintain competitiveness through capital
investment, focusing on production of general-
purpose steel. In regions where economical procure-
ment of virgin iron resources is possible, production
offlatproductswillcontinue toincrease.
Third, inland regions in China, India, and oth-
er large continent countries are at a disadvantage
in logistics to procure raw materials and trans-
port final products to end users. In these regions,
simplified and compact, environment-friendly
alternatives to BF, such as the FINEX-CEM in-
tegrated steel mill (3-4 Mt/year), are expected
to replace outdated blast furnaces or be newly
constructed. The advantages of FINEX-CEM in-
tegrated steel mill technology include its use of
low-grade local raw materials, production of high-
quality steel using liquid iron, and the easy supply
to local customers.
Ultimately, the three steel production process-
es will coexist to suit varying regional conditions,
which will provide the resolution for various is-
sues—for example, increasing generation of steel
scrap, and low-grade raw materials meeting en-
vironmental regulations, and securing a smooth
supply of steel products in inland regions where
demand is expected to grow. As the steel produc-
tion technologies mentioned above evolve, bal-
anced and continuous growth is projected for the
global steel industry.
Kondratiev Cycle of Steel Production Technology
the BF-based integrated steel mill.
Another half a century later, in the 1950s,
new innovative technologies of BOF steelmaking
and continuous casting were developed, dramati-
cally improving the productivity of integrated
steel mills, giving rise to large-scale seaside inte-
grated steel mill systems in the 1960s.
Fifty years later, in the 2000s, POSCO devel-
oped FINEX-CEM integrated steel mill technol-
ogy. I believe that this new technology has the
potential to lead an age of mid-sized integrated
steel mills with annual capacities of 3-4 million
tonnes, meeting new demand from inland re-
gions around the world. China has set out a re-
structuring plan to increase the competitiveness
of the Chinese steel industry, and is forced to ini-
tiate replacement of countless outdated small and
medium-sized facilities in inland regions with
environment-friendly steel production facilities
that can make use of raw materials produced do-
mestically. These new facilities will supply gener-
al-purpose steel, which is in the highest demand,
to the domestic market. I believe that POSCO’s
FINEX-CEM technology could be a good alterna-
tive solution for restructuring the steel mills in
inland regions with domestic raw materials, such
as low grade iron ore and non-coking coals.
The future direction of
the steel production process
The steel production processes of the global steel
industry are projected to move in the following
three directions.
First, large-scale seaside integrated steel
works, the most competitive model to date, will
continue to be highly competitive, taking advan-
tage of location in economical procurement of
imported raw materials by large vessels, as well
as large-scale facilities and their use of high-grade
raw materials for mass production of high value-
added, high-quality products.
Second, the expected increase in steel scrap avail-
EAF-based Integrated Process
Steel scrap
Iron ore
Natural gas
Iron ore
Coal
Pellet
Plant
midrex
/hyl
Mini mill
Pellet
Plant
Rotary
Kiln
Long
Products
Flat
Products
Pellet
Pellet DRI
Caster/Hot-rolling
The three steelmaking processes will
coexist to suit varying regional conditions,
which will provide the resolution for
various issues.
Start Innovative Technology Influence on Steel Industry Related Location
1st 1850s Bessemer converter Mass production of molten steel UK/USA
2nd 1900s
Integrated steel mill
Process technology
BF-based integrated steel mill USA
3rd 1950s
•BOF steelmaking
•Continuous casting
Large-scale seaside integrated steel mill Austria/Japan
4th 2000s
FINEX-CEM
Integrated steel mill
Mid-sized,inland,integrated steel mill Korea/China
DRI
EAF
Source: Development and Prospect of Global Steel Industry, Kang Chang-Oh, May 2015 Source: Development and Prospect of Global Steel Industry, Kang Chang-Oh, May 2015
Special Report Revisiting the History of Steel Production Process and Its Future Direction