Cambridge Technicals study of Digital Media - Research methodologies

1. RESEARCH RESEARCH METHODS + THEORY
QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE

2. RESEARCH
PART1
RESEARCH PARADIGMS: The Basics

3. The Research
Process
Introduction
There are many ways to conduct a research. You often have to adjust your
objectives to the field you’re working in and to the environments and
people you are working with. The field you’re working in could be “website
usability” and the specific environments and persons (informants) you are
working with could be an office environment and its staff.
During this lesson you will work theoretically and practically with two main
types of research processes:
The quantitative research process + the qualitative research process
Literature:
This lesson is based on Klaus Bruhn Jensen’s (et al) (2005):
A Handboook of Media and Communication Research. Routledge.
“The Quantitative Research Process” by Barrie Gunter (chapter 13, p. 209–234).
“The Qualitative Research Process” by Klaus Bruhn Jensen (chapter 14, p. 235–253).
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY

4. Desk Research
Secondary data
Desk research relies on existing data and information published on the net,
in printed magazines or any other valid source (!)
TIP: Reading economy articles, trend news, articles based on web surveys and
reports from cultural and national organisations gives you a good picture
of your target group based on desk research ...
Secondary
Research
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY

5. Basic research is also referred to as field research.Primary
Research
Field Research
Primary data
Field research refers to the collection of new data through primary research.
That means direct contact with people through interviews, focus groups and
surveys.
Bigger and complex surveys are often done by bying this expertise from
companies specialized in conducting effective, reliable surveys.
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY

6. Research
paradigms
Introduction
to the Basic
Concepts
Often there is a mix between the two paradigms:
P R I M A R Y D A T A
Qualitative
Data
S E C O N D A R Y D A T A
• Observations
• Interviews (open questions)
• Movie recording (actively)
• Think aloud test
• Documents
• Notes (from secondary source)
• Letters
• Sound and movie recordings
(other’s material)
• Artifacts (to be interpreted)
• Articles and pictures, etc.
(to be interpreted)
Quantitative
Data
• Closed questions
• Surveys
• Clearly defined objectives
in observations.
• Page traffic
• Statistics
• Registrations
Artifacts like for example letters and movies etc. can be used to support
primary data for some purposes. Statistics can also support qualitative
arguments i user research.
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY

7. Research
Paradigms
Introduction
to the Basic
Concepts
S C O P E Q U A L I T A T I V E M E T H O DQ U A N T I T A T I V E M E T H O D
Examples of investigations Surveys by mail, online or handout Casestudy with interview
General approach Precision: an exact mapping
of the quantitative variation
Empathy: the best understanding
of the qualitative variation
General perspective Width: seek information about as many
quantifiable units as possible
Depth: seek as much information as
possible on a few qualitative units
The purpose of the research Average: seek common,
representative features
Specific: find out what can be said
to be unique and special.
Criteria of methodology Representative: Chosen informants
must represent the target group.
Relevanse: Informants are relevant in
relation to problems and meaning
Design of method Systematic: Survey with closed questions Fleksibilitet: Interview with no clear
answers, dialogue, interaction.
Level of structuration High: The possibilities of answers are laid
out for response. Low flexibility.
Low: Open answers and a variety of
interpretations. High flexibility.
Key concepts of methodology Explanation: How. How many.
Who does what. Causal explanations.
Understanding: Why. Who thinks what
about ... Meanings and attitudes
Example of web research
and possible methods/tools
How many are using the site?
What are the user patterns?:
Google analytics combined with a survey
designed for representative users.
What motivates the target group to visit
the website and buy products? What are
their preferences for colour, menus etc?:
Think aloud tests and focus groups.
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY

8. Research
Paradigms
Introduction
to the Basic
Concepts
The Basic Concepts in Quantitative Research
The Quantitative approach to research is based on the scientific tradition
of studying aspects of human reality with empirical proof.
Research in anthropology, economics, geography, linguistics, history, polital
science etc. can often be done by initially measuring hard facts.
Quantitative research often aims at closed questions—questions your
respondents can answer yes or no to; questions that are very narrow defined.
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

9. Quantitative
Research
Introduction
to the Basic
Concepts
Examples
Numbers: You can measure how many women there are in a room
and you can measure how many men there are.
Specific actions: You can measure people’s actions (but not why they do it!)
Opinions: You can measure people’s opinions by asking closed questions:
“Do you think our prime minister will win the next election?”
This question would be followed up by additional (anonymous) information
from the informant: gender, age, city etc.
You can use these data as valuable information in your research objective.
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY
Assignment
See usibilia.com … What is this?
See surveymonkey.com … What is this?
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

10. Research
Paradigms
Introduction
to the Basic
Concepts
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY
The Basic Concepts in Qualitative Research
The qualitative approach to conducting research has for many years been
the ‘soft’ area of science.
The qualitative aspects deals also with observable facts, but not always the
same ‘hard’, measurable emperical facts that is the focus for quantitative
research.
Qualitative reseach investigates the concept of meaning, its embedding
in and orientation of social actions. It is the connection between meaning and
action—for example as performed inside media contexts—that tells us how we
are, how we think and act in a realistic context.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

11. Qualitative
Research
Introduction
to the Basic
Concepts
Examples: Designing Qualitative Research: Interviews
To design an emperical study is to identify and delimit a portion of reality
(Jensen 2005: 237). Ask into why instead of what.
Respondent interviews: The informant is percieved as a representative of
a social and cultural category. This can be a key to the decoding of the user‐
pattern in relation to user behaviour (think aloud test for example).
Group interviews: In order to explore what goes on in a more or less
naturalistic social setting, a group can form the basis for discussions, that
explore aspects of a product credibity, of lifestyles, advertisements etc.
Focus groups: Gathering a specific type of users, this kind of interviewing is
often based on the strategy of getting to know attitudes toward a product or
political and ethical issues. Again, it’s why instead of what.
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

12. Qualitative
Research
Introduction
to the Basic
Concepts
Designing for Research
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY
Assignment
See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_focus_group … What is this?
What are the pros and cons in online and offline qualitative surveys?
Is a think aloud test a qualitative or a quantitative survey method?
Or can it be both? Why?

13. RESEARCH
PART2
RESEARCH PARADIGMS: Variables and Concepts

14. Research
Variables
and Concepts
Variables
The basic part of the research process is the notion of the variable.
Variables are in this context the emperical representation of a concept.
Man, woman, number of …, high/low, happy, not happy etc.
Variables provide operational measures that can be
quantified and manipulated by researchers.
The concepts of gender, age, economics, and personal behaviour are
variables that you can measure. These variables must be described in
further detail as concepts and/or constructs (see the next slides)
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY

15. Research
Variables
and Concepts
Variables and Concepts
A concept represents an abstract idea that embodies the nature of
observable phenomenon, or an interpretation of why such phenomea occur.
For example, individuals may be differentiated in terms of their use of
media: What you define as a “active user” could be distinguished from what
you define as a “passive user” (in questions based on how often a specific
media or an application is used).
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY
Media usage can be linked to explain different behavioual patterns:
Media usage becomes an explanatory concept (Jensen 2005: 210).

16. Research
Variables
and Concepts
Single‐Concept Example (Media Usage as Behavioural Patterns)
The observable phenomenon:
More and more people over the age of 65 use FaceBook (FB).
source/desk research:
http://www.insidefacebook.com/2009/12/11/facebook‐a‐top‐destination‐for‐users‐over‐65/
The concept I want to use:
What is it to be “user”—it’s a bit too vague a concept! Just because you have a
FB account you’re not always active. I find it interesting to investigate the
single concept of the “active user” in the age group 65+.
First, I define the concept of a “user” by describing precisely what this implies
in relation to skills in the use of FB. Second, I suggest the number of visits on
FB per day in order for one to be a “active user” of FB.
Objective: How many “active users” in the age group 65+ are there on FB in
Denmark alone. I base this on my concept, my problem statement and on a
sampling of informants (say, 1000 FB‐users in the age group 65+)
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY

17. Research
Variables
and Concepts
(Constructs)
Constructs (Combined Concept Example)
A construct comprises a combination of concepts.
This term can be used as a way of defining characteristics or actions
of individuals that are associated with their personality type.
For example, one personality type is defined as a range of sensation‐
seeking individuals: High‐sensation seekers generally need higher levels of
environmental stimulation than low‐sensation seekers.
High‐sensation seekers may be described by a series of other concepts as:
sociability, tolerance for strong stimulation, risk‐taking etc.
Constructs have a dimensional quality, so that individuals may be
classified (in this example) as high or low on the personality dimension
of sensation‐seeking (Jensen 2005: 210).
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY

18. Research
Variables
and Concepts
(Constructs)
Variables, Concepts and Constructs: Example
In other words: The variables get more substantial when they are applied
to a) a concept and b) a construct.
Example: Gender is interesting because of the construct of the differences
between certain actions of men and women, say, buying actions. It’s not just a
single concept you can establish without any goals for your research.
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY

19. Research
Variables
and Concepts
Independent and dependent variables
Variables can be further defined in terms of their relationship with each other.
Before the research: The independent variable (concept/construct) can be
manipulated by the researcher—it is meant to produce some measurable
response or outcome.
You design your variables (concept/construct/attributes) to fit your objective, for
example light user, active user etc.
After the research: The dependent variable is the measure of the response or
outcome. It is the obtained data which is treated as information.
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY

20. Research
Variables
and Concepts
Reliability and validity
Another important aim of a research is to determine its reliability.
To meet the demands for reliability and validity, you can …
 repeate evidence/tests to show similar results over time
or in another context.
 differentiate between the respondent (age, gender, education, etc.)
 explain accurately how and why you conduct your research.
 use good internal validity: the design of the research process must be free
from theoretical and methodological errors. Use validated theory.
The reliability concerns the dependability and consistency of the relationship
in one or between more variables. The validity indicates whether a measure
properly captures the meaning of the concept or construct it represents.
(Jensen 2005: 212).
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY

21. RESEARCH
PART3
RESEARCH PARADIGMS: More on Methods

22. Research
Survey
Methods
The Survey: Field Research
A descriptive survey simply attempts to document current conditions.
Public opinion polls, for example, can rovide information about people’s
present attitudes on a specified topic. The concept of “fear of terrorism” can
be constructed through a variety of constructs from “no fear” to “very afraid,”
and the survey can gain answers from different age groups. The outcome is
descriptive and can of course be used as an initial research narrowing down a
target group.
Analytical surveys also collect descriptive data, but attempt to go on to
examine relationships among variables in order to test research hypotheses.
A survey may assess the impact of an advertising campaign on public
awareness of a brand and changes in the market’s share of a product. Such
explantory surveys can also research social effects in‐ and because of media.
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY

23. Research
Survey
Methods
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY
The Survey: Field Research, Observing and Coding
Thick description: The thick description means that when you observe a
situation, you use means of gathering data that accounts for everyhing.
You could use movie‐recording devices and then later describe artefacts as
well as actions. This can lead to a very detailed description of an
environment and the interpretation of the actions.
Coding: The coding means fixating and capturing certain qualities of the
units, i.e. person/persons, texts, events (or other unit), you are observing.
For example can the thematic coding (concept variable) function as an
important objective to make way for interpretations and for applying
abstract theory of culture and perception.

24. Research
Survey
Methods
The Survey: Field Research
Telephone interviews:
You can accomplish the data very quickly and directly.
It is cheap to conduct
The respondents can be reached globally.
Face‐to‐face interviews:
Short interviews as well as longer interviews can be conducted,
i.e. in a shopping mall or in a home.
Video‐ and audio techniques can be used.
Better personal credibility can be achieved by personal interview.
Web‐/mail‐/online‐ or paper questionnaire:
Simple forms can be filled out by respondents. By using web or mail the
statistical answers will be easy to monitor quickly afterwards.
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY

25. Quantitative
Research
The Survey
Describing Data
Links: See more on percentage calculation here …
http://www.math.com/everyone/calculators/calc_source/percent.htm
http://www.easycalculation.com/statistics/statistics.php
http://www.euromonitor.com/
 Don’t panic!
If you use an online survey tool all the calculations are done for you.
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY

26. Research
An Overview
1. The hypothesis Propose that if an independent variable is assumed to have a certain strength, it may be
expected to exert a measurable impact on a designated dependent variable. Then it can be
tested, if this hypothesis can be proved or disproved. (Jensen 2005: 212).
2. The Variable … is gender, age, nationality etc.
… is the empirical representation of a phenomenon (like trends) …
Concept and a… Construct (combination of concepts)
A concept represents
an abstract idea that
embodies the nature of
observable phenomena,
or an interpretation of
why such phenomea
occur. (Jensen, 2005)
Example: Individuals
are defined in terms of
their use of a media.
You define the notions
of a “light user” and a
“heavy user” based on
media types, levels of
defined usage etc.
(Jensen, 2005)
A combination of concepts used to define the
characteristics of the individual users as
grouped in concepts (in the example).
Heavy users may be described by such
concepts as sociability, tolerance for strong
stimulation, risk‐taking etc. (Jensen, 2005).
3. Independent Variables
… can be manipulated by the
researcher.
… means the way the research
process is constructed to measure
a response. (Jensen, 2005)
4. Dependent Variables
… is the measure of the
outcome of the research
based on its construct and its
dependent variables, i.e. it is
the information created by the
variables and the hypothesis.
(Jensen, 2005)
Beforethe researchAfterthe researchRESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY
Qualitative and/or quantitative research design

27. Research
The Survey
Example
Let’s visit
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MFbmHDs7TmI …
… and have a talk about this type of survey and its components.
Variables? Concepts? Independent variables/dependent variables?
Qualitative, quantitative, mix, goal, interpretation?
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY

28. Assignment USABILITY TESTS—design a survey of a user experience
T E S T I N G
1. Make a test of a website or a mobile application: Heuristics.
2. What is your hypothesis as a media designer, based on your initial test,
on usability in relation to the concepts: navigation, readability and design?
3. Work with these valid concepts in relation to:
the attitudes toward the visual design (qualitative method)
the ability to read the text (quantitative method).
Interview two, three or more people (Who? / why?)
4. Record, write down, observe etc. (how? / why?)
Present according to the template on the next slide →
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY

29. Assignment USABILITY TESTS—design a survey of a user experience
R E P O R T I N G (validating your results)
1. Summary of the main results with conclusion.
2. Introduction:
hypothesis, problems and research questions, concepts in use.
3. Describtion of method/methods:
A mix of quantative and qualitative approaches? How? Focus?
Independent and dependent variables? Your unique research design?
4. Observations and results, focus points.
Pie chart templates may be used.
5. Conclusion (short, recap on 1)
6. Recommendations for improvements of media.
Source: Munk & Mørk (2002): Brugervenlighed på internettet.. Samfundslitteratur.
RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY