Psychological tests are major research tools that can measure traits like intelligence, abilities, personality, and adjustment. There are many types of tests categorized by time limits, administration method, purpose, standardization, item format, and scoring method. Tests should be valid, reliable, standardized, and usable. Validity refers to how accurately a test measures what it is intended to measure and there are different types of validity including content, criterion, and construct validity. Psychological tests are an important standardized research method when used properly.

1. RESEARCH TOOLS andRESEARCH TOOLS and
TECHNIQUESTECHNIQUES
Mukut HazarikaMukut Hazarika
ProfessorProfessor
Department of EducationDepartment of Education
Dibrugarh UniversityDibrugarh University

2. Research Tools andResearch Tools and
TechniquesTechniques
The major data-gathering tools of researchThe major data-gathering tools of research
are:are:
• Psychological TestsPsychological Tests
• Inquiry FormsInquiry Forms
• ObservationObservation
• InterviewInterview
• Sociometric TechniquesSociometric Techniques

3. Psychological TestsPsychological Tests
Psychological tests are devised to evaluate orPsychological tests are devised to evaluate or
measure behaviour in a standardized way for themeasure behaviour in a standardized way for the
purpose of selection, classification, predictionpurpose of selection, classification, prediction
and guidance as well as for the evaluation ofand guidance as well as for the evaluation of
educational programmes. They are designed toeducational programmes. They are designed to
measure general mental ability or intelligence,measure general mental ability or intelligence,
special abilities or aptitudes, creativity,special abilities or aptitudes, creativity,
achievement, personality traits and adjustment,achievement, personality traits and adjustment,
interests and values.interests and values.

4. What are tests ?What are tests ?
• Tests consist of a series of tasks whichTests consist of a series of tasks which
the subject is required to perform.the subject is required to perform.
• Cronbach (1964) defines a test as aCronbach (1964) defines a test as a
systematic procedure for comparing thesystematic procedure for comparing the
behaviour of two or more persons at abehaviour of two or more persons at a
particular time ; or one or more persons atparticular time ; or one or more persons at
different time.different time.

5. • A psychological (or educational) test is aA psychological (or educational) test is a
standardized procedure to measurestandardized procedure to measure
quantitatively or qualitatively one or morequantitatively or qualitatively one or more
than one aspects of trait by means of athan one aspects of trait by means of a
verbal or non-verbal behaviour (Singh,verbal or non-verbal behaviour (Singh,
1997).1997).

6. Standardized Test:Standardized Test:
A standardized test is one that has specificA standardized test is one that has specific
directions for administration and scoring, adirections for administration and scoring, a
fixed set of test items, and has beenfixed set of test items, and has been
administered to representative samplesadministered to representative samples
taken from the population for whom thetaken from the population for whom the
test is intended for the purpose oftest is intended for the purpose of
establishing norms (Koul, 1997).establishing norms (Koul, 1997).

7. Classification of TestsClassification of Tests
• On the basis of Time limit in producing theOn the basis of Time limit in producing the
response:response:
a) Power Testa) Power Test
b) Speed Testb) Speed Test
• On the basis of Administrative conditions:On the basis of Administrative conditions:
a) Group testa) Group test
b) Individual testb) Individual test

8. • On the basis of Purposes:On the basis of Purposes:
a) The Tests of General mental abilitya) The Tests of General mental ability
or Intelligenceor Intelligence
b) The Tests of Special ability orb) The Tests of Special ability or
AptitudesAptitudes
c) The Tests of Creativityc) The Tests of Creativity
d) The Tests of Attainment ord) The Tests of Attainment or
AchievementAchievement
e) The Personality measurese) The Personality measures

9. • On the basis of Standardization:On the basis of Standardization:
a) Standardized Testsa) Standardized Tests
b) Non-Standardized Teacher madeb) Non-Standardized Teacher made
teststests
• On the basis of Nature of Items:On the basis of Nature of Items:
a) Verbal Testa) Verbal Test
b) Nonverbal Testb) Nonverbal Test
c) Performance testc) Performance test

10. Verbal TestsVerbal Tests::
In this type of tests, the instructions are given inIn this type of tests, the instructions are given in
words- written, oral or both. The examinees arewords- written, oral or both. The examinees are
required to use language, oral or written, for theirrequired to use language, oral or written, for their
responses.responses.
Non-verbal Tests:Non-verbal Tests:
A non-verbal test is one where no language isA non-verbal test is one where no language is
used at all either in instruction or in constructionused at all either in instruction or in construction
of items.of items.
Performance Tests:Performance Tests:
Performance tests involve the manipulation ofPerformance tests involve the manipulation of
objects, with a minimum use of paper and pencil.objects, with a minimum use of paper and pencil.
The instructions for these type of tests can beThe instructions for these type of tests can be
given by demonstration, gesture and pantomime,given by demonstration, gesture and pantomime,
without the use of oral or written language.without the use of oral or written language.

11. • On the basis of Scoring:On the basis of Scoring:
a) Objective Type Testsa) Objective Type Tests
b) Essay Type Testsb) Essay Type Tests
Objective Type TestsObjective Type Tests : Objective type: Objective type
tests are those whose items are scored bytests are those whose items are scored by
competent examiners, or observers incompetent examiners, or observers in
such a way that no scope for subjectivesuch a way that no scope for subjective
judgment or opinion exists and thus, thejudgment or opinion exists and thus, the
scoring remains unambiguous.scoring remains unambiguous.
Essay Type TestsEssay Type Tests ::

12. • Power TestPower Test::
A power test is one which has a generous timeA power test is one which has a generous time
limit so that most examinees are able to attemptlimit so that most examinees are able to attempt
every item. They are meant to measure theevery item. They are meant to measure the
ability to perform the assigned work.ability to perform the assigned work.
• Speed Test:Speed Test:
A speed test is one which has severe time limitA speed test is one which has severe time limit
so that no examinees are able to attempt allso that no examinees are able to attempt all
items. Speed test measures how rapidly or withitems. Speed test measures how rapidly or with
what speed the examinees can respond within awhat speed the examinees can respond within a
given time limit.given time limit.

13. Characteristics of TestsCharacteristics of Tests
• ValidityValidity
• ReliabilityReliability
• NormsNorms
• UsabilityUsability
a) Objectivitya) Objectivity
b) Economy of Timeb) Economy of Time
c) Costc) Cost
d) Ease of Administrationd) Ease of Administration
e) Ease of Scoringe) Ease of Scoring
f) Ease of Interpretationf) Ease of Interpretation
g) Face validityg) Face validity

14. ValidityValidity
Meaning: The term ‘Validity’ meansMeaning: The term ‘Validity’ means
truthfulness or fidelity (faithfulness).truthfulness or fidelity (faithfulness).
Definition:Definition:
• Validity refers to the degree to which a testValidity refers to the degree to which a test
measures what it claims to measure.measures what it claims to measure.
• The validity of a test concerns what theThe validity of a test concerns what the
test measures and how well it does sotest measures and how well it does so
(Anastasi, 1988)(Anastasi, 1988)

15. • Validity of a test is defined as the accuracyValidity of a test is defined as the accuracy
with which it measures that which iswith which it measures that which is
intended to measure or as the degree tointended to measure or as the degree to
which it approaches infallibility inwhich it approaches infallibility in
measuring what it purports to measuremeasuring what it purports to measure
(Lindquist, 1951)(Lindquist, 1951)

16. Types of Validity:Types of Validity:
• Content ValidityContent Validity
• Criterion-Related ValidityCriterion-Related Validity
a) Concurrent Validitya) Concurrent Validity
b) Predictive Validityb) Predictive Validity
• Construct ValidityConstruct Validity

17. Content validity:Content validity:
Content validity is the representativenessContent validity is the representativeness
or sampling adequacy of the content – theor sampling adequacy of the content – the
substance, the matter, the topics – of asubstance, the matter, the topics – of a
measuring instrument. It is estimated bymeasuring instrument. It is estimated by
evaluating the relevance of the test items,evaluating the relevance of the test items,
in relation to instructional objectives andin relation to instructional objectives and
actual subject matter studied.actual subject matter studied.

18. According to Kelley et. al. (1953), contentAccording to Kelley et. al. (1953), content
validation is based upon:validation is based upon:
a) an expert analysis of the material to bea) an expert analysis of the material to be
sampled.sampled.
b) the use of available statisticalb) the use of available statistical
procedures to refine the original selectionprocedures to refine the original selection
of items.of items.

19. Criterion-Related Validity:Criterion-Related Validity:
Criterion related validity is one which isCriterion related validity is one which is
obtained by comparing (or correlating) theobtained by comparing (or correlating) the
test scores with scores obtained on atest scores with scores obtained on a
criterion available at present or to becriterion available at present or to be
available in the future.available in the future.
a) Concurrent Validitya) Concurrent Validity ::
The degree to which a test isThe degree to which a test is
correlated with a criterion which iscorrelated with a criterion which is
available at the present time.available at the present time.

20. b) Predictive Validity:b) Predictive Validity:
The degree to which a test isThe degree to which a test is
correlated with a criterion which will becorrelated with a criterion which will be
available in the future. It refers to theavailable in the future. It refers to the
association between present results asassociation between present results as
indicated by a test and future behaviour.indicated by a test and future behaviour.

21. Construct ValidityConstruct Validity ::
The degree to which certain psychological traitsThe degree to which certain psychological traits
or constructs are actually represented by testor constructs are actually represented by test
performance. Construct validation is an analysisperformance. Construct validation is an analysis
of the meaning of test scores in terms ofof the meaning of test scores in terms of
psychological constructs (Cronbach and Meehl ,psychological constructs (Cronbach and Meehl ,
1955).1955).
Example: If a test is designed to measureExample: If a test is designed to measure
emotional stability, what kinds of evidence areemotional stability, what kinds of evidence are
necessary before we can have confidence thatnecessary before we can have confidence that
the information provided by the test reflects thisthe information provided by the test reflects this
factor ?factor ?

22. ReliabilityReliability
• Reliability refers to the precision orReliability refers to the precision or
accuracy of the measurement or score.accuracy of the measurement or score.
• It refers to the consistency of scores orIt refers to the consistency of scores or
measurement which is reflected in themeasurement which is reflected in the
reproducibility of the scores.reproducibility of the scores.
• Reliability refers to the consistency ofReliability refers to the consistency of
scores obtained by the same individualsscores obtained by the same individuals
when re-examined with test on differentwhen re-examined with test on different
occasions, or with different sets ofoccasions, or with different sets of
equivalent items, or under other variableequivalent items, or under other variable
examining conditions.examining conditions.

23. Methods of Estimating ReliabilityMethods of Estimating Reliability
There are four most common methods ofThere are four most common methods of
estimating reliability coefficient. Theseestimating reliability coefficient. These
methods aremethods are
• Test-Retest ReliabilityTest-Retest Reliability
• Internal Consistency ReliabilityInternal Consistency Reliability
• Alternate or Parallel Forms ReliabilityAlternate or Parallel Forms Reliability
• Methods of Rational EquivalenceMethods of Rational Equivalence

24. Test-Retest Reliability:Test-Retest Reliability:
In test-retest reliability the single form of the testIn test-retest reliability the single form of the test
is administered twice on the same sample with ais administered twice on the same sample with a
reasonable time gap and the same test yield tworeasonable time gap and the same test yield two
independent sets of scores in twoindependent sets of scores in two
administrations. If the correlation coefficientadministrations. If the correlation coefficient
between two sets of the test scores is high, thenbetween two sets of the test scores is high, then
the test is said to be reliable. A high test-retestthe test is said to be reliable. A high test-retest
reliability coefficient indicates that the examineereliability coefficient indicates that the examinee
who obtain low score on first administrationwho obtain low score on first administration
tends to score low on the second administration,tends to score low on the second administration,
and the examinee who scores high on firstand the examinee who scores high on first
administration, tends to score high on secondadministration, tends to score high on second
administration.administration.

25. Advantages:Advantages:
• It is the most appropriate method ofIt is the most appropriate method of
estimating reliability of both speed andestimating reliability of both speed and
power tests.power tests.
• The test-retest method is the mostThe test-retest method is the most
appropriate method of computing reliabilityappropriate method of computing reliability
of heterogeneous test.of heterogeneous test.

26. Disadvantages:Disadvantages:
• It is a time consuming method.It is a time consuming method.
• This method assumes that the examinee’sThis method assumes that the examinee’s
physical and psychological set-up remainsphysical and psychological set-up remains
unchanged in both the situations.unchanged in both the situations.
• If the test is administered immediatelyIf the test is administered immediately
without a proper time gap, examinees maywithout a proper time gap, examinees may
remember much of the questions and mayremember much of the questions and may
devote their time to new materials. Thatdevote their time to new materials. That
would enhance their scores.would enhance their scores.

27. Alternate forms reliability:Alternate forms reliability:
In alternate forms reliability, two forms ofIn alternate forms reliability, two forms of
the test are required and the two forms ofthe test are required and the two forms of
the test are administered to the samethe test are administered to the same
sample with a time interval. Correlationsample with a time interval. Correlation
Coefficient between two sets of scoresCoefficient between two sets of scores
obtained from two equivalent formsobtained from two equivalent forms
become the measure of reliability. Itbecome the measure of reliability. It
measures the consistency of themeasures the consistency of the
examinees scores between twoexaminees scores between two
administrations of parallel forms of a singleadministrations of parallel forms of a single
test.test.

28. Internal consistency reliability:Internal consistency reliability:
The most common method of estimating reliability is theThe most common method of estimating reliability is the
split-half method in which a test is divided into two equalsplit-half method in which a test is divided into two equal
or nearly equal halves. The common method of splittingor nearly equal halves. The common method of splitting
the test is the odd-even method. In this method all odd-the test is the odd-even method. In this method all odd-
numbered items (like 1,2,3,4,----) constitute one part ofnumbered items (like 1,2,3,4,----) constitute one part of
the test and all even-numbered items constitute anotherthe test and all even-numbered items constitute another
part of the test. Each examinee, thus, receives twopart of the test. Each examinee, thus, receives two
scores: the number of correct answers on all odd-scores: the number of correct answers on all odd-
numbered items constitute one score and the numbernumbered items constitute one score and the number
correct answers on all even-numbered items constitutecorrect answers on all even-numbered items constitute
another score for the same examinee. The correlationanother score for the same examinee. The correlation
coefficient is calculated between the two sets of scores,coefficient is calculated between the two sets of scores,
which is the reliability of the half test. The Spearmanwhich is the reliability of the half test. The Spearman
Brown Prophecy Formula is used for estimating theBrown Prophecy Formula is used for estimating the
reliability of the whole test.reliability of the whole test.

29. Method of Rational Equivalence:Method of Rational Equivalence:
This method stresses the inter-correlationsThis method stresses the inter-correlations
of the items in the test and the correlationsof the items in the test and the correlations
of the items with the test. Kuder andof the items with the test. Kuder and
Richardson did series of researches toRichardson did series of researches to
remove some of the difficulties of the split-remove some of the difficulties of the split-
half method and devised a formula forhalf method and devised a formula for
estimating the internal consistency of theestimating the internal consistency of the
test. Kuder-Richardson reliabilitytest. Kuder-Richardson reliability
coefficient is actually the mean of all split-coefficient is actually the mean of all split-
half coefficient resulting from differenthalf coefficient resulting from different
splitting.splitting.

30. The main requirements for the use of Kuder-The main requirements for the use of Kuder-
Richardson formula are:Richardson formula are:
• All items of the test should beAll items of the test should be
homogenous.homogenous.
• All correct answer should be scored as ‘+1’All correct answer should be scored as ‘+1’
and all incorrect answer should be scoredand all incorrect answer should be scored
as ‘0’.as ‘0’.

31. Norms:Norms:
• Norms are defined as the averageNorms are defined as the average
performance on a particular test made byperformance on a particular test made by
a standardized sample.a standardized sample.

32. • Face ValidityFace Validity : Face validity of a test refers to: Face validity of a test refers to
what the test appears superficially to measure.what the test appears superficially to measure.
• Objectivity:Objectivity: Objectivity refers to two aspectsObjectivity refers to two aspects
of the test-objectivity of items and objectivity ofof the test-objectivity of items and objectivity of
the scoring procedure. By objectivity of items isthe scoring procedure. By objectivity of items is
meant that the items should be phrased in suchmeant that the items should be phrased in such
a manner that they are interpreted in exactlya manner that they are interpreted in exactly
same way by all those who take the test. Bysame way by all those who take the test. By
objectivity of scoring is meant that the scoringobjectivity of scoring is meant that the scoring
method of the test should be a standard one somethod of the test should be a standard one so
that complete uniformity can be maintainedthat complete uniformity can be maintained
when the test is scored by different experts atwhen the test is scored by different experts at
different times.different times.

33. General Steps of Test ConstructionGeneral Steps of Test Construction
• PlanningPlanning
• Preliminary DraftPreliminary Draft
• The TryoutThe Tryout
• Item AnalysisItem Analysis
a) Index of Difficultya) Index of Difficulty
b) Discriminating Power or Validityb) Discriminating Power or Validity
IndexIndex
• Final DraftFinal Draft

34. • Index of Difficulty:Index of Difficulty:
The index of difficulty of an item is defined asThe index of difficulty of an item is defined as
the proportion or percentage of the examineesthe proportion or percentage of the examinees
who answer the item correctly.who answer the item correctly.
• Index of Discrimination:Index of Discrimination:
The index of discrimination is defined as theThe index of discrimination is defined as the
degree to which the single item separates thedegree to which the single item separates the
superior from the inferior individuals in the trait orsuperior from the inferior individuals in the trait or
group of traits being measured (Bean, 1953).group of traits being measured (Bean, 1953).

35. • Positively Discriminating ItemPositively Discriminating Item : A positively: A positively
discriminating item may be defined as one indiscriminating item may be defined as one in
which the proportion or percentage of correctwhich the proportion or percentage of correct
answers is higher in the upper group.answers is higher in the upper group.
• Negatively Discriminating ItemNegatively Discriminating Item : A: A
negatively discriminating item may be defined asnegatively discriminating item may be defined as
one in which the proportion or percentage ofone in which the proportion or percentage of
correct response is lower in the upper group.correct response is lower in the upper group.
• Non-discrimination Item:Non-discrimination Item: A non-A non-
discriminating item is defined as one in whichdiscriminating item is defined as one in which
the proportion or percentage of correct responsethe proportion or percentage of correct response
is equal or approximately equal in both upperis equal or approximately equal in both upper
and lower group.and lower group.

36. INQUIRY FORMSINQUIRY FORMS
Inquiry forms are a set of dataInquiry forms are a set of data
gathering research tools which make usegathering research tools which make use
of properly designed proformas forof properly designed proformas for
inquiring into and securing informationinquiring into and securing information
about certain phenomena underabout certain phenomena under
investigation.investigation.

37. The main inquiry forms are:The main inquiry forms are:
• QuestionnaireQuestionnaire
• ScheduleSchedule
• ChecklistChecklist
• Rating scaleRating scale
• Score cardScore card
• Opinionnaire or Attitude scaleOpinionnaire or Attitude scale

38. QuestionnaireQuestionnaire
• A questionnaire is a device consistingA questionnaire is a device consisting
of a series of questions dealing withof a series of questions dealing with
some psychological, social,some psychological, social,
educational, etc, topic (s) sent or giveneducational, etc, topic (s) sent or given
to an individual or group of individuals,to an individual or group of individuals,
with the object of obtaining data withwith the object of obtaining data with
regard to some problems underregard to some problems under
investigation (Koul, 1998)investigation (Koul, 1998)

39. Construction of QuestionnaireConstruction of Questionnaire
• Purposes of questionnaire:Purposes of questionnaire:
a) It must translate the objectives of ana) It must translate the objectives of an
investigation into specific questions, the answersinvestigation into specific questions, the answers
to which will provide the data necessary toto which will provide the data necessary to
explore the area defined by the objectives.explore the area defined by the objectives.
b) It must motivate the respondents tob) It must motivate the respondents to
communicate the required information. It iscommunicate the required information. It is
essential to include a courteous and carefullyessential to include a courteous and carefully
constructed covering letter to explain the purposeconstructed covering letter to explain the purpose
of the study.of the study.

40. • Language (Best,1977):Language (Best,1977):
a) Define or qualify terms that could easilya) Define or qualify terms that could easily
be misinterpretedbe misinterpreted
b) Be careful in using descriptive adjectiveb) Be careful in using descriptive adjective
and adverbs that have no agreed uponand adverbs that have no agreed upon
meaningmeaning
c) Beware of double negativec) Beware of double negative
d) Be careful of inadequate alternativesd) Be careful of inadequate alternatives
e) Avoid double barreled questionse) Avoid double barreled questions

41. f) Underline a word if you wish to indicatef) Underline a word if you wish to indicate
special emphasisspecial emphasis
g) When asking for rating or comparison ag) When asking for rating or comparison a
point of reference is necessarypoint of reference is necessary
h) Avoid unwarranted assumptionsh) Avoid unwarranted assumptions
i) Phrase questions so that they arei) Phrase questions so that they are
appropriate for all respondentsappropriate for all respondents
j) Design questions that will give aj) Design questions that will give a
complete responsecomplete response
k) Provide for the systematic quantificationk) Provide for the systematic quantification
of responsesof responses

42. l) Consider the possibility of classifying thel) Consider the possibility of classifying the
responses yourself, rather than having theresponses yourself, rather than having the
respondent choose categoriesrespondent choose categories
• Information level of the respondentsInformation level of the respondents
• Social acceptance of responsesSocial acceptance of responses
• Avoid leading questionsAvoid leading questions
• Sequence of questionsSequence of questions
• The form of questionsThe form of questions
• Length of the questionnaireLength of the questionnaire
• Experts’ opinionExperts’ opinion

43. • Preliminary tryout of the questionnairePreliminary tryout of the questionnaire
• Validation of a questionnaireValidation of a questionnaire
• Reliability of a questionnaireReliability of a questionnaire
• Administration of a questionnaireAdministration of a questionnaire
• Analysing and interpreting questionnaireAnalysing and interpreting questionnaire
responsesresponses

44. ObservationObservation
Definition:Definition:
Observation refers to watching andObservation refers to watching and
listening to the behaviour of other personslistening to the behaviour of other persons
over time without manipulating andover time without manipulating and
controlling it and record findings in wayscontrolling it and record findings in ways
that allow some degree of analyticalthat allow some degree of analytical
interpretation and discussion.interpretation and discussion.

45. Contents/Dimensions of Observation:Contents/Dimensions of Observation:
• Physical ActionsPhysical Actions , e.g., pattern of working,, e.g., pattern of working,
watching television, etc.watching television, etc.
• Verbal BehaviourVerbal Behaviour , e.g., conversation, e.g., conversation
between husband and wife, colleagues,between husband and wife, colleagues,
workers, etc.workers, etc.
• Expressive BehaviourExpressive Behaviour , e.g., tone of voice,, e.g., tone of voice,
facial expression, etc.facial expression, etc.
• Spatial RelationsSpatial Relations, e.g., physical distance, e.g., physical distance
between workers in a factory.between workers in a factory.
• Temporal PatternsTemporal Patterns, e.g., time spent in, e.g., time spent in
performing rituals, in shopping, in talking, inperforming rituals, in shopping, in talking, in
watching T.V., etc.watching T.V., etc.
• Verbal RecordsVerbal Records, e.g., content of memoranda,, e.g., content of memoranda,
slogan shouted, etc.slogan shouted, etc.

46. Characteristics of Observation:Characteristics of Observation:
• Behaviour is observed in natural settings.Behaviour is observed in natural settings.
• It enables understanding significant eventsIt enables understanding significant events
affecting social relations of the participantsaffecting social relations of the participants
• It determines reality from the perspectiveIt determines reality from the perspective
of observed person.of observed person.
• It is hypotheses free enquiry.It is hypotheses free enquiry.
• It avoids manipulations in the independentIt avoids manipulations in the independent
variables.variables.
• Recording is not selective.Recording is not selective.

47. Process of Observation:Process of Observation:
• Selecting a topicSelecting a topic
• Choosing a research siteChoosing a research site
• Gaining access in settingGaining access in setting
• Taking rolesTaking roles
• Jotting down field notesJotting down field notes
• Formulating analysisFormulating analysis
• Writing ReportsWriting Reports

48. Advantages of Observation:Advantages of Observation:
• It provides a direct procedure for studyingIt provides a direct procedure for studying
various aspects of human behaviour, which mayvarious aspects of human behaviour, which may
be the only effective way to gather data in abe the only effective way to gather data in a
particular situation.particular situation.
• It is effective especially for studying socialIt is effective especially for studying social
processes in depth over time.processes in depth over time.
• It is a flexible technique in which researchIt is a flexible technique in which research
design can be modified at any time.design can be modified at any time.
• It is less complicated.It is less complicated.
• It offers data when respondents are unable orIt offers data when respondents are unable or
unwilling to cooperate for giving information.unwilling to cooperate for giving information.
• It approaches reality in its natural setting andIt approaches reality in its natural setting and
studies events as they evolve.studies events as they evolve.
• It allows collection of wide range of information.It allows collection of wide range of information.

49. Limitations of Observation:Limitations of Observation:
• It cannot be employed when largeIt cannot be employed when large
groups are to be studied.groups are to be studied.
• A subject may intentionally attempt toA subject may intentionally attempt to
exhibit an artificial behaviour whenexhibit an artificial behaviour when
he/she knows that he is beinghe/she knows that he is being
observed.observed.
• Observation method is timeObservation method is time
consuming and sometimes too costly.consuming and sometimes too costly.

50. Types of ObservationTypes of Observation
• On the basis of the ability of observational dataOn the basis of the ability of observational data
to generate useful and researchable in formationto generate useful and researchable in formation
Reiss (1971) divides observation into theReiss (1971) divides observation into the
following two types:following two types:
(a) Systematic Observation(a) Systematic Observation
(b) Unsystematic Observation(b) Unsystematic Observation
• On the basis of role played by the investigator, itOn the basis of role played by the investigator, it
is divided into the following two types:is divided into the following two types:
(a) Participant Observation(a) Participant Observation
(b) Non-participant Observation(b) Non-participant Observation

51. • Systematic ObservationSystematic Observation : Systematic: Systematic
observation refers to those observation inobservation refers to those observation in
which observation is done according towhich observation is done according to
some explicit procedures as well as insome explicit procedures as well as in
accordance with logic of scientificaccordance with logic of scientific
inference.inference.
• Unsystematic Observation:Unsystematic Observation:
Unsystematic observation is a type ofUnsystematic observation is a type of
causal observation made by investigatorcausal observation made by investigator
without specifying any explicit andwithout specifying any explicit and
objective inference.objective inference.

52. • Participant ObservationParticipant Observation : In participant: In participant
observation the investigator actively participatesobservation the investigator actively participates
in the activities of the group to be observed.in the activities of the group to be observed.
Usually, the identity of the observer is not knownUsually, the identity of the observer is not known
to other members of the group (to other members of the group (disguiseddisguised
participant observation). Therefore, the otherparticipant observation). Therefore, the other
members of the group take him as an ordinarymembers of the group take him as an ordinary
member and interact with him in a natural way.member and interact with him in a natural way.
But sometimes the members who are beingBut sometimes the members who are being
observed know that the observer is present forobserved know that the observer is present for
collecting information about them (collecting information about them (undisguisedundisguised
participant observation). The procedure ofparticipant observation). The procedure of
observation in participant observation isobservation in participant observation is
unstructured and the observer has someunstructured and the observer has some
flexibility in deciding what to observe, how toflexibility in deciding what to observe, how to
record it, etc.record it, etc.

53. • Non-participant ObservationNon-participant Observation : Non-: Non-
participant observation is the observationparticipant observation is the observation
in which the investigator observes thein which the investigator observes the
behaviour of other persons in a naturalbehaviour of other persons in a natural
setting but does not participate in thesetting but does not participate in the
activities of the group to be observed. Non-activities of the group to be observed. Non-
participant observation is usuallyparticipant observation is usually
structured and therefore, the observerstructured and therefore, the observer
preplans the likely nature of natural setting,preplans the likely nature of natural setting,
problems associated with the presence ofproblems associated with the presence of
the investigator, etc.the investigator, etc.

54. InterviewInterview
• The interview is a process of interaction orThe interview is a process of interaction or
communication in which the subject orcommunication in which the subject or
interviewee gives the needed informationinterviewee gives the needed information
verbally in a face-to-face situation.verbally in a face-to-face situation.

55. Characteristics of Interview:Characteristics of Interview:
• There is a face-to-face contact,There is a face-to-face contact,
conversational exchange and verbalconversational exchange and verbal
interaction between the interviewer andinteraction between the interviewer and
interviewee.interviewee.
• Questions are asked and responses areQuestions are asked and responses are
received verbally.received verbally.
• Information is recorded by the interviewer.Information is recorded by the interviewer.
• The format of the interview is considerablyThe format of the interview is considerably
flexible.flexible.

56. Techniques of Interviewing:Techniques of Interviewing:
• Preparation for the InterviewPreparation for the Interview
• Execution of the InterviewExecution of the Interview
• Recording of the InterviewRecording of the Interview

57. Rules to be followed during theRules to be followed during the
execution of an Interview (Turney &execution of an Interview (Turney &
Robb, 1971)Robb, 1971)
• Ask only one question at a time.Ask only one question at a time.
• Repeat a question if necessary.Repeat a question if necessary.
• Try to make sure that the subjectTry to make sure that the subject
understands the question.understands the question.
• Listen carefully to the subject’s answers.Listen carefully to the subject’s answers.
• Observe the subject’s facial expressions,Observe the subject’s facial expressions,
gestures, and tone of voice.gestures, and tone of voice.

58. • Allow the subject sufficient time to answerAllow the subject sufficient time to answer
the question, but do not let the interviewthe question, but do not let the interview
drag.drag.
• Avoid suggesting answers to theAvoid suggesting answers to the
questions.questions.
• Do not show signs of surprise, shock,Do not show signs of surprise, shock,
anger, or other emotions if unexpectedanger, or other emotions if unexpected
answers are given.answers are given.
• Maintain a neutral attitude with respect toMaintain a neutral attitude with respect to
controversial issues during the interview.controversial issues during the interview.

59. • Take note of answers that seem to beTake note of answers that seem to be
vague, ambiguous, or evasive.vague, ambiguous, or evasive.
• In the unstructured interview, askIn the unstructured interview, ask
additional questions to follow up clues oradditional questions to follow up clues or
to obtain additional information.to obtain additional information.
• Use tact and skill in getting the subjectUse tact and skill in getting the subject
back to an area of inquiry when he hasback to an area of inquiry when he has
stayed too for from the original question.stayed too for from the original question.

60. Advantages of Interview:Advantages of Interview:
• It provides an opportunity to theIt provides an opportunity to the
interviewer to question thoroughly certaininterviewer to question thoroughly certain
areas of inquiry.areas of inquiry.
• It permits greater depth of response.It permits greater depth of response.
• It enables the interviewer to getIt enables the interviewer to get
information concerning feelings, attitudesinformation concerning feelings, attitudes
or emotions in relation to certainor emotions in relation to certain
questions.questions.
• Interview allows greater flexibility in theInterview allows greater flexibility in the
process of questioning.process of questioning.

61. Disadvantages of Interview:Disadvantages of Interview:
• It is a time consuming technique.It is a time consuming technique.
• The effectiveness of interview depends upon theThe effectiveness of interview depends upon the
skill of interviewer.skill of interviewer.
• There is a constant danger of subjectivity on theThere is a constant danger of subjectivity on the
part of the interviewer.part of the interviewer.
• The interview is most difficult to employThe interview is most difficult to employ
successfully, when some interviewees do notsuccessfully, when some interviewees do not
respond freely, frankly and accurately, for evenrespond freely, frankly and accurately, for even
in the presence of a skilled interviewer.in the presence of a skilled interviewer.

62. Achievement Test:Achievement Test:
• Achievement tests are primarily designed toAchievement tests are primarily designed to
measure the effects of a specific programme ofmeasure the effects of a specific programme of
instruction or training (Anastasi,1968).instruction or training (Anastasi,1968).
• Achievement test, also known as proficiencyAchievement test, also known as proficiency
test, is one which measures the extent to whichtest, is one which measures the extent to which
a person has acquired or achieved certaina person has acquired or achieved certain
information or proficiency as a function ofinformation or proficiency as a function of
instruction or training (Tuckman, 1975).instruction or training (Tuckman, 1975).
• The purpose of achievement test is to evaluateThe purpose of achievement test is to evaluate
what a person has learned.what a person has learned.