The document discusses and compares several models for guiding students through the research process, including the Big 6 model, I-Search model, and Scientific Inquiry model. It analyzes each model and recommends which is best suited for different grade levels: the Scientific Inquiry model for elementary school, the Big 6 model for middle school, and the I-Search model for high school. Key similarities across the models include addressing problem identification, information seeking, gathering and organizing information, and presenting findings. Differences relate to the specific steps and emphasis on hands-on inquiry versus self-reflection.
This document discusses various topics related to research methods, including:
- The difference between applied and basic research, with basic research focusing on expanding knowledge without immediate commercial goals and applied research seeking to solve specific problems.
- Key hallmarks of scientific research, such as having a clear purpose, rigorous methodology, testable hypotheses, replicable results, objective conclusions, and generalizability.
- The scientific method process of observation, hypothesis, prediction, experiment, and conclusion to systematically investigate topics and reach new understandings. Tomato plant growth in relation to sunlight is used as an example to explain the different steps.
Practical Research 2: Quantitative ResearchER Baguinaon
The document discusses quantitative research methods. It explains that quantitative research is used to collect and analyze numerical data to test hypotheses and examine relationships and trends in a population. Some key points covered include:
- Quantitative research relies on numbers and statistics to understand a topic. It is used when numbers can represent changes or when testing a hypothesis.
- Examples of when to use quantitative research include needing a quantified answer, studying a large population through representative samples, or testing a hypothesis using statistics.
- Various quantitative research types are described such as descriptive, correlational, causal-comparative, and experimental designs.
- Steps of quantitative research discussed include determining variables, developing hypotheses, selecting samples, collecting numerical data, and
This slideshow was created with images from the web. I claim no copyright or ownership of any images. If a copyright owner of any image objects to the use in this slideshow, contact me to remove it. This is for a course in Introductory Psychology using Wayne Weiten's "Psychology: Themes and Variations" 8th ed. Published by Cengage. Images from the text are copyrighted by Cengage.
This assignment is related with the introduction to research methods. it gives an over view and brief introduction of research, types of researches, methods to collect research data. useful for research students of business management, commerce studies, social work and for general over view to understand research.
The document discusses different sociological research methods:
- The scientific method refers to a systematic series of steps to ensure objective and consistent research on a problem. It involves defining the problem, formulating a hypothesis, developing a research design, collecting and analyzing data, and drawing conclusions.
- A survey method involves systematically asking people questions about their attitudes, behaviors, etc. using questionnaires.
- A case study method is an in-depth study of a person, group, or organization using methods like interviews and observations to collect qualitative data.
This document discusses the key steps in the research process. It begins with identifying a broad topic of interest and narrowing it down to a specific research problem. The researcher then develops a theoretical framework and hypotheses. Next, they design their research with a methodology like surveys, experiments, or case studies. Data is collected and analyzed to test the hypotheses. Finally, results are reported and can inform managerial decision making. The overall process is iterative, with preliminary research informing problem definition and hypothesis generation before data collection and analysis provide answers.
A good research question is the most important element of any research paper. How can you come up with an interesting and meaningful research question? This SlideShare will give you step-by-step guidelines along with the explanation of some basic concepts you should consider while defining your research question. Moreover, it will hand you with some tests such as PICOT, PESICO, and FINER, which will give you a structured method to frame your question. Thus, you will be equipped to put your hypothesis on paper confidently.
The document discusses and compares several models for guiding students through the research process, including the Big 6 model, I-Search model, and Scientific Inquiry model. It analyzes each model and recommends which is best suited for different grade levels: the Scientific Inquiry model for elementary school, the Big 6 model for middle school, and the I-Search model for high school. Key similarities across the models include addressing problem identification, information seeking, gathering and organizing information, and presenting findings. Differences relate to the specific steps and emphasis on hands-on inquiry versus self-reflection.
This document discusses various topics related to research methods, including:
- The difference between applied and basic research, with basic research focusing on expanding knowledge without immediate commercial goals and applied research seeking to solve specific problems.
- Key hallmarks of scientific research, such as having a clear purpose, rigorous methodology, testable hypotheses, replicable results, objective conclusions, and generalizability.
- The scientific method process of observation, hypothesis, prediction, experiment, and conclusion to systematically investigate topics and reach new understandings. Tomato plant growth in relation to sunlight is used as an example to explain the different steps.
Practical Research 2: Quantitative ResearchER Baguinaon
The document discusses quantitative research methods. It explains that quantitative research is used to collect and analyze numerical data to test hypotheses and examine relationships and trends in a population. Some key points covered include:
- Quantitative research relies on numbers and statistics to understand a topic. It is used when numbers can represent changes or when testing a hypothesis.
- Examples of when to use quantitative research include needing a quantified answer, studying a large population through representative samples, or testing a hypothesis using statistics.
- Various quantitative research types are described such as descriptive, correlational, causal-comparative, and experimental designs.
- Steps of quantitative research discussed include determining variables, developing hypotheses, selecting samples, collecting numerical data, and
This slideshow was created with images from the web. I claim no copyright or ownership of any images. If a copyright owner of any image objects to the use in this slideshow, contact me to remove it. This is for a course in Introductory Psychology using Wayne Weiten's "Psychology: Themes and Variations" 8th ed. Published by Cengage. Images from the text are copyrighted by Cengage.
This assignment is related with the introduction to research methods. it gives an over view and brief introduction of research, types of researches, methods to collect research data. useful for research students of business management, commerce studies, social work and for general over view to understand research.
The document discusses different sociological research methods:
- The scientific method refers to a systematic series of steps to ensure objective and consistent research on a problem. It involves defining the problem, formulating a hypothesis, developing a research design, collecting and analyzing data, and drawing conclusions.
- A survey method involves systematically asking people questions about their attitudes, behaviors, etc. using questionnaires.
- A case study method is an in-depth study of a person, group, or organization using methods like interviews and observations to collect qualitative data.
This document discusses the key steps in the research process. It begins with identifying a broad topic of interest and narrowing it down to a specific research problem. The researcher then develops a theoretical framework and hypotheses. Next, they design their research with a methodology like surveys, experiments, or case studies. Data is collected and analyzed to test the hypotheses. Finally, results are reported and can inform managerial decision making. The overall process is iterative, with preliminary research informing problem definition and hypothesis generation before data collection and analysis provide answers.
A good research question is the most important element of any research paper. How can you come up with an interesting and meaningful research question? This SlideShare will give you step-by-step guidelines along with the explanation of some basic concepts you should consider while defining your research question. Moreover, it will hand you with some tests such as PICOT, PESICO, and FINER, which will give you a structured method to frame your question. Thus, you will be equipped to put your hypothesis on paper confidently.
Problem formulation in_social_science_researchInaam Akhtar
This document discusses problem formulation in social science research. It states that properly defining the research problem is the most important first step. Some key aspects discussed include identifying potential research topics and problems through reviewing literature, observing phenomena, theories, and other sources. Components of a good research problem are identified as having an individual/group with a difficulty, objectives, alternative means of achieving objectives, and an environment where the problem occurs. Techniques for selecting a problem include choosing topics not overly researched and formulating specific research questions. The purpose, types (what, why, how), and techniques for developing good research questions are also outlined.
This document provides an overview of research methodology in public health and life sciences. It discusses key concepts like the meaning of research and health systems research. It outlines the importance of research, roles of health research, and desirable qualities of researchers. It also covers research phases, types of research like descriptive vs analytical and qualitative vs quantitative. It discusses classifying health research and finding research problems. The document aims to introduce important foundations for conducting research in public health.
This document discusses selecting and formulating a research problem. It outlines criteria for selecting a problem such as the researcher's interest and competence, the problem's importance and feasibility. Sources of research problems are also discussed. The document provides guidance on grilling a potential problem by asking questions. Dos and don'ts of problem selection are presented. Steps in formulating the problem are outlined, including stating it generally, understanding its nature, surveying literature, and developing objectives. Main steps of conducting research are also summarized.
1. There are many reasons why people conduct research, including to add to the body of existing knowledge, solve problems, understand what happens when new technologies are introduced, find evidence to inform practices, and gain a better understanding of people and the world.
2. Research can produce different types of knowledge outcomes, such as new or improved products, new theories, reinterpretations of existing theories, and in-depth studies of particular situations.
3. Potential research topics can emerge from personal experiences or opportunities, and ideas can come from suggestions within academic departments, past student work, recent publications, current events, and identifying gaps where assumptions have been made without evidence. Feasibility, scope, resources, and ability to
Observational techniques involve observing people in natural settings using either participant or nonparticipant observation. They are useful for understanding experiences from the viewpoint of those living it. Observational techniques allow researchers to move from thin to thick descriptions that provide context and meanings behind behaviors. They are also useful for studying quickly changing situations. Researchers must consider their observer role and any ethical issues when using observational techniques.
The document discusses different types of research design including exploratory, descriptive, and causal research. It provides details on exploratory research, which aims to gain initial insights and identify objectives or data needs. Qualitative research techniques that are appropriate for exploratory studies include focus groups, interviews, projective techniques, observation, and ethnographies. These qualitative methods are described in more detail in the document.
Babitha's Note on Research Problem & ObjectivesBabitha Devu
A research problem statement is an enigmatic stage for an emerging scholar. This presentation will help to brush up your skills when you state a good research question.
This document provides an overview of research basics. It begins by outlining the objectives, introduction, and subject matter of research. It then defines research and lists 10 definitions from various sources. It describes the characteristics of research and objectives of research in general as well as the specific objectives of research in commerce and management. It discusses the motivation for research, including curiosity, finding cause-and-effect relationships, interest in novel events, and refining research techniques. Overall, the document provides foundational information on the meaning, process, objectives, and motivations behind conducting research.
This document provides an overview of critical appraisal of qualitative research. It discusses what characterizes qualitative research, including that it aims to provide an in-depth understanding of human experiences through inductive and contextual methods. Key aspects of rigor in qualitative research are described, such as using triangulation, reflexivity, multiple coding, and respondent validation. Checklists for critically appraising qualitative research focus on questions like whether the sample and data collection were appropriate, if data analysis was rigorous, and if ethical issues were adequately addressed. The importance of assessing relevance and coherence is also highlighted for evaluating qualitative studies.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in research methodology. It discusses the meaning of research as a systematic process of discovering new facts. The document outlines different types of research including descriptive vs analytical, applied vs fundamental, quantitative vs qualitative, conceptual vs empirical. It also discusses research objectives such as exploratory, descriptive, diagnostic and hypothesis testing studies. The document emphasizes the importance of research for advancing knowledge and addressing practical problems. It distinguishes between research methods, which are techniques for collecting and analyzing data, and research methodology, which is the systematic process of solving a research problem.
This document outlines an education and training project at the University of Derby. It includes an agenda for the project that covers introductions, professionalism, action research, and choosing an area of research. It provides guidance on selecting a research topic by considering issues in one's work, defining objectives and research questions, and determining appropriate research approaches and methods. The document discusses what research is, different types of research, and action research specifically. It also addresses research values and ethics. The goal of the project appears to be helping practitioners learn how to conduct action research on issues in their own work.
The document discusses six ways to acquire knowledge:
1. Tenacity - Acquiring knowledge through habit or superstition without a mechanism for error correction.
2. Intuition - Acquiring knowledge through guesses or hunches that can be misleading without a way to determine accuracy.
3. Authority - Unquestioningly accepting knowledge from respected sources without a way to validate it.
4. Rationalism - Using logical reasoning which can reach incorrect conclusions if premises or steps are flawed.
5. Empiricism - Acquiring knowledge through subjective experience alone which lacks control and ignores unobserved cases.
6. Science - Acquiring knowledge through objective evidence and testing of hypotheses according to a standardized procedure open to scrutiny
I’m a young Pakistani Blogger, Academic Writer, Freelancer, Quaidian & MPhil Scholar, Quote Lover, Co-Founder at Essar Student Fund & Blueprism Academia, belonging from Mehdiabad, Skardu, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan.
I am an academic writer & freelancer! I can work on Research Paper, Thesis Writing, Academic Research, Research Project, Proposals, Assignments, Business Plans, and Case study research.
Expertise:
Management Sciences, Business Management, Marketing, HRM, Banking, Business Marketing, Corporate Finance, International Business Management
For Order Online:
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Portfolio Link: https://blueprismacademia.wordpress.com/
Email: arguni.hasnain@gmail.com
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This document provides an overview of managing research. It discusses the structure of the course, which will examine definitions of research, approaches, and the research process. The assessment will be a research proposal. It defines research and discusses types including exploratory, descriptive, analytical, and predictive. It also covers research approaches such as quantitative vs qualitative and pure vs applied. Deductive research moves from general to specific while inductive produces rules from observations. Finally, it discusses research philosophies including positivism and phenomenology.
Problem (how to form good research question)metalkid132
The document discusses how to form a good research question. It outlines the importance of having a well-defined research question and lists characteristics of effective questions such as being answerable, specific, and building on previous research. The document also provides guidance on developing a research question by selecting a topic and issue and determining if a topic can be researched. It describes how to transform a research question into testable hypotheses and common mistakes to avoid such as questions being too broad, subjective, controversial, familiar, or technical.
This document provides information about how sociologists conduct research, including the steps they take to decide what to study, collect data, and analyze their findings. It discusses 1) how sociologists choose research topics based on their interests, current debates, and practical considerations like time and funding, 2) common methods for collecting data such as questionnaires, interviews, observations, case studies and longitudinal studies, and 3) important considerations for sociologists in collecting a sample and ensuring it is representative of the overall population. The document also defines key terms and concepts in sociological research.
The document discusses the process of selecting, refining, and defining research problems. It begins by distinguishing between a research topic (a broad area of interest) and a research problem (a specific unsatisfactory situation that requires investigation). A good research problem identifies a knowledge gap within the research topic. The document provides examples of how to write a problem statement, research purpose statement, and research question. It also discusses developing a research hypothesis and the different types of hypotheses. The overall process involves narrowing a topic to a clearly defined research problem.
This document provides an overview of research methodology. It discusses key concepts such as the meaning of research, objectives of research, types of research including descriptive vs analytical and quantitative vs qualitative, and significance of research. The main types of research covered are descriptive research which aims to describe the current state, analytical research which evaluates facts to make a critical assessment, applied research which aims to solve practical problems, and fundamental research which adds to the body of scientific knowledge. Quantitative research is based on measurement while qualitative research investigates underlying reasons for behaviors.
The systematic investigation into and study of materials, sources, etc, in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions. Research is what we do when we have a question or a problem we want to resolve. Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict and control the observed phenomenon. The first module highlights an overview of all concepts adopted in Research.
UNIT-1 BRM marketing to my career to solar.pptxJANNU VINAY
This document provides an overview of research, including definitions, objectives, significance, and process. It defines research as a systematic and organized way to find answers to questions through scientific investigation and discovery of new facts. The objectives of research are exploratory, descriptive, diagnostic, and hypothesis testing. Research is significant as it contributes to new knowledge, supports decision-making, improves practices, helps solve problems, and enhances quality of life. The research process involves problem formulation, literature review, developing hypotheses, research design, data collection and analysis, and reporting findings.
The document provides an overview of exploratory research and descriptive research. It defines exploratory research as research used to investigate problems that are not clearly defined in order to better understand the problem but not provide conclusive results. Descriptive research aims to accurately describe populations, situations, or phenomena. The document outlines the characteristics, methods, advantages, and disadvantages of both exploratory and descriptive research.
Problem formulation in_social_science_researchInaam Akhtar
This document discusses problem formulation in social science research. It states that properly defining the research problem is the most important first step. Some key aspects discussed include identifying potential research topics and problems through reviewing literature, observing phenomena, theories, and other sources. Components of a good research problem are identified as having an individual/group with a difficulty, objectives, alternative means of achieving objectives, and an environment where the problem occurs. Techniques for selecting a problem include choosing topics not overly researched and formulating specific research questions. The purpose, types (what, why, how), and techniques for developing good research questions are also outlined.
This document provides an overview of research methodology in public health and life sciences. It discusses key concepts like the meaning of research and health systems research. It outlines the importance of research, roles of health research, and desirable qualities of researchers. It also covers research phases, types of research like descriptive vs analytical and qualitative vs quantitative. It discusses classifying health research and finding research problems. The document aims to introduce important foundations for conducting research in public health.
This document discusses selecting and formulating a research problem. It outlines criteria for selecting a problem such as the researcher's interest and competence, the problem's importance and feasibility. Sources of research problems are also discussed. The document provides guidance on grilling a potential problem by asking questions. Dos and don'ts of problem selection are presented. Steps in formulating the problem are outlined, including stating it generally, understanding its nature, surveying literature, and developing objectives. Main steps of conducting research are also summarized.
1. There are many reasons why people conduct research, including to add to the body of existing knowledge, solve problems, understand what happens when new technologies are introduced, find evidence to inform practices, and gain a better understanding of people and the world.
2. Research can produce different types of knowledge outcomes, such as new or improved products, new theories, reinterpretations of existing theories, and in-depth studies of particular situations.
3. Potential research topics can emerge from personal experiences or opportunities, and ideas can come from suggestions within academic departments, past student work, recent publications, current events, and identifying gaps where assumptions have been made without evidence. Feasibility, scope, resources, and ability to
Observational techniques involve observing people in natural settings using either participant or nonparticipant observation. They are useful for understanding experiences from the viewpoint of those living it. Observational techniques allow researchers to move from thin to thick descriptions that provide context and meanings behind behaviors. They are also useful for studying quickly changing situations. Researchers must consider their observer role and any ethical issues when using observational techniques.
The document discusses different types of research design including exploratory, descriptive, and causal research. It provides details on exploratory research, which aims to gain initial insights and identify objectives or data needs. Qualitative research techniques that are appropriate for exploratory studies include focus groups, interviews, projective techniques, observation, and ethnographies. These qualitative methods are described in more detail in the document.
Babitha's Note on Research Problem & ObjectivesBabitha Devu
A research problem statement is an enigmatic stage for an emerging scholar. This presentation will help to brush up your skills when you state a good research question.
This document provides an overview of research basics. It begins by outlining the objectives, introduction, and subject matter of research. It then defines research and lists 10 definitions from various sources. It describes the characteristics of research and objectives of research in general as well as the specific objectives of research in commerce and management. It discusses the motivation for research, including curiosity, finding cause-and-effect relationships, interest in novel events, and refining research techniques. Overall, the document provides foundational information on the meaning, process, objectives, and motivations behind conducting research.
This document provides an overview of critical appraisal of qualitative research. It discusses what characterizes qualitative research, including that it aims to provide an in-depth understanding of human experiences through inductive and contextual methods. Key aspects of rigor in qualitative research are described, such as using triangulation, reflexivity, multiple coding, and respondent validation. Checklists for critically appraising qualitative research focus on questions like whether the sample and data collection were appropriate, if data analysis was rigorous, and if ethical issues were adequately addressed. The importance of assessing relevance and coherence is also highlighted for evaluating qualitative studies.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in research methodology. It discusses the meaning of research as a systematic process of discovering new facts. The document outlines different types of research including descriptive vs analytical, applied vs fundamental, quantitative vs qualitative, conceptual vs empirical. It also discusses research objectives such as exploratory, descriptive, diagnostic and hypothesis testing studies. The document emphasizes the importance of research for advancing knowledge and addressing practical problems. It distinguishes between research methods, which are techniques for collecting and analyzing data, and research methodology, which is the systematic process of solving a research problem.
This document outlines an education and training project at the University of Derby. It includes an agenda for the project that covers introductions, professionalism, action research, and choosing an area of research. It provides guidance on selecting a research topic by considering issues in one's work, defining objectives and research questions, and determining appropriate research approaches and methods. The document discusses what research is, different types of research, and action research specifically. It also addresses research values and ethics. The goal of the project appears to be helping practitioners learn how to conduct action research on issues in their own work.
The document discusses six ways to acquire knowledge:
1. Tenacity - Acquiring knowledge through habit or superstition without a mechanism for error correction.
2. Intuition - Acquiring knowledge through guesses or hunches that can be misleading without a way to determine accuracy.
3. Authority - Unquestioningly accepting knowledge from respected sources without a way to validate it.
4. Rationalism - Using logical reasoning which can reach incorrect conclusions if premises or steps are flawed.
5. Empiricism - Acquiring knowledge through subjective experience alone which lacks control and ignores unobserved cases.
6. Science - Acquiring knowledge through objective evidence and testing of hypotheses according to a standardized procedure open to scrutiny
I’m a young Pakistani Blogger, Academic Writer, Freelancer, Quaidian & MPhil Scholar, Quote Lover, Co-Founder at Essar Student Fund & Blueprism Academia, belonging from Mehdiabad, Skardu, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan.
I am an academic writer & freelancer! I can work on Research Paper, Thesis Writing, Academic Research, Research Project, Proposals, Assignments, Business Plans, and Case study research.
Expertise:
Management Sciences, Business Management, Marketing, HRM, Banking, Business Marketing, Corporate Finance, International Business Management
For Order Online:
Whatsapp: +923452502478
Portfolio Link: https://blueprismacademia.wordpress.com/
Email: arguni.hasnain@gmail.com
Follow Me:
Linkedin: arguni_hasnain
Instagram : arguni.hasnain
Facebook: arguni.hasnain
This document provides an overview of managing research. It discusses the structure of the course, which will examine definitions of research, approaches, and the research process. The assessment will be a research proposal. It defines research and discusses types including exploratory, descriptive, analytical, and predictive. It also covers research approaches such as quantitative vs qualitative and pure vs applied. Deductive research moves from general to specific while inductive produces rules from observations. Finally, it discusses research philosophies including positivism and phenomenology.
Problem (how to form good research question)metalkid132
The document discusses how to form a good research question. It outlines the importance of having a well-defined research question and lists characteristics of effective questions such as being answerable, specific, and building on previous research. The document also provides guidance on developing a research question by selecting a topic and issue and determining if a topic can be researched. It describes how to transform a research question into testable hypotheses and common mistakes to avoid such as questions being too broad, subjective, controversial, familiar, or technical.
This document provides information about how sociologists conduct research, including the steps they take to decide what to study, collect data, and analyze their findings. It discusses 1) how sociologists choose research topics based on their interests, current debates, and practical considerations like time and funding, 2) common methods for collecting data such as questionnaires, interviews, observations, case studies and longitudinal studies, and 3) important considerations for sociologists in collecting a sample and ensuring it is representative of the overall population. The document also defines key terms and concepts in sociological research.
The document discusses the process of selecting, refining, and defining research problems. It begins by distinguishing between a research topic (a broad area of interest) and a research problem (a specific unsatisfactory situation that requires investigation). A good research problem identifies a knowledge gap within the research topic. The document provides examples of how to write a problem statement, research purpose statement, and research question. It also discusses developing a research hypothesis and the different types of hypotheses. The overall process involves narrowing a topic to a clearly defined research problem.
This document provides an overview of research methodology. It discusses key concepts such as the meaning of research, objectives of research, types of research including descriptive vs analytical and quantitative vs qualitative, and significance of research. The main types of research covered are descriptive research which aims to describe the current state, analytical research which evaluates facts to make a critical assessment, applied research which aims to solve practical problems, and fundamental research which adds to the body of scientific knowledge. Quantitative research is based on measurement while qualitative research investigates underlying reasons for behaviors.
The systematic investigation into and study of materials, sources, etc, in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions. Research is what we do when we have a question or a problem we want to resolve. Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict and control the observed phenomenon. The first module highlights an overview of all concepts adopted in Research.
UNIT-1 BRM marketing to my career to solar.pptxJANNU VINAY
This document provides an overview of research, including definitions, objectives, significance, and process. It defines research as a systematic and organized way to find answers to questions through scientific investigation and discovery of new facts. The objectives of research are exploratory, descriptive, diagnostic, and hypothesis testing. Research is significant as it contributes to new knowledge, supports decision-making, improves practices, helps solve problems, and enhances quality of life. The research process involves problem formulation, literature review, developing hypotheses, research design, data collection and analysis, and reporting findings.
The document provides an overview of exploratory research and descriptive research. It defines exploratory research as research used to investigate problems that are not clearly defined in order to better understand the problem but not provide conclusive results. Descriptive research aims to accurately describe populations, situations, or phenomena. The document outlines the characteristics, methods, advantages, and disadvantages of both exploratory and descriptive research.
The document discusses key elements and steps of the research process. It begins by defining research and different types of research problems. It then outlines the seven steps of the research process: 1) identifying a research problem, 2) formulating a hypothesis, 3) reviewing related literature, 4) preparing a research design, 5) conducting actual experimentation, 6) analyzing results and discussion, and 7) formulating conclusions and recommendations. The document also discusses types of research including exploratory, descriptive, and causal research. It concludes by outlining key elements that should be included in any research paper such as an abstract, introduction, literature review, methodology, body, results, discussion, conclusion, and citations.
This document provides an introduction to research. It defines research as a systematic process used to answer questions and expand knowledge. Research is organized, systematic, and aims to find answers to questions. It discusses the importance of research in today's society. It also explains key aspects of research such as being empirical, logical, and replicable. The document outlines different types of qualitative and quantitative research methods. Finally, it discusses several areas of research interest such as arts-based research, humanities research, sports research, science research, and business research.
ACTIVITY 1
Chosen Research Design: Qualitative
Why do you think this design is appropriate to your research interest?
Based on my understanding of qualitative research, I believe it can be appropriate for certain types of research questions. In my view, qualitative research is particularly useful for exploring complex phenomena, gaining insights into people's experiences and perspectives, and developing theory. I also recognize that it can be valuable in applied settings, such as healthcare or social work, where understanding people's experiences is crucial for improving practice.
Guide Questions
1. Did you remember the research design listed in the table?
YES, I have remembered all the research design listed in the table.
2. What other research designs did you recall which is/ are not listed in the table?
Longitudinal Study
Cross-sectional Study
Survey Research
Action Research
Participatory Action Research
Grounded Theory
Ethnographic Research
3. Was it easy or hard to determine the research design to be used in your selected topic or interest?
For me, it is easy because in the first place I already have an idea where to start. I believe when you select a topic, you already considered what design you will use.
4. What are the factors that you consider in selecting a research design for your study?
As a researcher, I must consider various factors when selecting a qualitative research design for my study. These include the research question, the purpose of the study, the nature of the phenomenon being studied, and the available resources and time frame. Additionally, I must reflect on my own philosophical and theoretical perspectives to ensure that the chosen design aligns with my worldview and research goals.
Reflection
How does research design make your study colorful/ interesting?
As a researcher, I have come to appreciate how qualitative research design can add color and interest to a study. By using methods such as open-ended interviews, observations, and document analysis, I can capture the rich and complex experiences, perspectives, and contexts of the participants. This type of research allows me to delve deeper into the phenomenon being studied and gain a more nuanced understanding of it.
One of the benefits of using qualitative research is the ability to create vivid descriptions, quotes, and narratives that add depth and meaning to the study. It's fascinating to see how the data can come to life and offer a unique perspective on the topic. Additionally, I've found that unexpected findings often emerge during qualitative research, which can add to the intrigue and interest of the study.
Overall, I believe that qualitative research design offers a powerful way to explore the intricacies and nuances of human experience. It enables me to create a study that is more compelling and engaging, as well as provides insights that cannot be obtained through other research methods.
ACTIVITY 2: TELL ME THE QUANTITY
Directions: Read the qu
Research involves systematically investigating materials and sources to establish new facts and conclusions. The purpose of research is to learn something new or gather evidence. Characteristics of good research include reliability, validity, accuracy, credibility, generalizability, an empirical approach, and being systematic. There are different types of research such as basic/applied, quantitative/qualitative, exploratory/descriptive/explanatory. Research aims to overcome biases through scientific methods and by clearly defining variables of interest.
OverviewAs a social science student, it is vitally important t.docxkarlhennesey
Overview
As a social science student, it is vitally important that you become an educated consumer of social science research, even if you never get to conduct an actual research study.
You need to have a basic understanding of the steps in the scientific process, a familiarity with commonly used social science research designs and methods, and a knowledge of procedures for collecting and analyzing social science data.
This module provides very basic information about these topics. It addresses the following subjects:
· the scientific method
· qualitative and quantitative research
· data analysis and presentation
· discipline-specific research designs and methods The Scientific Method
The scientific method is a form of inquiry that was originally developed to answer questions in the natural sciences. The scientific method uses systematic observation and measurement to confirm or disconfirm hypotheses that most often are derived from underlying theories.
When a hypothesis is confirmed, it lends support to the underlying theory. When it is not confirmed, researchers must reformulate the theory and come up with other explanations. Scientists share their findings by presenting at conferences or publishing in peer-reviewed journals. Sharing results with the research world is an important part of the scientific method because science is an iterative activity.
As social scientists, we have a great challenge. Because we cannot exert complete control over human behavior, it is not possible to conduct true experiments. Real life cannot be captured in a lab, and human behavior cannot be explained by one or even two causes. This makes it difficult to determine "cause and effect." For example, if we are interested in knowing why poor people have compromised health outcomes, we would need to account for an impossibly large number of factors or variables such as race, ethnicity, genetic markers, income, education level, access to health care services, and living conditions.
Steps for Conducting a Research Study
Figure 4.1
Steps for Conducting a Research Study
Source: UMUC PSYC 100.
The use of the scientific method allows researchers to develop explanations of social science phenomena. The steps of the research process are explained from a psychological perspective in this tutorial (Bradley, 2000).
Step 1: Make an Observation
The starting place for any research study is an observation (idea) regarding a topic of interest to you, the researcher. It may come from a conversation with a friend, a book or television program, or the conclusion of a related research project. All that is needed at this point is your interest in pursuing the topic further.
Let's take an example that we will use for all of the steps in the process. You observe that you are able to memorize items such as telephone numbers better when you eat candy. Because of this, you wonder if there is a connection between the primary component of candy (sugar) and memory.
Step 2: Propose a Hypoth ...
Here are some key points about the importance of the research process and how it relates to developing an effective marketing plan:
- Research provides valuable insights and data to inform decision making. Conducting primary and secondary research allows marketers to gain a deeper understanding of customers, competitors, market trends, and other factors that impact the business. This knowledge helps guide the development of the marketing strategy and plan.
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- Describe the overall research design and approach. Is it qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods?
- Provide rationale for chosen design.
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- Include details on instrument design, sampling approach, sample size.
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- Cite specific analytical techniques, e.g. thematic analysis, regression analysis
4. Validity and Reliability
- Discuss strategies for ensuring validity of
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Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptx
Research meth
1. FACULTY OF ECONOMICS AND MANAGEMENT
DEPARTMENT OF MANAGEMENT
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN ICT POLICY AND
REGULATION
(MSCICTPR)
Prepared and submitted by BWANAKWELI Chantal
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ASSIGNMENT
3. Question 1- Answer
What is the purpose of research? Outline the types of research
WHAT IS RESEARCH?
"Research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our
understanding of a topic or issue". It consists of three steps: Pose a question, collect data
to answer the question, and present an answer to the question. (By Creswell, J. W.
(2008))
Research and experimental development is formal work undertaken systematically to
increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of humanity, culture and society,
and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications.
Research is finding out what you don't already know. No one knows everything, but
everybody knows something. However, to complicate matters, often what you know, or
think you know, is incorrect.( http://public.wsu.edu/~taflinge/research.html)
There are two basic purposes for research: to learn something, or to gather evidence. The
first, to learn something, is for your own benefit. It is almost impossible for a human to
stop learning. It may be the theory of relativity or the RBIs of your favorite ball player,
but you continue to learn. Research is organized learning, looking for specific things to
add to your store of knowledge.
What you've learned is the source of the background information you use to communicate
with others. In any conversation you talk about the things you know, the things you've
learned. If you know nothing about the subject under discussion, you can neither
contribute nor understand it. (This fact does not, however, stop many people from joining
in on conversations, anyway.) When you write or speak formally, you share what you've
learned with others, backed with evidence to show that what you've learned is correct. If,
- Assignment: 2012 by BWANAKWELI Chantal Page 3
4. however, you haven't learned more than your audience already knows, there is nothing
for you to share. Thus you do research.
The purpose and role of Research
Research can be conceptualized as exhibiting one or more of the following four purposes:
1. Exploratory: e.g., discovering, uncovering, exploring
2. Descriptive: e.g., summarizing, gathering info, mapping
3. Explanatory: e.g., testing and understanding causal relations
4. Predictive: e.g., predict what might happen in various scenarios
Briefly the main purpose and role of research is to help plan and gather information on a
certain topic before carrying it out .It helps to test and create a theory on a certain thing
and with the information given this helps to gather to generate a topic to find out more
on. By carrying out research this helps to gather and explore more into a certain topic
which helps to backup your opinions with the findings.
By researching you are able to backup and give others views and opinions in order to
help to justify your findings.
Research also helps to monitor something before carrying it out example an activity in a
childcare setting research helps to identify how the activity can help children ,what use
the activity will come to how the activity may have an effect on others and this helps you
to investigate more before carrying out something.
Research also helps to discover new things by gathering and looking out for what others
around have done this can helps in childcare setting as it helps to learn from others and
allows developing on your learning.
Research helps to test a hypothesis or theory by looking up on what others may say and
statistic that are given can strengthen and weaken your hypothesis by the information that
your may have gathered.
- Assignment: 2012 by BWANAKWELI Chantal Page 4
5. Research helps people finding result. It illuminates people: They see what have been
hidden or what has been missed.
Types of research
There are three types of research, pure, original, and secondary. Each type has the goal of
finding information and/or understanding something. The difference comes in the
strategy employed in achieving the objective.
1. Pure Research
Pure research is research done simply to find out something by examining anything. For
instance, in some pure scientific research scientists discover what properties various
materials possess. It is not for the sake of applying those properties to anything in
particular, but simply to find out what properties there are. Pure mathematics is for the
sake of seeing what happens, not to solve a problem.
The fun of pure research is that you are not looking for anything in particular. Instead,
anything and everything you find may be joined with anything else just to see where that
combination would lead, if anywhere.
2. Original Research
Original or primary research is looking for information that nobody else has found.
Observing people's response to advertising, how prison sentences influence crime rates,
doing tests, observations, experiments, etc., are to discover something new.
- Assignment: 2012 by BWANAKWELI Chantal Page 5
6. Original research requires two things: 1) knowing what has already been discovered,
having a background on the subject; and 2) formulating a method to find out what you
want to know. To accomplish the first you indulge in secondary research.
For the second, you decide how best to find the information you need to arrive at a
conclusion. This method may be using focus groups, interviews, observations,
expeditions, experiments, surveys, etc.
3. Secondary Research
Secondary research is finding out what others have discovered through original research
and trying to reconcile conflicting viewpoints or conclusions, find new relationships
between normally non-related researches, and arrive at your own conclusion based on
others' work. This is, of course, the usual course for college students.
Secondary research should not be belittled simply because it is not original research.
Fresh insights and viewpoints, based on a wide variety of facts gleaned from original
research in many areas, has often been a source of new ideas. Even more, it has provided
a clearer understanding of what the evidence means without the influence of the original
researcher's prejudices and preconceptions.
- Assignment: 2012 by BWANAKWELI Chantal Page 6
7. Question 2- Answer
Write comprehensive notes to show understanding on the following
a) Primary data
Primary data is the specific information collected by the person who is doing the
research. It can be obtained through clinical trials, case studies, true experiments and
randomized controlled studies. This information can be analyzed by other experts who
may decide to test the validity of the data by repeating the same experiments.
Primary data is important for all areas of research because it is unvarnished information
about the results of an experiment or observation. It is like the eyewitness testimony at a
trial. No one has tarnished it or spun it by adding their own opinion or bias so it can form
the basis of objective conclusions.
Primary data is data gathered for the first time by the researcher. Primary data is a direct
report from someone who was actively involved in whatever it is you are discussing. The
merit of primary data is that it is direct information, uncontaminated by being transmitted
through another source. The demerits of primary data are that sometimes the person who
is on the field sees only part of the action.
Using primary data
An advantage of using primary data is that researchers are collecting information for the
specific purposes of their study. In essence, the questions the researchers ask are tailored
to elicit the data that will help them with their study. Researchers collect the data
themselves, using surveys, interviews and direct observations
For example in a recent Institute study, researchers wanted to find out about workers’
experiences in return to work after a work-related injury. Part of the research involved
interviewing workers by telephone and asking them questions about how long they were
off work and about their experiences with the return-to-work process.
The workers’ answers are considered primary data. From this, the researchers got
answers to specific information about the return-to-work process including the rates of
work accommodation offers, and why some workers refused such an offer.
Advantage and disadvantage of using Primary data is that Primary data offers tailored
information but tends to be expensive to conduct and takes a long time to process.
- Assignment: 2012 by BWANAKWELI Chantal Page 7
8. b) Secondary data
Secondary data is data taken by the researcher from secondary sources, internal or
external. Secondary data is of two kinds, internal and external. Secondary data – whether
internal or external – is data already collected by others, for purposes other than the
solution of the problem on hand. The merit of secondary data is that it can be gathered
from a number of primary sources and weighed together to put together an overall
assessment of what has happened.
In research, Secondary data is collecting and possibly processing data by people other
than the researcher in question. Common sources of secondary data for social science
include censuses, large surveys, and organizational records.
Advantages to the secondary data collection method are:
1) It saves time that would otherwise be spent collecting data,
2) Provides a larger database (usually) than what would be possible to collect on ones
own However there are disadvantages to the fact that the researcher cannot personally
check the data so it's reliability may be questioned.
Using secondary data
There are several types of secondary data. They can include information from the Census,
a company’s health and safety records such as their injury rates, or other government
statistical information such as the number of workers in different sectors
Secondary data tends to be readily available and inexpensive to obtain. In addition,
secondary data can be examined over a longer period of time. For example, you can look
at a company’s lost-time rates over several years to see at trends.
Advantage and disadvantage of using Secondary data is that Secondary data is usually
inexpensive to obtain and can be analyzed in less time. However, because it was gathered
for other purposes, you may need to tease out the information to find what you’re looking
for.
c) Random sampling
What Is a Random Sample?
A random sample is a subset of individuals that are randomly selected from a population.
Because researchers usually cannot obtain data from every single person in a group, a
smaller portion is randomly selected to represent the entire group as a whole. The goal is
to obtain a sample that is representative of the larger population.
- Assignment: 2012 by BWANAKWELI Chantal Page 8
9. In statistics, a sample is a subject chosen from a population for investigation; a random
sample is one chosen by a method involving an unpredictable component.
Random sampling can also refer to taking a number of independent observations from
the same probability distribution, without involving any real population. The sample
usually is not a representative of the population of people from which it was drawn— this
random variation in the results is termed as sampling error. In the case of random
samples, mathematical theory is available to assess the sampling error. Thus, estimates
obtained from random samples can be accompanied by measures of the uncertainty
associated with the estimate. This can take the form of a standard error, or if the sample is
large enough for the central limit theorem to take effect, confidence intervals may be
calculated. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_sample)
Random sampling is one of the most popular types of random or probability sampling.
In this technique, each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected as
subject. The entire process of sampling is done in a single step with each subject selected
independently of the other members of the population. (Random Sampling - Probability
Sampling. )
There are many methods to proceed with simple random sampling. The most primitive
and mechanical would be the lottery method. Each member of the population is assigned
a unique number. Each number is placed in a bowl or a hat and mixed thoroughly. The
blind-folded researcher then picks numbered tags from the hat. All the individuals
bearing the numbers picked by the researcher are the subjects for the study. Another way
would be to let a computer do a random selection from your population. For populations
with a small number of members, it is advisable to use the first method but if the
population has many members, a computer-aided random selection is preferred.
Advantages of Simple Random Sampling
One of the best things about simple random sampling is the ease of assembling the
sample. It is also considered as a fair way of selecting a sample from a given population
since every member is given equal opportunities of being selected.
Another key feature of simple random sampling is its representativeness of the
population. Theoretically, the only thing that can compromise its representativeness is
- Assignment: 2012 by BWANAKWELI Chantal Page 9
10. luck. If the sample is not representative of the population, the random variation is called
sampling error.
An unbiased random selection and a representative sample is important in drawing
conclusions from the results of a study. Remember that one of the goals of research is to
be able to make conclusions pertaining to the population from the results obtained from a
sample. Due to the representativeness of a sample obtained by simple random sampling,
it is reasonable to make generalizations from the results of the sample back to the
population.
Disadvantages of Simple Random Sampling
One of the most obvious limitations of simple random sampling method is its need of a
complete list of all the members of the population. Please keep in mind that the list of the
population must be complete and up-to-date. This list is usually not available for large
populations. In cases as such, it is wiser to use other sampling techniques.
d) Systematic sampling
System Sampling is a method of selecting sample members from a larger population
according to a random starting point and a fixed, periodic interval. Typically, every "nth"
member is selected from the total population for inclusion in the sample population.
Systematic sampling is still thought of as being random, as long as the periodic interval is
determined beforehand and the starting point is random.
( http://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/systematic-sampling.asp#ixzz2CwGnZAFp)
Systematic sampling is a statistical method involving the selection of elements from an
ordered sampling frame.
Systematic sampling is to be applied only if the given population is logically
homogeneous, because systematic sample units are uniformly distributed over the
population. The researcher must ensure that the chosen sampling interval does not hide a
pattern. Any pattern would threaten randomness.
Example: Suppose a supermarket wants to study buying habits of their customers, then
using systematic sampling they can choose every 10th or 15th customer entering the
supermarket and conduct the study on this sample.
A common way of selecting members for a sample population using systematic sampling
is simply to divide the total number of units in the general population by the desired
- Assignment: 2012 by BWANAKWELI Chantal Page 10
11. number of units for the sample population. The result of the division serves as the marker
for selecting sample units from within the general population.
For example, if you wanted to select a random group of 1,000 people from a population
of 50,000 using systematic sampling, you would simply select every 50th person, since
50,000/1,000 = 50.
In systematic random sampling, the researcher first randomly picks the first item or
subject from the population. Then, the researcher will select each n'th subject from the
list.
The procedure involved in systematic random sampling is very easy and can be done
manually. The results are representative of the population unless certain characteristics of
the population are repeated for every n'th individual, which is highly unlikely.
Advantages of Systematic Sampling
The main advantage of using systematic sampling over simple random sampling is
its simplicity. It allows the researcher to add a degree of system or process into the
random selection of subjects.
Another advantage of systematic random sampling over simple random sampling
is the assurance that the population will be evenly sampled. There exists a chance
in simple random sampling that allows a clustered selection of subjects. This is
systematically eliminated in systematic sampling.
Disadvantage of Systematic Sampling
The process of selection can interact with a hidden periodic trait within the
population. If the sampling technique coincides with the periodicity of the trait, the
sampling technique will no longer be random and representativeness of the sample
is compromised.
e) Stratified sampling
"Stratified sampling" is a way of getting an 'average' which represents the entire universe,
or everything that exists that somebody wants to count or measure. The entire universe is
broken down into groups that don’t overlap and a 'sample' is taken from each group.
A stratified sample is a probability sampling technique in which the researcher divides
the entire target population into different subgroups, or strata, and then randomly selects
- Assignment: 2012 by BWANAKWELI Chantal Page 11
12. the final subjects proportionally from the different strata. This type of sampling is used
when the researcher wants to highlight specific subgroups within the population.
For example, to obtain a stratified sample of university students, the researcher would
first organize the population by college class and then select appropriate numbers of
freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors. This ensures that the researcher has adequate
amounts of subjects from each class in the final sample.
It is important to note that the strata used in stratified sampling must not overlap. Having
overlapping subgroups will give some individuals a higher chance of being selected as
subjects in the sample. If this happened, it would not be a probability sample.
Some of the most common strata used in stratified random sampling are age, gender,
religion, educational attainment, socioeconomic status, and nationality.
When to Use Stratified Sampling
There are many situations in which researchers would choose stratified random sampling
over other types of sampling. First, it is used when the researcher wants to highlight a
specific subgroup within the population. Stratified sampling is good for this because it
ensures the presence of key subgroups within the sample.
Researchers also use stratified random sampling when they want to observe relationships
between two or more subgroups. With this type of sampling, the researcher is guaranteed
subjects from each subgroup are included in the final sample,
Advantages of Stratified Sampling
Using a stratified sample will always achieve greater precision than a simple random
sample, provided that the strata have been chosen so that members of the same stratum
are as similar as possible in terms of the characteristic of interest. Administratively, it is
often more convenient to stratify a sample than to select a simple random sample.
Another advantage that stratified random sampling has is that is guarantees better
coverage of the population. The researcher has control over the subgroups that are
included in the sample,
Disadvantages
Stratified sampling is not useful when the population cannot be exhaustively partitioned
into disjoint subgroups. It would be a misapplication of the technique to make subgroups'
- Assignment: 2012 by BWANAKWELI Chantal Page 12
13. sample sizes proportional to the amount of data available from the subgroups, rather than
scaling sample sizes to subgroup sizes
Again it Stratified sampling can be difficult to identify appropriate strata for a study. A
last disadvantage is that it is more complex to organize and analyze the results compared
to simple random sampling
f) Multistage sampling
Multistage Sampling: Multistage Sampling is a sampling strategy (e.g., gathering
participants for a study) used when conducting studies involving a very large population.
The entire population is divided into naturally-occurring clusters and sub-clusters, from
which the researcher randomly selects the sample.
For example, you want to conduct a survey of salespeople for a nationwide retail chain
with stores all over the country. You could randomly select states, randomly select
counties in each state, randomly select stores in each county, and randomly select
salespeople in those stores
(http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Multistage%20Sampling#ixzz2CwN8SuOO)
A multi-stage sample is one in which sampling is done sequentially across two or more
hierarchical levels, such as first at the county level, second at the census track level, third
at the block level, fourth at the household level, and ultimately at the within-household
level. Many probability sampling methods can be classified as single-stage sampling
versus multi-stage sampling. Single-stage samples include simple random sampling,
systematic random sampling, and stratified random sampling. In single-stage samples, the
elements in the target population are assembled into a sampling frame; one of these
techniques is used to directly select a sample of elements In contrast, in multi-stage
sampling, the sample is selected in stages, often taking into account the hierarchical
(nested) structure of the population. The target population of elements is divided into
first-stage units, often referred to as primary sampling units which are the ones sampled
first. The selected first-stage secondary...
Multistage sampling is a complex form of cluster sampling.
Advantages
cost and speed that the survey can be done in
convenience of finding the survey sample
normally more accurate than cluster sampling for the same size sample
- Assignment: 2012 by BWANAKWELI Chantal Page 13
14. Disadvantages
Is not as accurate as SRS if the sample is the same size
More testing is difficult to do
Using all the sample elements in all the selected clusters may be prohibitively expensive
or not necessary. Under these circumstances, multistage cluster sampling becomes useful.
Instead of using all the elements contained in the selected clusters, the researcher
randomly selects elements from each cluster. Constructing the clusters is the first stage.
Deciding what elements within the cluster to use is the second stage. The technique is
used frequently when a complete list of all members of the population does not exist and
is inappropriate.
g) Independent variable
The independent variable is the characteristic of a psychology experiment that is
manipulated or changed.
For example, in an experiment looking at the effects of studying on test scores, studying
would be the independent variable. Researchers are trying to determine if changes to the
independent variable result in significant changes to the dependent variable (the test
results)
An independent variable is a factor that can be varied or manipulated in an experiment
(e.g. time, temperature, concentration, etc). It is usually what will affect the dependent
variable.
There are two types of independent variables, which are often treated differently in
statistical analyses:
quantitative variables that differ in amounts or scale and can be ordered (e.g.
weight, temperature, time).
qualitative variables which differ in "types" and can not be ordered (e.g. gender,
species, method). By convention when graphing data, the independent variable
is plotted along the horizontal X-axis with the dependent variable on the vertical
Y-axis.
h) Dependent variable
- Assignment: 2012 by BWANAKWELI Chantal Page 14
15. A dependent variable is also known as a "response variable", "regressand", "measured
variable", "observed variable", "responding variable", "explained variable", "outcome
variable", "experimental variable", and "output variable. (By Dodge, Y. (2003) The
Oxford Dictionary of Statistical Terms, OUP. ISBN)
The dependent variable is the variable that is simply measured by the researcher. It is the
variable that reflects the influence of the independent variable. For example, the
dependent variable would be the variable that is influenced by being randomly assigned
to either an experimental condition or a control condition.
A dependent Variable is a factor or phenomenon that is changed by the effect of an
associated factor or phenomenon called the independent variable.
For example, consumption is a dependent variable because it is caused and influenced by
another variable: income. In a mathematical equation or model, the dependent variable is
the variable whose value is to be determined by that equation or model. In an experiment,
it is the variable whose behavior under controlled conditions (that are allowed to change
in an organized manner) is studied.(
http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/dependent-
variable.html#ixzz2CwoqMYEg)
The dependent variable is the variable that is being measured in an experiment. For
example, in a study on the effects of tutoring on test scores, the dependent variable
would be the participants test scores.
In a psychology experiment, researchers are looking at how changes in the
independent variable cause changes in the dependent variable.
Examples of Dependent Variables
Researchers want to discover if listening to classical music helps students earn
better grades on a math exam. In this example, the scores on the math exams are
the dependent variable.
Researchers are interested in seeing how long it takes people to respond to
different sounds. In this example, the length of time it takes participants to respond
to a sound is the dependent variable.
Researchers want to know whether first-born children learn to speak at a younger
age than second-born children. In this example, the dependent variable is the age
at which the child learns to speak.
i) Hypothesis testing
- Assignment: 2012 by BWANAKWELI Chantal Page 15
16. A statistical hypothesis is an assumption about a population parameter. This
assumption may or may not be true. Hypothesis testing refers to the formal procedures
used by statisticians to accept or reject statistical hypotheses.
A process by which an analyst tests a statistical hypothesis. The methodology employed
by the analyst depends on the nature of the data used, and the goals of the analysis.
The goal is to either accept or reject the null hypothesis.
( http://www.investopedia.com/terms/h/hypothesistesting.asp#ixzz2Cwr2gOcF)
Hypothesis testing is a common practice in science that involves conducting tests and
experiments to see if a proposed explanation for an observed phenomenon works in
practice. A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for some kind of observed phenomenon,
and is an important part of the scientific method.
Any tentative explanation can be referred to as a hypothesis if it can be submitted to
hypothesis testing. There are, however, a set of guidelines for an explanation to be
considered a true scientific hypothesis. The first major point is testability; a scientific
hypothesis must be able to proceed to the stage of hypothesis testing to be considered a
scientifically legitimate hypothesis. It is generally suggested that a hypothesis be
relatively simple, though this is not always possible. Hypotheses must also be able to
explain the phenomena under any set of conditions; if a hypothesis can only explain a
phenomenon in one set of conditions, it is generally considered unacceptable.
Hypotheses are generally considered useful only if they are likely to improve on the
current body of knowledge on a subject and pave the way for greater knowledge to be
acquired in the future. Also, a hypothesis is generally not acknowledged if it defies other
commonly recognized knowledge. If a hypothesis meets all of these requirements, it will
typically proceed to the hypothesis testing phase.
In hypothesis testing, the testers seek to discover evidence that either validates or
disproves a given hypothesis. Usually, this involves a series of experiments being
conducted in many different conditions. If the hypothesis does not stand up to the tests in
all conditions, something is usually wrong with the hypothesis and a new one must be
formed to take the new information into account. The new hypothesis is submitted to the
same hypothesis testing. If it passes and is not proven wrong, it can eventually be
considered a scientific theory or law, though nothing in science can be proven to be
absolutely true.
One common method of hypothesis testing is known as statistical hypothesis testing, and
typically deals with large quantities of data. Experiments and tests are conducted and the
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17. data is collected. If the data collected shows that it is unlikely that the results occurred by
chance, it is considered statistically significant and can be used to support a hypothesis.
Hypothesis testing is the use of statistics to determine the probability that a given
hypothesis is true. The usual process of hypothesis testing consists of four steps.
1. Formulate the null hypothesis (commonly, that the observations are the result of
pure chance) and the alternative hypothesis (commonly, that the observations show a
real effect combined with a component of chance variation).
2. Identify a test statistic that can be used to assess the truth of the null hypothesis.
3. Compute the P-value, which is the probability that a test statistic at least as significant
as the one observed would be obtained assuming that the null hypothesis were true. The
smaller the -value, the stronger the evidence against the null hypothesis.
4. Compare the -value to an acceptable significance value (sometimes called an alpha
value). If , that the observed effect is statistically significant, the null hypothesis is
ruled out, and the alternative hypothesis is valid.
j) Cause - effect relations
Cause-effect relation is a relation between cause-concept and effect-concept.
Cause-effect relation is represented in the main memory by cause-effect relation table.
Example:
“Sun” is a cause for “heat”.
“Fire” is a cause for “heat”.
“Sun” is a cause for “sunburn”.
So, there are 3 cause-effect relations in this example:
{Sun->heat}
{Fire->heat}
{Sun->sunburn}
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18. Why are cause-effect relations so important?
Cause-effect relations are so important because:
1) Cause-effect relations help to understand what would happen as a result of current
situation. Cause effect relations help to predict the future of current context.
In order to find out what would happen, strong AI should just find all effect concepts for
specified concepts.
2) Cause-effect relations help to understand what strong AI can do in order to achieve
some goals.
In order to figure out what to do, strong AI should just find cause concepts for the
specified goal-concepts (sub goals).
Example (based on diagram above):
1) Let imagine that strong AI wants to find out what would be the result of the sun. In
order to figure that out, strong AI would take a look into cause-effect relations and find
out that probable results are “Heat” and “SunBurn”.
2) Let’s imagine that current goal of strong AI is “Heat”. In order to achieve this goal
strong AI should follow cause-effect relation in reverse direction and find out that “Fire”
and “Sun” concepts could help to achieve the current goal “Heat”.
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19. Question 3- Answer
Discuss the major types of data collection
Data collection is any process of preparing and collecting data, for example, as part of a
process improvement or similar project. The purpose of data collection is to obtain
information to keep on record, to make decisions about important issues, or to pass
information on to others. Data are primarily collected to provide information regarding a
specific topic
Data Collection is an important aspect of any type of research study. Inaccurate data
collection can impact the results of a study and ultimately lead to invalid results.
Data collection methods for impact evaluation vary along a continuum. At the one end of
this continuum are quantatative methods and at the other end of the continuum are
Qualitative methods for data collection
(http://www.worldbank.org/poverty/impact/methods/datacoll.htm )
Quantitative and Qualitative Data collection methods
The Quantitative data collection methods, rely on random sampling and structured data
collection instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response categories.
They produce results that are easy to summarize, compare, and generalize.
Quantitative research is concerned with testing hypotheses derived from theory and/or
being able to estimate the size of a phenomenon of interest. Depending on the research
question, participants may be randomly assigned to different treatments. If this is not
feasible, the researcher may collect data on participant and situational characteristics in
order to statistically control for their influence on the dependent, or outcome, variable. If
the intent is to generalize from the research participants to a larger population, the
researcher will employ probability sampling to select participants.
Typical quantitative data gathering strategies include:
Experiments/clinical trials.
Observing and recording well-defined events (e.g., counting the number of
patients waiting in emergency at specified times of the day).
Obtaining relevant data from management information systems.
Administering surveys with closed-ended questions (e.g., face-to face and
telephone interviews, questionnaires etc).
(http://www.achrn.org/quantitative_methods.htm)
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20. Interviews
In Quantitative research (survey research),interviews are more structured than in
Qualitative research. In a structured interview, the researcher asks a standard set of
questions and nothing more.
Face -to -face interviews have a distinct advantage of enabling the researcher to
establish rapport with potential participants and therefore gain their cooperation. These
interviews yield highest response rates in survey research. They also allow the researcher
to clarify ambiguous answers and when appropriate, seek follow-up information.
Disadvantages include impractical when large samples are involved time consuming and
expensive.(Leedy and Ormrod, 2001)
Telephone interviews are less time consuming and less expensive and the researcher has
ready access to anyone on the planet that has a telephone. Disadvantages are that the
response rate is not as high as the face-to- face interview as but considerably higher than
the mailed questionnaire. The sample may be biased to the extent that people without
phones are part of the population about whom the researcher wants to draw inferences.
Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI): is a form of personal interviewing,
but instead of completing a questionnaire, the interviewer brings along a laptop or hand-
held computer to enter the information directly into the database. This method saves time
involved in processing the data, as well as saving the interviewer from carrying around
hundreds of questionnaires. However, this type of data collection method can be
expensive to set up and requires that interviewers have computer and typing skills.
Questionnaires
Paper-pencil-questionnaires can be sent to a large number of people and saves the
researcher time and money. People are more truthful while responding to the
questionnaires regarding controversial issues in particular due to the fact that their
responses are anonymous. But they also have drawbacks. Majority of the people who
receive questionnaires don't return them and those who do might not be representative of
the originally selected sample.(Leedy and Ormrod, 2001)
Web based questionnaires : A new and inevitably growing methodology is the use of
Internet based research. This would mean receiving an e-mail on which you would click
on an address that would take you to a secure web-site to fill in a questionnaire. This type
of research is often quicker and less detailed. Some disadvantages of this method include
the exclusion of people who do not have a computer or are unable to access a computer.
Also the validity of such surveys are in question as people might be in a hurry to
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21. complete it and so might not give accurate responses.
(http://www.statcan.ca/english/edu/power/ch2/methods/methods.htm)
Questionnaires often make use of Checklist and rating scales. These devices help
simplify and quantify people's behaviors and attitudes A checklist is a list of behaviors,
characteristics, or other entities that te researcher is looking for. Either the researcher or
survey participant simply checks whether each item on the list is observed, present or true
or vice versa. A rating scale is more useful when a behavior needs to be evaluated on a
continuum. (Leedy and Ormrod, 2001)
Qualitative data collection methods play an important role in impact evaluation by
providing information useful to understand the processes behind observed results and
assess changes in people’s perceptions of their well-being .Furthermore qualitative
methods can be used to improve the quality of survey-based quantitative evaluations by
helping generate evaluation hypothesis; strengthening the design of survey questionnaires
and expanding or clarifying quantitative evaluation findings. These methods are
characterized by the following attributes:
they tend to be open-ended and have less structured protocols (i.e., researchers
may change the data collection strategy by adding, refining, or dropping
techniques or informants)
they rely more heavily on iterative interviews; respondents may be interviewed
several times to follow up on a particular issue, clarify concepts or check the
reliability of data
they use triangulation to increase the credibility of their findings (i.e., researchers
rely on multiple data collection methods to check the authenticity of their results)
generally their findings are not generalizable to any specific population, rather
each case study produces a single piece of evidence that can be used to seek
general patterns among different studies of the same issue
Regardless of the kinds of data involved, data collection in a qualitative study takes a
great deal of time. The researcher needs to record any potentially useful data thoroughly,
accurately, and systematically, using field notes, sketches, audiotapes, photographs and
other suitable means. The data collection methods must observe the ethical principles of
research.
The qualitative methods most commonly used in evaluation can be classified in three
broad categories:
in-depth interview
observation methods
document review
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22. Question 4- Answer
Compare and show appropriateness in use of methods and techniques
of analyzing data
Analysis of data is a process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming, and modeling data
with the goal of highlighting useful information, suggesting conclusions, and supporting
decision making. Data analysis has multiple facets and approaches, encompassing diverse
techniques under a variety of names, in different business, science, and social science
domains.
Data Analysis is the process of systematically applying statistical and/or logical
techniques to describe and illustrate, condense and recap, and evaluate data. According to
Shamoo and Resnik (2003) various analytic procedures “provide a way of drawing
inductive inferences from data and distinguishing the signal (the phenomenon of interest)
from the noise (statistical fluctuations) present in the data”..
While data analysis in qualitative research can include statistical procedures, many times
analysis becomes an ongoing iterative process where data is continuously collected and
analyzed almost simultaneously. Indeed, researchers generally analyze for patterns in
observations through the entire data collection phase (Savenye, Robinson, 2004). The
form of the analysis is determined by the specific qualitative approach taken (field study,
ethnography content analysis, oral history, biography, unobtrusive research) and the form
of the data (field notes, documents, audiotape, and videotape).
An essential component of ensuring data integrity is the accurate and appropriate analysis
of research findings. Improper statistical analyses distort scientific findings, mislead
casual readers (Shepard, 2002), and may negatively influence the public perception of
research. Integrity issues are just as relevant to analysis of non-statistical data as well.
Once have your data, you must ANALYZE it. There are many different ways to analyze
data: some are simple and some are complex. Some involve grouping, while others
involve detailed statistical analysis. The most important thing you do is to choose a
method that is in harmony with the parameters you have set and with the kind of data you
have collected.
With the data in a form that is now useful, the researcher can begin the process of
analyzing the data to determine what has been learned. The method used to analyze data
depends on the approach used to collect the information (secondary research, primary
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23. quantitative research or primary qualitative research). For primary research the selection
of method of analysis also depends on the type of research instrument used to collect the
information.
Essentially there are two types of methods of analysis – descriptive and inferential.
Descriptive Data Analysis
Descriptive analysis, as the name implies, is used to describe the results obtained. In most
cases the results are merely used to provide a summary of what has been gathered (e.g.,
how many liked or dislike a product) without making a statement of whether the results
hold up to statistical evaluation. For quantitative data collection the most common
methods used for this basic level of analysis are visual representations, such as charts and
tables, and measures of central tendency including averages (i.e., mean value). For
qualitative data collection, where analysis may consist of the researcher’s own
interpretation of what was learned, the information may be coded or summarized into
grouping categories.
Inferential Data Analysis
While descriptive data analysis can present a picture of the results, to really be useful the
results of research should allow the researcher to accomplish other goals such as:
Using information obtained from a small group (i.e., sample of customers) to
make judgments about a larger group (i.e., all customers)
Comparing groups to see if there is a difference in how they respond to an issue
Forecasting what may happen based on collected information
To move beyond simply describing results requires the use of inferential data analysis
where advanced statistical techniques are used to make judgments (i.e., inferences) about
some issue (e.g., is one type of customer different from another type of customer). Using
inferential data analysis requires a well-structured research plan that follows the scientific
method. Also, most (but not all) inferential data analysis techniques require the use of
quantitative data collection.
As an example of the use of inferential data analysis, a marketer may wish to know if
North American, European and Asian customers differ in how they rate certain issues.
The marketer uses a survey that includes a number of questions asking customers from all
three regions to rate issues on a scale of 1 to 5. If a survey is constructed properly the
marketer can compare each group using statistical software that tests whether differences
exists. This analysis offers much more insight than simply showing how many customers
from each region responded to each question.
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24. Question 5- Answer
Outline the major parts of a Final Research Report. Briefly explain the
content expected to find in each part.
Writing your research paper requires careful forethought. The major parts of a Final
Research Report are listed as:
- Introduction
- Literature review
- Design/ Methods
- Results
- Conclusion
My Outline should include the following ingredients:
1. INTROCUCTION
The main purpose of the INTRODUCTION is to give a description of the problem that
will be addressed. In this section the researcher might discuss the nature of the research,
the purpose of the research, the significance of the research problem, and the research
question(s) to be addressed.
Three essential parts of a good introduction are:
RATIONALE
PURPOSE
RESEARCH QUESTION(S)
a) RATIONALE
Somewhere in the introduction you need to inform the reader of the rationale of your
research. This is a brief explanation of why your research topic is worthy of study and
may make a significant contribution to the body of already existing research
b) PURPOSE
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25. The statement of purpose is not simply a statement of why the research is being done.
(That is what the rationale section is for.) Rather, "purpose" refers to the goal or objective
of your research. The purpose statement should answer questions….
"What are the objectives of my research?" and
"What do I expect to discover or learn from this research?"
c) RESEARCH QUESTION
The introduction usually ends with a research question or questions. This question should
be. . .
Related to your research purpose
Focused
Clear
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
As part of the planning process you should have done a LITERATURE REVIEW,
which is a survey of important articles, books and other sources pertaining to your
research topic. Now, for the second main section of your research report you need to
write a summary of the main studies and research related to your topic. This review of the
professional literature relevant to your research question will help to contextualize, or
frame, your research. It will also give readers the necessary background to understand
your research.
Evaluating other studies:
In a review of the literature, you do not merely summarize the research findings that
others have reported. You must also evaluate and comment on each study's worth and
validity. You may find that some published research is not valid. If it also runs counter to
your hypothesis, you may want to critique it in your review. Don't just ignore it. Tell how
your research will be better/overcome the flaws. Doing this can strengthen the rationale
for conducting your research.
Selecting the studies to include in the review:
You do not need to report on every published study in the area of your research topic.
Choose those studies which are most relevant and most important
Organizing the review:
After you have decided which studies to review, you must decide how to order them. In
making your selection, keep your research question in mind. It should be your most
important guide in determining what other studies are relevant. Many people simple
create a list of one-paragraph summaries in chronological order. This is not always the
most effective way to organize your review. You should consider other ways, such as...
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26. By topic
Problem -> solution
Cause -> effect
Another approach is to organize your review by argument and counter argument. For
example. You may write about those studies that disagree with your hypothesis, and then
discuss those that agree with it. Yet another way to organize the studies in your review is
to group them according to a particular variable, such as age level of the subjects (child
studies, adult studies, etc.) or research method (case studies, experiments, etc.).
The end of the review:
The purpose of your review of the literature was to set the stage for your own research.
Therefore, you should conclude the review with a statement of your hypothesis, or
focused research question. When this is done, you are ready to proceed with part three of
your research report, in which you explain the methods you used.
3. DESIGN & METHOD
The DESIGN & METHOD section of the report is where you explain to your reader
how you went about carrying out your research. You should describe the subjects, the
instruments used, the conditions under which the tests were given, how the tests were
scored, how the results were analyzed, etc.
Remember that this section needs to be very explicit. A good rule of thumb is to provide
enough detail so that others could replicate all the important points of your research.
Failure to provide adequate detail may raise doubts in your readers' minds about your
procedures and findings.
Make sure you are honest and forthright in this section. For example, if you had some
problems with validity, acknowledge the weaknesses in your study so that others can take
them into account when they interpret it (and avoid them if they try to replicate it).
4. RESULTS
n the RESULTS of your report you make sense of what you have found. Here you not
only present your findings but also talk about the possible reasons for those findings.
Also, if your research approach was deductive, then here is where you accept or reject
your hypothesis (based on your findings). In addition, in this section you should use your
knowledge of the subject in order to make intelligent comments about your results.
Make sure your comments are related to (and based on) your research. Do not go beyond
your data. Also, as you report and interpret your findings do not exaggerate or
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27. sensationalize them. Nor should you minimize them. A straightforward matter-of-fact
style is probably best.
5. CONCLUSION
In the CONCLUSION to your report, you do a number of important things:
1. Summarize the main points you made in your introduction and review of the literature
2. Review (very briefly) the research methods and/or design you employed.
3. Repeat (in abbreviated form) your findings.
4. Discuss the broader implications of those findings.
5. Mention the limitations of your research (due to its scope or its weaknesses)
6. Offer suggestions for future research related to yours
ABSTRACT
Some research reports end (or begin) with an abstract. An abstract is a highly abbreviated
(usually 100-200 words) synopsis of your research. It should describe your rationale and
objectives, as well as your methods and findings.
Because of its limited length, an abstract cannot go into detail on any of these topics. Nor
can it report on the limitations of your research or offer suggestions for future research.
For those, readers will have to read the entire report. But, after reading your abstract,
people unfamiliar with your research should know what it is about and whether they want
to read the entire report.
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