The document provides guidance on formulating a research problem and developing an effective research proposal. It discusses identifying a research topic by drawing from professional experience, literature reviews, and social/technological changes. A research problem refers to a difficulty a researcher wants to solve in a theoretical or practical context. Defining the problem clearly involves narrowing its scope and expressing it in specific, measurable terms. Key parts of a research proposal include the title, abstract, background, problem statement, research questions, objectives, hypothesis, methodology, and work plan. The proposal establishes the justification, approach, and intended outcomes of the proposed study.

1. Chapter 2: Formulating Research
Problem
 Knowing what to research is the first step in the research
design.
 To do a research, a practical or theoretical difficulty must be
identified.
 But, what is a research problem?
 A research problem refers to some difficulty, which a
researcher experiences in the context of either a
theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a
solution for.
 It is an area that you would like to explore in your
research.
 You might, for instance, be interested in what program
intervention will enable the unemployed to get jobs.
1

2. …(cont’d)
 At first, the problem might be broad that you
could not hope to address it adequately in a
single research study.
 So, we usually narrow the problem down to
more specific research questions.
 The research question is the central issue being
addressed in the study.
 For instance, a research question might be:
 Has poverty been reduced following the
introduction of PSNP?
2

3. …(cont’d)
 A good research question need to be:
 interesting and/or important
 clearly stated
 has to be logical, rational, and tied to
theory
 feasible.
 The research problem is often first
expressed in terms of a research topic.
3

4. Identification of a Research Topic
 There are three types of research titles:
 Indicative title:
 they state the subject of the proposal rather
than expected outcomes.
 Example: The role of agricultural credit in
alleviating poverty in a low-potential areas
of Kenya.
 Hanging titles: have two parts; a general first
part followed by a more specific second part.
 Example: ‘Alleviation of poverty in low-potential
areas of Kenya: the impact of agricultural credit’.
4

5. Research Topic…(cont’d)
 Question-type titles are used less commonly
than indicative and hanging titles.
 Example: ‘Does agricultural credit alleviate
poverty in low-potential areas of Kenya’.
Where do research topics come from?
 Of course, a topic must spring from the
researcher’s mind i.e. it should be generated by
the researcher
 The best way to identify a topic is to draw up a
shortlist of possible topics that have emerged
from your reading or from your own experience
that look potentially interesting. 5

6. Sources of a Research Problem
A) Professional Experience
 Own professional experience is the most important
source of a research problem.
 Many researchers are directly engaged in program
implementation and come up with a topic based on
what they see that happened around them.
 Contacts and discussions with others,
 attending conferences, seminars, and the like
are important source of research problem.
6

7. Sources …(cont’d)
b) Inferences from the literature
 Another source for research ideas is the theoretical
or empirical literature in your specific field.
 Many researchers get ideas for research by reading
the literature.
 Two types of literature can be reviewed.
 The conceptual literature
 The empirical literature
 Research reports, bibliographies of books, and
articles, periodicals, research abstracts and
research guides suggest areas that need research.
7

8. Sources…(cont’d)
c) Technological and Social Changes
 New developments bring forth new
development challenges for research.
 The most fundamental rule of good research is to
investigate questions that sincerely interest you.
 i.e. research which a researcher honestly
enjoys even if he/she encounters
problems frustrating or discouraging.
8

9. Important points for selecting a research
topic
 The following points are important in selecting a
research topic or a subject for research.
 Subject, which is overdone, should be avoided
 Controversial subjects should not become the
choice of the average researcher.
 Too narrow or too broad or vague topic should
be avoided
 Consideration of the topic in terms of:
 The qualification and training of researcher,
 The cost involved and the time factor, etc.
9

10. Defining the research problem
Statement of the Problem
 Problem definition or problem statement is a clear
and precise statement of the question or issue to
be investigated.
 Defining a problem involves the task of laying
down the boundaries within which a researcher
shall study the problem.
 The researcher must know exactly what his/her
problem is before he/she begin further work on it.
10

11. …(cont’d)
 A problem clearly defined is a problem half solved.
 Defining the problem clearly will help to find
answers to questions like:
 What data are to be collected?
 What characteristics of data are relevant and
need to be studied
 What relations are to be explored
 What techniques are to be used for the purpose
11

12. …(cont’d)
 The problem statement enables to grasp the
relevant dimensions of the problem setting
 It should provide a brief overview of the
literature and research done in the field related
to the problem and of the gaps that the
proposed research is intended to fill.
12

13. …(cont’d)
 Some ways to demonstrate that you are adding
to the knowledge in your field:
i. Gap: A research gap is an area where no or
little research has been carried out.
ii. Raising a question: The research problem is
defined by asking a question to which the
answer is unknown, and which you will explore
in your research.
iii. Counter-claiming: a conflicting claim, theory
or method is put forward.
13

14. …(cont’d)
iv.Continuing a previously developed
line of enquiry:
 Building on work already done, but
taking it further (by using a new
sample, extending the area studied,
taking more factors into consideration,
taking fewer factors into consideration,
etc.).
14

15. Guidelines for developing effective
problem statement
 The following guidelines can be used as checklists
for developing effective problem statement that
lead to a researchable problem specification.
1. The researchable problem must be
sufficiently specific (confined) that it can be
addressed with available resources.
 Time, researcher expertise, data, tools, support
personnel, and financial resources.
2. The dimensions of the problem should be
described in objective (neutral) rather than
subjective (advocative) terms.
15

16. Guidelines…(cont’d)
 Avoid value judgment languages.
3. The problem must be described sufficiently
that other people (the audience) comprehend
it.
4. The researcher's perception of the problem
may be derived from an intuitive level, but it
should be developed to a logical level.
 Emotional statements fail to offer evidence.
16

17. Guidelines…(cont’d)
5. The inquiry may be initiated with a
research objective - but the problem
explanation should be developed to
provide justification for the objectives.
17

18. Steps in defining the research problem
a) Statement of the problem in a general way
 Problem can be stated in a broad and general
way keeping in mind either some practical
concern or some scientific or intellectual
interest.
18

19. Steps…(cont’d)
b) Understanding the nature of the problem
more clearly
 The best way to understand the problem is to
discuss it with other more acquainted or
experienced people.
c) Survey of the available literature
 Devote sufficient time to review both the
conceptual and empirical literature.
19

20. Steps… (cont’d)
d) Developing the ideas through discussion
 Discussion concerning a problem often produces
useful information.
 The discussion sharpens the researcher’s focus
of attentions on specific aspects of the study.
e) Rephrasing the research problem:
 The researcher must sit to rephrase the
research problem into a working proposition.
 Through rephrasing, the researcher puts the
research problem in as specific terms as
possible.
20

21. Objectives of the study
 This is the step of rephrasing the problem into
operational or analytical terms, i.e. to put the
problem in as specific terms as possible.
 In this section the specific activities to be
performed are listed.
 The general objective provides a short statement
of the specific goals to be pursued by the research.
 The specific objectives are the objectives against
which the success of the whole research will be
judged.
21

22. Objectives…(cont’d)
 The specific objectives are operational and indicate
the type of knowledge to be produced, audiences to
be reached, etc.
 An objective should be Specific, Measurable,
Achievable, Realistic and Time-bound – that is,
SMART.
 It must flow logically and clearly from the purpose,
problem statement and justification already stated.
 E.g. The objective of this paper (research, study) is to
assess (investigate) the possible impact of the amount of
annual financial support the university students receive on
their academic performance measured by score on their
exams; in major ( selected ) Universities of the country.
22

23. Literature Review
 The researcher should also undertake an extensive
literature survey connected with the problem.
 The literature survey enables you to learn as much
as you can from the efforts of others.
 Academic journals,
 conference proceedings,
 dissertations, government reports,
 policy reports,
 publications of organizations,
 books, etc. must be tapped depending on the nature of
the problem.
23

24. Literature Review…(cont’d)
 So from the survey of the literature, you
 will know that your question has not been
answered elsewhere
 can learn how other people faced
methodological and theoretical issues similar to
your own
 can learn about sources of data that you might
not have known before
 can learn about other people tackling similar
problems
24

25. Literature Review…Cont’d
 Several articles can be summarized in one mention
 Example: There have been numerous studies
attempting to measure the return to education
(see Becker (1963); Mincer (1968); Angriest
and Krueger (1988); Bound et al. (1991)).”
 General information:
 Google, etc.
 Books: Library, amazon.com
 Articles and Web Pages
25

26. Structuring the Review
 Summarize every article briefly; a
sentence or two will do
 Interpret the article in light of its
relevance to your own study
 Critique it, if necessary
 Show the stock of knowledge building up
over the course of the literature
 Show how your research topic adds
naturally to this stock of knowledge
26

27. Chapter 3: Research proposal
 The key to a successful research is the research
plan. And the heart of the research plan is the
research proposal.
 The research proposal is the main vehicle for the
planning.
 Research proposals are generally required for all
types of research endeavors.
 The research proposals constitute the evidence
of the research plan.
 It serves as a basis for determining the feasibility
of the project and provides a systematic plan of
procedure for the researcher to follow. 27

28. The research proposal… (cont’d)
 It is essentially a road map, showing clearly the
location from which a journey begins, the
destination to be reached, and the method of
getting there.
 It tells us what will be done, why it will be done,
how it will be done, where it will be done, to
whom it will be done, and what is the benefit of
doing it.
 It is useful both for sponsors & researchers
28

29. The Structure of Research Proposal
 There is no single way of writing
research proposals.
 Various organizations have their own
styles and formats of writing a
proposal
 The following proposal components
are usually important and used in
thesis and senior essay writing.
29

30. Cover page
 The cover page contains introductory
information for the proposal:
 the names of the proposed project (title)
 the author of the proposal,
 and the institution.
 Some funding agencies have standardized
cover pages that may contain additional
information.
 include logo
30

31. Title
 One of the most important parts of a proposal. It
will immediately attract or loss the interest of any
potential donor.
 the title or the topic should be worded in such a way that
it suggests the theme of the study.
 It should be long enough to be explicit but not too long so
that it is tedious.
 It should contain the key words – the important words
that indicate the subject.
 Excessive length in title is often attributable to ‘waste’ or
‘fat’ words such as ‘An investigation on ..’ or ‘Studies to
examine ..’ and the use of words that should appear in the
main text.
31

32. Abstract
 It is a short summary of the research
proposal.
 giving readers the chance to grasp the
essentials of the proposal without
having to read the details
 It should include
 a brief statement of the problem
 the research objective and the benefits of
the approach.
 The methodology
 Budget and date of finilization (for proposal)
and main finding/conclusion (final paper)
32

33. Background of the study
 The context of the problem
 the researcher presents the
background of what he wants to do
information on the problem area
 Policy & development issues of the
area
 General theoretical basis or overall
justification as to why it is needed to
conduct the study.
33

34. Statement of the Problem
 This section is an expansion of the title.
 It introduces the research by giving background,
presenting the research problem and saying how
and why this problem will be “solved.“
34

35. Statement of the problem....(cont’d)
It addresses
 Why is this research important? Who will benefit?
Why do we need to know this? Why does this
situation, method, model or piece of equipment
need to be improved? (Rationale)
 What is it we don’t know? What is the gap in our
knowledge this research will fill? What needs to be
improved? (Problem Statement)
 Each word of the statement must be expressive,
sharp, and indispensable.
35

36. #1. Sample problem statement
Productivity of Teff
 Agriculture is the main economic activity
for people living in Gishe woreda, North
Shewa Zone. Crop Production is
dominated by teff. Reports from the
district agricultural office indicate that the
productivity of teff is very low despite
widespread preference for the Crop. The
purpose of the study is to find out the
factors contributing to low productivity of
teff in Gishe Woreda.
36

37. Research Questions
 Identified from research gaps
 Should be in line with the objectives
 Each question will form a specific objective
 Posing a research question helps;
 to articulate the issues and give it an empirical
focus
 to give the reader a clear idea of the nature of
the topic
 to help the researcher to structure the research
task, and
 to set limits on the scope of the research
endeavor.
37

38. Objectives of the study
 This part addresses the purpose of the
investigation.
 The researchers lay out exactly what
is being planned by the proposed
research.
38

39. Objectives...(cont’d)
 Generally, this section should focus on
points
 what is to be achieved by the proposed
investigation?
 It shows what kind of results are expected
from the proposed study.
 Two parts
 General objective
 Specific objectives:- directly
addressed by the methodology.
39

40. The Research hypothesis
 A hypothesis is a tentative prediction
about the nature of the relationship
between two or more variables.
 It is an educated guess about the research
outcome.
 Hypothesis is a clear statement of what is
intended to be investigated.
40

41. Hypothesis…(cont’d)
 Formulating hypothesis is particularly useful
for causal relationships.
 Hypothesis are important to determine
• the nature of data needed
• It is the basis for selecting the sample,
research procedures and method of analysis
• restrict the scope of the study, preventing it
from being too broad, and to set a
framework for reporting the conclusions of
the study.
41

42. Main problems in formulating a
working hypothesis
 Formulation of a hypothesis is not an easy
task.
 The main problems that may arise include:
 The lack of clear theoretical framework
 The lack of ability to utilize that
theoretical framework logically
 The failure to be acquainted with available
research techniques that enables to
rephrase the hypothesis properly.
42

43. Characteristics of useable hypotheses
 The hypothesis must be conceptually
clear.
 The hypothesis should have empirical
references.
 The hypothesis must be specific, not too
long.
 The hypothesis should be related to
available techniques theory and
methods.
43

44. useable hypotheses…(cont’d)
 The hypothesis should be empirically
testable- verifiable or falsifiable.
• It should be considered as valuable even if
proven false.
44

45. Significance of the Study
 This section justifies the need of the study.
 This part shows the explicit benefits and the
beneficiaries of the results of the research
being conducted.
 It describes the type of knowledge expected
to be obtained and the intended purpose of
its application.
 It should indicate clearly how the results of
the research could influence theory or
practice.
45

46. Delimitations (Scope) of the study
 This part indicates the scope (coverage) of
the study. It should be delimited to
manageable size.
 clearly show what is going to be investigated
and what not
 A research project must be clear about its scope
(a) Geographical limitations:
 The study might only focus on some regions,
even though the question pertains to all of
Ethiopia.
46

47. …(cont’d)
(b) Limitations by industry or occupation:
 The study might only be able to capture
some industries or occupations- formal or
informal sector.
C) Limitations by subject matter:
 The researcher also must know that many
other interesting questions may arise that
are outside of the scope of the study.
47

48. Limitations of the study
 This may be in relation to the
weaknesses in the methodology, lack of
access to preliminary data, faulty
instruments, sampling restrictions, lack
of recent literature in the area etc.
 Note that limitation is usually part of
the final research.
48

49. Review of the Literature
 Both conceptual and empirical literature is to
be reviewed for this purpose.
 The researcher has to make it clear that his
problem has roots in the existing literature
but it needs further research and
exploration.
 Usually one source leads to the next and the
best place for the survey is the library
49

50. Literature Review Tips
 Avoid the extraneous details of the literature;
do a brief review of the information, not a
comprehensive report.
 Emphasize on methods, results and
conclusions.
 show the weaknesses and faults in the design,
discussing how you would avoid similar
problems.
 Always try to refer to the original source.
 A good review points out areas where prior
studies agree, where they disagree, and major
questions remain.
50

51. Methodology of the Study
 The methodology section attempts to answer the
research question in the most rigorous way.
 It will explain how each specific objective will be
achieved.
 It is impossible to define the budgetary needs of
the research project in the absence of a solid
methodology section.
 Methodology can be organized as:
 Description of the study area (if relevant)
 Types and sources of data:
51

52. Methodology…(cont’d)
 Sampling procedure: how to deal with
populations in which large numbers are involved.
• The details about the sampling procedures
• The researcher usually comes across
unmanageable populations.
• Sampling technique used and sample size
must be stated here.
52

53. …(cont’d)
 Data collection Tools:
• In order to collect evidence or data for a
study the researcher has to make use of
certain tools such as observations,
interviews, questionnaires, etc.
• The proposal should explain the reasons
for selecting a particular tool or tools for
collecting the data.
53

54. Methodology…(cont’d)
 Methods of data analysis
 In this section, the researcher describes
how he/she organizes, analyses and
interpret the data
 The details of the statistical techniques and
the rationale for using such techniques
should be described in the research
proposal.
 Econometric model specification, if any.
 Defnition and measurment of variables,
Expected signs, if applicable. 54

55. Budget and Work plan
 Research costs money, depending on its
complexity and number of people and activities
employed.
 A proposal should include a budget estimating
the funds required for travel expenses, typing,
printing, purchase of equipment, tools, books,
etc.
 It would include all or some of the following items:
 Data collection costs
 Data analysis costs– software and hardware
 Transport costs, respondent’s incentives, etc.
55

56. S.N Items Unit Quantities/
duration
Unit cost
in birr
Total cost
in birr
1 Stationary
 Disk
 compact disk (CD) »
 Flash disk »
 Paper »
 writing pad »
 Photo copy >>
2 Supportive services
Secretarial service
Internet
Mobile card
page
3 Transportation
4 Equipments
5 Data collection costs
•Training
•Service payment
•Travel expense
Contingency (10%)
Grand Total 30

57. Budget and Work plan…(cont’d)
 Research must also be scheduled
appropriately.
 Researcher should also prepare a
realistic time schedule for completing the
study within the time available.
 Dividing a study into phases and
assigning dates for the completion of
each phase helps the researcher to use is
time systematically.
57

58. Time Schedule
28
Time in week (months) or even days
Jan Feb Mar. April May
145 days
Activity
Activity 1
Activity 2
Activity 5
Activity 3
45 days
Activity 4
30 days
41 days
58 day

59. References (Bibliography)
• It is important that you correctly cite all consulted
published and unpublished documents that you
refer to in the proposal.
• All works cited in the proposal are listed either
alphabetically or numerically at the end of the
document usually under the heading of
“References or Bibliography “.
• References: are lists of literature, which have
been cited in the text of the document
• Bibliography: includes also items, which were
not cited but are relevant to the document.
59

60. Appendix
 Mathematical formulae or proofs that are referred
to in the proposal
 Supporting documentation and evidence-
 Questionnaire and interview checklist
 letter from owner of data, etc.
 permission from any necessary authorities
 Other supporting documentation
 For secondary data, documentation that the data
are available, and that they contain the
measurements you need
 For primary data, documentation that you will be
able to collect the data
60

61. Citation vs. Referencing
 What is referencing or citation?
 acknowledging the sources of information
(books, journals, websites, etc) in scholarly
work.
 It is a way of giving credit for someone's
thinking, writing or research.
 It is a way you tell your readers that certain
material in your work came from another
source.
 You mark the material when you use it (in-text
citation) and give the full identification at the
end (reference list).
 In academic writing you are obliged to attribute
every piece of material you use to its author.
 Avoid using outdated statistics; use only recent
reports or studies.
61

62. Basic Rules for formatting in-text
citation
Standard Citation: One author
For example:
 According to Froggatt (2003) a growing body of research is
emerging on maternal care….
OR
 A growing body of research is emerging on maternal care
(Froggatt, 2003).
Standard Citation: Two authors
For example:
 Jowett and Shanley (1993) observed during interviews that
patients responded…….
OR
 It was observed during the interview that patients
responded well to drug therapy (Jowett & Shanley, 1993).
Standard Citation: Many authors
 Herth et al. (2004) stated that…..
62

63. APA style
How to reference a Periodical/Journal Article:
 The following details are needed (if available) in this
order:
1. Author/s of article – Surname,(comma) Initial(s).(full
stop)
2. Year of publication in parentheses. (followed by a full
stop)
3. Title of article. (followed by a full stop)
4. Journal title, in italics (followed by a comma). Note that
journal title must be in full
5. Volume number in italics (followed by a comma if no
issue number is given)
6. Issue/part number, in parentheses - only needed if
issues are individually paginated (followed by a comma)
7. Page Numbers. of article (followed by a full stop)
63

64. Examples:
 one author
Neugroschl, J. (2002). Agitation: How to manage
behaviour disturbances in the older patient with
dementia. Geriatrics, 57(4), 33-37.
 two author
Hughes, E., & Rodgers, J. (1999). Changing times in
diabetes care. Diabetes Primary Care, 1(1), 4.
 The same is true for three authors as for two authors
 More than three authors
E.g., A study by Cohet, C., Cheng, S., MacDonald, C.,
Baker, M., Huntington, N., (2004) can be cited as:
Huntington, N., et al. (2004). Infections, medication
use, and the prevalence of symptoms of asthma,
rhinitis, and eczema in childhood. Journal of
Epidemiology & Community Health, 58, 852-857.64

65. How to reference a Book
1. Name/s. of author(s), editor(s) –
Surname,(comma) Initial(s).(full stop)
2. Year. of publication in parentheses.
(followed by a full stop)
3. Title. of publication in italics. (followed by a
full stop)
4. Edition. (in parentheses) if other than the
first (followed by a full stop) (edition always
abbreviated to ed.)
5. Place of publication: (followed by a
colon)
6. Publisher. (followed by a full stop)
65

66. How to reference a Book
One author
Durie, M. (2001). Mauri ora: The dynamics of Maori health.
Auckland, New Zealand: Oxford University Press.
One editor
Perl, A. (Ed.). (2004). Autoimmunity: Methods and protocols.
Totowa, NJ: Humana Press.
Two authors
Polit-O'Hara, D., & Hungler, B. P. (1999). Nursing research:
Principles and methods (6th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott.
Corporate Author
New Zealand Occupational Safety & Health Service. (1996).
Approved code of practice for the management of noise in
the workplace. Wellington, New Zealand: Department of
Labour, Occupational Safety & Health Service.
66

67. How to reference Master’s Theses?
The following details are needed (if available) in this order:
(NB: The American equivalent of a master’s thesis is a
doctoral dissertation)
1. Name/s. of author(s), editor(s) – Surname,(comma)
Initial(s).(full stop)
2. Year. of publication in parentheses. (followed by a full
stop)
3. Title. of publication in italics. (followed by a full stop)
4. Name of University, (followed by a comma)
Insert the following text before Name of University –
Unpublished master’s thesis, or if from an American
University - Unpublished doctoral dissertation
67