Retinoic acid plays an important role in ocular surface health and wound healing. It promotes epithelial cell differentiation and hydration of the ocular surface. Retinoic acid also accelerates wound healing in corneal epithelium and full thickness wounds. However, high concentrations can inhibit wound healing and cause meibomian gland dysfunction by decreasing oil secretion. Retinoic acid reverses squamous metaplasia and has anti-tumor effects on the ocular surface at appropriate concentrations.
Ophthalmologic approach to chemical burns Chimozi Tembo
Chemical burns are one of the true ophthalmologic emergencies. The ophthalmologist and general practitioner thus needs to be aware of the management of this type of eye injury.
Ophthalmologic approach to chemical burns Chimozi Tembo
Chemical burns are one of the true ophthalmologic emergencies. The ophthalmologist and general practitioner thus needs to be aware of the management of this type of eye injury.
Ocular Chemical Burns - Pathophysiology and Evidence-Based TreatmentSteven M. Christiansen
This case-based presentation describes the pathophysiology of ocular chemical burns (alkali and acid), as well as the evidence behind currently recommended medical and surgical treatment options.
this slide share admixed with pictures and animations will give an overall idea of immunological disorders of cornea. it covers anatomy immunology, and pharmacology as well
The Gram stain is a fundamental technique in microbiology used to classify bacteria based on their cell wall structure. It provides a quick and simple method to distinguish between Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, which have different susceptibilities to antibiotics
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Ocular Chemical Burns - Pathophysiology and Evidence-Based TreatmentSteven M. Christiansen
This case-based presentation describes the pathophysiology of ocular chemical burns (alkali and acid), as well as the evidence behind currently recommended medical and surgical treatment options.
this slide share admixed with pictures and animations will give an overall idea of immunological disorders of cornea. it covers anatomy immunology, and pharmacology as well
The Gram stain is a fundamental technique in microbiology used to classify bacteria based on their cell wall structure. It provides a quick and simple method to distinguish between Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, which have different susceptibilities to antibiotics
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
CDSCO and Phamacovigilance {Regulatory body in India}NEHA GUPTA
The Central Drugs Standard Control Organization (CDSCO) is India's national regulatory body for pharmaceuticals and medical devices. Operating under the Directorate General of Health Services, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India, the CDSCO is responsible for approving new drugs, conducting clinical trials, setting standards for drugs, controlling the quality of imported drugs, and coordinating the activities of State Drug Control Organizations by providing expert advice.
Pharmacovigilance, on the other hand, is the science and activities related to the detection, assessment, understanding, and prevention of adverse effects or any other drug-related problems. The primary aim of pharmacovigilance is to ensure the safety and efficacy of medicines, thereby protecting public health.
In India, pharmacovigilance activities are monitored by the Pharmacovigilance Programme of India (PvPI), which works closely with CDSCO to collect, analyze, and act upon data regarding adverse drug reactions (ADRs). Together, they play a critical role in ensuring that the benefits of drugs outweigh their risks, maintaining high standards of patient safety, and promoting the rational use of medicines.
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
New Drug Discovery and Development .....NEHA GUPTA
The "New Drug Discovery and Development" process involves the identification, design, testing, and manufacturing of novel pharmaceutical compounds with the aim of introducing new and improved treatments for various medical conditions. This comprehensive endeavor encompasses various stages, including target identification, preclinical studies, clinical trials, regulatory approval, and post-market surveillance. It involves multidisciplinary collaboration among scientists, researchers, clinicians, regulatory experts, and pharmaceutical companies to bring innovative therapies to market and address unmet medical needs.
Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
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micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
Are There Any Natural Remedies To Treat Syphilis.pdf
Retinoic acid and ocular surface
1. Retinoic acid and the ocular surface
CHAMEEN SAMARAWICKRAMA, BSC(MED), MBBS, PHD,
SKY CHEW, BSC(MED), MBBS, PHD
STEPHANIE WATSON, BSC(MED), MBBS, PHD, FRANZCO
Surv Ophthalmol. 2015 May-Jun;60(3):183-95
Sydney Eye Hospital, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia; Save Sight Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney,
New South Wales, Australia.
2. Introduction
Vit A has been known to improve cutaneous wound healing.
It accelerates epithelial migration, granulation tissue formation and
reversal of the retardation of healing induced by corticosteroids
This review explores the international literature on ophthalmic use of
retinoic acid on the ocular surface.
3. Vitamin a deficiency
Leading cause of childhood blindness in developing countries
Manifests in 2 ways:
Night blindness/nyctalopia
Xerophthalmia
Ocular changes include..
Epidermal keratinization
Squamous metaplasia
Corneal ulceration
Night blindness
Retinopathy
4. Vitamin a deficiency
Initial and most common ocular manifestation of vitamin A
deficiency is nyctalopia.
Retinal electrophysiology can assist in diagnosis and follow up of
vitamin deficiency
5. Vitamin A deficiency
Conjunctival pathology typically follows nyctalopia.
First sign is xerosis (dryness)
Conjunctiva appears thickened, wrinkled with loss of transparency.
Bitot spots- triangular, perilimbal foamy gray plaques of keratinized
conjunctiva overlying an area of dryness -pathognomonic
6. Vitamin A deficiency
Puctate keratopathy which progresses to epithelial defects,
keratinization and stromal edema.
Corneal epithelial defects progress to partial or full thickness
ulceration
Keratomalacia is often associated with preceding systemic stressors
like measles or severe protein malnutrition.
Descematocoele/corneal perforation
7. Vitamin A deficiency
Xerophthalmic fundus-numerous small yellow dots representing loss
of pigment from the RPE
Replenishment of vitamin A stores typically results in the reversal of
night blindness and conjunctival and retinal pathology.
Keratopathy without severe ulceration also responds favorably .
8. Production of retinoic acid
NATURAL PRODUCTION IN THE BODY
Produced in body by 2 oxidation steps:
retinol retinaldehyde
Retinaldehyde retinoic acid
Retinol ingested in food absorbed by intestinal cells bound to
serum retinol-binding protiens transported to target epithelial cells.
Most organs have the capacity for retinoic acid biosynthesis
including corneal epithelial cells
9. Production of retinoic acid
SYNTHETIC PRODUCTION
2 methods known in literature for synthetic production of retinoic
acid both for therapeutic and research purposes
Both lead to formation of all-trans retinoic acid
It is inherently unstable because it undergoes photoisomerization.
Retinol/ retinyl palmitate, another derivative of vitamin A is more
stable and is the precursor or storage form of vitamin A
10. Mechanism of retinoic acid action
Two main mechanisms
1. Nuclear receptor mediated pathway
2. Non nuclear receptor medicated pathway
Studies have shown nuclear receptor pathway to be the primary
pathway.
Retinoic acid binds to nuclear receptors that act as ligand
activated transcriptional factors, resulting in either
Transcriptional activation or
Repression of retinoid controlled genes
11. Mechanism of retinoic acid action
Nuclear receptor mediated mechanism
Regulates the transcriptional level of target genes
Retinoic acid binds to nuclear receptors conformational changes gene
transcription
Increased gene transcription upregulation of protiens transactivation
Decreased gene transcription downregulation of protiens transrepression
TRANSACTIVATION is mediated by 2 families of nuclear receptors RAR* and RXR
Promotion of ocular surface hydration,
Epithelial healing
Ocular differentiation and development
12. Mechanism of retinoic acid action
TRANSREPRESSION results in a reduction of keratinization, protection
of the cornea from dissolution, and suppression of oncogenic
proliferation and neoplasia
Transrepression leads to
Reduction of keratin production
Inhibition of collagenases production
Possible down regulation of MMP 13 production(which plasys a role in
pathogenesis of OSSN)
Down regulation of AP1 transcriptional activity inhibiting oncogenic
proliferation and cellular proliferation.
13. Mechanism of retinoic acid action
Non nuclear receptor mediated mechanism
Binding to extra nuclear retinol receptors,
Retinoylation,
Activation of or interaction with other signaling molecules
Mediation of effects via metabolites
To summarize..*
Corneal epithelial cell repair
Maintenance of ocular surface hydration - MUC 16
Apoptosis, cellular differentiation and repression of oncogenic
proliferation
Reduction of keratininzation of ocular surface epithelium
14. Role in wound healing
1. ROLE IN FULL THICKNESS CORNEAL WOUNDS
Application of retinoic acid increases the tensile strength
Retinol palmitate was compared in two doses 0.1 % and 0.5%
which showed a significant increase in tensile strength with 0.1 %
concentration
0.5% not only had any effect on wound healing or tensile
strength, it also showed an inhibitory effect in high doses.
An ideal concentration of 10 x 10 -6 m equivalent to 33%
increased keratocyte numbers
15. Role in wound healing
2. ROLE IN NON PENETRATING CORNEAL WOUNDS
Increased rate of corneal epithelial wound healing with the use
of all-trans-retinoic acid -variable results have been reported with
retinol palmatate
1954- Agarwal et al - intramuscular vitamin A accelerated the
healing time for both superficial and deep non penetrating
corneal wounds while also decreasing the density of scar
formation.
Use of IM vitamin A in 3 groups of human patients;
1. Non sloughing,
2. Sloughing
3. Hypopyon associated corneal ulcers.
16. Role in wound healing
3. ROLE IN CORNEAL EPITHELIAL DEFECTS
• Topical application of retinoic acid benefits epithelial healing
time
• Vetrugno et al - role of oral vitamin A & E in re-epithelialization
time and corneal haze formation at 1 year post PRK - significantly
improved re- epitheliazation rates and reduction in formation of
corneal haze which was more pronounced in high myopic
corrections
• Novel methods of delivery of all-trans-retinoic acid -egg shaped
Nano particles
• Showed earlier wound healing but higher concentration was
both cytostatic and cytotoxic.
17. Role in cell differentiation-cornea
Retinoic acid 0.001- 0.1% reverses corneal keratinization and improves
histological appearance of the cornea.
Improvement of surface keratinization in the untreated contralateral eye.
Wright & Herbort et al showed an improvement in persistent epithelial defects
with use of 0.1% retinoic acid at bedtime
Corneal surface becomes flatter, more wet able and regular
Retinoic acid concentrations greater than 10 -6 M equivalent to 3.3% induce
Abnormal differentiation,
Poor polarity and
Increase mucin staining
18. Role in cell differentiation-conjunctiva
Retinoic acid helps improve conjunctival keratinization
Controlling conjunctival fibroblast activity which as implications for cicatrizing
conjunctival disease
Tseng - pts whose conjunctival impression cytology improved with the use of
retinoic acid:
KCS
SJS
Pseudo-pemphigoid
Surgically induced dry eye
Retinol palmitate - higher concentrations (1500 IU/ml) improve goblet cell
numbers compared with placebo in a dose dependent manner.
19. Role in cell differentiation-limbus
Retinoic acid is vital for correct limbal differentiation but only in correct
concentration
It differentiates limbal stem cells into transient amplifying cells that go on to
epithelize the cornea
Ideal concentration 0.003 – 0.3% required for normal expression of limbal
progenators and markers.
Where limbal stem cells are irreparably damaged, a process of trans-
differentiation occurs
In the presence of viable limbal stem cells, retinoic acid acts to encourage
corneal regeneration from this source.
When all stem cells are destroyed, re-epithelization occurs across the limbus
from conjunctival cells and is once again influenced by retinoic acid
20. Role in cell differentiation-anti
tumour effect
Positive effect of all-trans-retinoic acid in reversing squamous metaplasia
Retinoic acid changes keratinocyte membrane glycoconjugates and this may
alter intra-cellular adhesions that control growth.
Retinoic acid has the potential to contain but not cure neoplastic lesions
Synergistic combination with other agents such as interferon alpha2b is done
for management of ocular surface dysplasias.
21. Role in cell differentiation-
mebomian glands
Main limiting factor to the use of retinoic acid is its dramatic effect on
mebomian gland.
Even systemic use of retinoic acid decreases mebomian gland function
Atrophy of the acini
Hyposecretion of oil
Tear osmolality and
Evaporation
22. Role in dry eye
Mebomian gland dysfunction is the most frequent cause of dry eye.
On impression cytology, reversal of squamous metaplasia, increase
in goblet cell density with use of topical retinoic acid 0.001 to 0.1%
Retinyl palmatate 0.05% vs cyclosporine A 0.05% for treating the
inflammatory component of dry eye disease
2011- international workshop on mebomian gland dysfunction-
hyperkeratinization of the orifice and ductal epithelium led to
mebomian gland obstruction.
Retinoic acid only has a role if ocular surface keratinization is the
predominant mechanism of dry eye and not in mebomian gland
dysfunction.
23. Recent developments
Various studies have shown that retinoic acid is involved in the
Photo-receptor differentiation and development,
Lens development and regeneration
Barrier function and trans-differentiation of retinal pigment epithelial
cells,
Prevention of micro ophthalmia
Establishment of immune tolerance in the eye
In animal studies, retinoic acid decreased the severity of optic
neuritis and auto-immune uveo-retinitis.
Inhibited human lens epithelial cell proliferation raising the possibility
of its use for pcos.
25. conclusion
This review looks at the role of retinoic acid on the ocular surface. It
has been shown to improve full and partial thickness corneal
lacerations as well as corneal epithelial defects. Its positive effect is
only achieved at the correct concentration, however; excess
concentrations of retinoic acid have a deleterious effect. The main
limiting factor of retinoic acid use is its detrimental effect on
meibomian glands, resulting in cell death, atrophy of acini,
hyposecretion of oils, and altered gene expression, eventually
resulting in dry eye symptoms. This effect is reversible on
discontinuation of the drug.
Editor's Notes
Vit A has been known to improve cutaneous wound healing.
It accelerates epithelial migration, granulation tissue formation and reversal of the retardation of healing induced by corticosteroids
This review explores the international literature on ophthalmic use of retinoic acid on the ocular surface.
Ocular manifestation of vit A deficiency remain the leading cause of childhood blindness in developing countries.
The deficiency of this fat soluble vit or its metabolites (retinoic acid) manifests in 2 ways:
night blindness/nyctalopia
and a spectrum of ocular disease known as xeropthalmia
Retinoic acid promotes incorporation of glucosamine into specific glycoproteins which is significiantly reduced in xeropthalmia
Ocular changes include..
Epidermal keratinization
Squamous metaplasia of the cornea and conjunctiva
Corneal ulceration
Night blindness
Retinopathy
The initial and most common ocular manifestation of vit A def is nyctalopia because the visual pigments of the photoreceptors are derived from this vit
A constant source of this vit is required for optimal photoreceptor function
Retinal electrophysiology can assist in diagnosis and follow up of vitamin deficiency.
Conjunctival pathology typically follows nyctalopia.
The first sign is xerosis (dryness) caused by marked decrease in mucous secreting goblet cells
Epidermal keratinization and squamous metaplasia of mucous memberanes occurs inversely propotional to serum vit A levels
Clinically conjunctiva appears thickened, wrinkled with loss of transparency.
Triangular, perilimbal foamy grayplaques of keratinized conjunctiva overlying an area of dryness known as the Bitot spots are said to be pathognomonic of current vit A deficiency
As the deficiency worsens, the cornea becomes involved.
Instability of the tear film leads to puctate keratopathy which progresses to epithelial defects, keratinization and stromal edema.
Left untreated corneal epithelial defects progress to partial or full thickness ulceration. And may develop bacterial ulceration
Keratomalacia is full thickness liquefactive necrosis of the cornea, is often ass with preceding systemic stressors like measles or severe protein malnutrition.
Corneal stroma can slough leading to either descematocoele or corneal perforation
Lastly theres an uncommon condition known as the xerophthalmic fundus, numerous small yellow dots representing loss of pigmentfrom the RPE
Replenishment of vit A stores typically results in the reversal of night blindness and conjunctival and retinal pathology.
Keratopathy without severe ulceration also respnds favourably .
Produced in body by 2 oxidation steps:from retinol to retinaldehyde and second retinaldehyde to retinoic acid which is the active form of vit A
Retinol is ingested in food and absorbed by intestinal cells is bound to serum retinol-binding protiens and transported to target epithelial cells.
Most organs have the capacity for retinoic acid biosynthesis including corneal epithelial cells
Vit A is transported into they eye via the ocular surface blood vessels and tears.
2 methods known in literature for synthetic production of retinoic acid both for therapeutic and research purposes
Both lead to formation of all-trans retinoic acid
All-trans retinoic acid is inherently unstable because it undergoes photoisomerization.
Retinol/retinyl palmitate, another derivative of vit A is more stable and is the precursor or storage form of vit A
2 mechanisms of action of retinoic acid..nuclear receptor mediated and non nuclear receptor medicated..studies have shown nuclear receptor pathway to be the primary pathway.
Retinoic acid binds to nuclear receptors that act as ligand activated transcriptional factors, resulting in either transcriptional activation or repression of retinoid controlled genes.
Regulating the transcriptional level of target genes.
Retinoic acid binds to various nuclear receptors causing conformational changes that increase or decrease gene transcription.
Some effects of this upregulation are mediated by two familes of nuclear receptors which are retinoic acid receptor (RAR) and retinoic X receptors (RXR).
The effects include promotion of ocular surface hydration, epithelial healing and ocular differentiation and development.
In contrast, the trans-repressive activity of retinoic acid results in a reduction of keratinization, protection of the cornea from dissolution, and suppression of oncogenic proliferation and neoplasia.
Transrepression leads to
Reduction of keratin production
Inhibition of collagenases production
Possible down regulation of matrix metalloproteinases 13 production(which plasys a role in pathogenesis of OSSN)
Down regulation of AP1 transcriptional activity inhibiting oncogenic proliferation and cellular proliferation. This relationship between retinoic acid and AP1 is of particular interest because of its use as adjuvant chemotherapy for conjunctival neoplasia
The non genomic mechanisms include binding to extra nuclear retinol receptors, retinoylation, activation of or interaction with other signaling molecules and the mediation of effects via metabolites
In summary, both nuclear and non nuclear receptor mediated mechanisms lead to
corneal epithelial cell repair via increasing production of hyaluronic acid and pro inflammatory cytokines
maintenance of ocular surface hydration via production of MUC 16
Apoptosis, cellular differentiation and repression of oncogenic proliferation
reduction of keratininzation of ocular surface epithelium
Full thickness penetrating corneal wounds
Studies on rabbit eyes show that application of retinoic acid increases the tensile strength of full thickness corneal wounds.
Retinol palmitate was compared in two doses 0.1 % and 0.5% which showed a significant increase in tensile strength with 0.1 % concentration and
0.5% not only had any effect on wound healing or tensile strength, it also showed an inhibitory effect in high doses.
Recent studies showed an ideal concentration of 10 x 10 -6 M equivalent to 33% increased keratocyte numbers which lead to improved corneal healing and tensile strength.
Non penetrating corneal wounds
increased rate of corneal epithelial wound healing was consistently demonstrated with the use of all-trans-retinoic acid though variable results have been reported with retinol palmatate.
As early as 1954, Agarwal et al demonstrated in rabbits that addition of intramuscular vitamin A acceleratd the healing time for both superficial and deep non penetrating corneal wounds while also decreasing the density of scar formation.
This led to use of intramuscular vitamin A in three groups of human patients; those with non sloughing, sloughing and hypopyon associated corneal ulcers.
Corneal epithelial defects
topical application of retinoic acid benefits epithelial helaing time but it was only found with the use of all-trans-retinoic acid with a concentration of 0.1% and the effect increased with the frequency of application.
Vetrugno et al examined the role of supplementary oral vitamin A & E in re-epithelialization time and corneal haze formation at 1 year post PRK.
Which showed significantly improved re-epitheliazation rates and reduction in formation of corneal haze which was more pronounced in high myopic corrections.
Novel methods of delivery of all-trans-retinoic acid including egg shaped nano particles have been devised.
These showed earlier wound healing but higher concentration was both cytostatic and cytotoxic.
CORNEA
retinoic acid 0.001- 0.1% reverses corneal keratinization and improves hstiological apearence f the cornea.
With an improvement of surface keratinization in the untreated contralateral eye.
Wright & herbort et al showed an improvement in persistent epithelial defects with use of 0.1% retinoicacid at bedtime.
He also noticed that the corneal surface becomes flatter, more wet able and regular.
Recent studies have shown that excess retinoic acid at concentrations greater than 10 -6 M equivalent to 3.3% induce abnormal differentiation, poor polarity and increase mucin staining.
Thus vitamin A plays a pivotal role in the differentiation of corneal epithelial cells.
CONJUNCTIVA
retinoic acid helps improve conjunctival keratinization and may play a key role in controlling conjunctival fibroblast activity which as implications for cicatrizing conjunctival disease..
Tseng published a small case series of patients with keratoconjunctivitis Sicca, SJS, pseudopemphigoid and surgically induced dry eye whose conjunctival impression cytology improved with the use of retinoic acid.
Studies using retinol palmitate show that higher concentrations (1500 IU/ml) are able to improve goblet cell numbers compared with placebo in a dose dependant manner.
LIMBUS
retinoic acid is vital for correct limbal differentiation but only in correct concentration.
it preferentially differentiates limbal stem cells into transient amplifying cells that go on to epithelize the cornea..
Recent studies have shown an ideal concentration 0.003 – 0.3% required for normal expression of limbal progenators and markers.
In cases of injury where limbal stem cells are irrepairably damaged, a process of trans-differentiation occurs (conjunctival cells undergo differentiation process with loss of goblet cells and cornea like morphology is adopted).
In the presence of viable limbal stem cells, retinoic acid acts to encourage corneal regeneration from this source.
However, when all stem cells are destroyed, re-epitheliazation occurs across the limbus from conjunctival cells and is once again influenced by retinoic acid.
ANTI-TUMOUR EFFECT
studies have shown positive effect of all-trans-retinoic acid in reversing squamous metaplasia.
It was postulated that retinoic acid changes keratinocyte membrane glycoconjugates and this may alter intra-cellular adhesions that control growth.
Retinoic acid has the potential to contain but not cure neoplastic lesions therefore synergistic combination with other agents such as interferon @2b is done for management of ocular surface dysplasias
MEBOMIAN GLANDS
main limiting factor to the use of retinoic acid is its dramatic effect on mebomian gland.
Even systemic use of retinoic acid decreases mebomian gland function causing atrophy of the acini and hypo-secretion of oil effecting tear osmolality and evaporation leading to significant dry eye symptoms.
Recently, it has been realized that mebomian gland dysfunction is the most frequent cause of dry eye secondary to increased evaporation of aqueous layer.
On impression cytology, there was a reversal of squamous metaplasia along with an increase in goblet cell density critical for the improved comfort and wetting of the ocular suface with use of topical retinoic acid 0.001 to 0.1%
Studies have compared retinyl palmatate 0.05% with cyclosporine A 0.05% for treating the inflammatory component of dry eye disease.
In 2011 international workshop on mebomian gland dysfunction, it was discussed that Hyperkeratinization of the orifice and ductal epithelium led to mebomian gland obstruction.
This obstruction led to increased internal pressure causing atrophic changes and squamous metaplasia within the mebomian acini causing a secondary hypo-secretion.
For the treatment of dry eye, retinoic acid only has a role if ocular surface keratinization is the predominant mechanism and not in mebomian gland dysfunction.
Various studies have shown that retinoic acid is involved in the photo-receptor differentiation and development, lens development and regeneration barrier function and trans-differentiation of retinal pigment epithelial cells, prevention of micro ophthalmia and possibly in the establishment of immune tolerance in the eye.
In animal studies, retinoic acid decreased the severity of optic neuritis and auto-immune uveo-retinitis.
It also inhibited human lens epithelial cell proliferation raising the possibility of its use for posterior capsular opacification.
Successful treatments used .01 to 0.1% all trans retinoic acid
Higher doses 0.25% were found to be ineffective
Recent studies have sought to use the lowest possible conc which is effective and with minimum possible frequency
Fewer studies have used retinol palmitate, it is used as 1000 IU/ml QID for 4 weeks with good results and fewer side effects
Retinoic acid is known to improve cutaneous wound healing and, in recent years, its application in ophthalmology has been investigated.
Retinoic acid can be produced synthetically, and its mechanism of action includes both nuclear and non-nuclear receptor mediated pathways.
Retinoic acid plays a critical role in cell differentiation at the cornea, conjunctiva, and limbus, and may have an anti-tumor role.