This document provides an overview of research methods and defines key concepts. It discusses: - The definition of research as a systematic process of examining problems to find solutions. - The main types of research as applied/fundamental and quantitative/qualitative. - The importance of properly defining the research problem by clarifying the current and desired situations and identifying gaps. - Techniques for defining problems such as reviewing literature, discussing with experts, and refining the problem statement.

1. MBA PROGRAM
Advanced Business Research
Methods
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2. Chapter I - Research Methods: An
introduction
The word research is composed of two syllabuses, re and search.
The dictionary defines the former as a prefix meaning again,
anew or over again and the latter as a verb meaning to examine
closely and carefully, to test and try or to probe.
Together they form a noun describing a careful, systematic, patient
study and investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to
establish facts or principles.
The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of current English defines
research as a careful investigation or inquiry especially through
search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.
2

3. 1.1. What is Research?
ÑResearch is an organized inquiry carried out to provide
information for the solution of a problem.
ÑResearch is an organized and systematic way of finding
answers to questions.
FAn organized, systematic, data based on critical,
objective, scientific enquiry or investigation into a
specific problem, undertaken with the purpose of finding
answers or solutions to it.
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4. Research is
ü A systematic means of problem solving
• Searching for explanation of events, phenomena, relationships and
causes.
• What, how and why things occur
• Are there interactions?
ü Business research is defined as the systematic and objective
process of generating information for aid in making business
decisions.
ü Business research is a systematic inquiry that provides information
to guide managerial decisions.

5. Objectives of Research
 To achieve new insights into a phenomenon
 To know about the existing phenomenon
 To know extent of a cause or effect
variables
 To establish relationship between variables

6. 1.2. Types of Research
a. Applied vs. Fundamental
APPLIED Research
Ø Finding a solution for an immediate problem.
Ø it is conducted to reveal answers to specific questions related to action,
performance, or policy needs.
Ø It is to discover a solution for some pressing practical problem.
Ø Applied business research is conducted to address a specific
business decision for a specific firm or organization.
FUNDAMENTAL (BASIC OR PURE)
F The investigation of problems to further and develop existing Knowledge.
F It is mainly concerned with generalization and formulations of theories.
F Gathering information and acquiring knowledge for knowledge‘s sake is termed
basic research.
F It attempts to expand the limits of knowledge in general .

7. b. Quantitative vs. Qualitative
1. Quantitative research
Ñ Quantitative research generates statistics through the
use of large-scale survey research, using methods such
as questionnaires or structured interviews.
Ñ is based on the measurement of quantity or amount.
Ñ It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in
terms of quantity.
Quantitative research helps:
1. Precise measurement
2. Knowing trends or changes overtime
3. Comparing trends or individual units

8. 2. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
ü Qualitative research explores attitudes, behaviour and experiences
through such methods as interviews or focus groups.
ü There is typically a high level of researcher involvement with
subjects; strategies of participant observation and in-depth,
unstructured interviews are often used.
• The data produced provide a description, usually narrative, of
people living through events in situations.
• This type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives
and desires,
• Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how
people feel or what they think about a particular subject or
institution.

9. 1.3. Motivation of doing Research
What makes people to undertake research?
Ø The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more
of the following:
F Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential
benefits;
FDesire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e.,
concern over practical problems initiates research;
FDesire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
F Desire to be of service to society;
FDesire to get respectability.

10. 1.4. What Are the Qualities of a Good Research?
A good research should have the following qualities:
– The purpose of the research is clearly defined.
– The research process is presented in detail.
– The research design thoroughly planned.
– High ethical standards should be applied
– Limitations should be frankly revealed.
– Adequate analysis should be made for decision makers needs.
– Findings should be presented unambiguously.
– The Conclusions should be justified.
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11. .
Chapter II
Defining Research Problem

12. 2.1. What is Research Problem?
ÑA research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty which a
researcher experiences in the context of either a theoretical or
practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same.
ÑIt Occurs when there is a difference between the current conditions
and a more preferable set of conditions.
ÑDefining the problem is critical to setting the direction for all
subsequent phases of the research process.
Ñ If the problem is not defined correctly, satisfactory performance at
the other stages in the research process will not remedy the
situation.

13. Clarify the problem
Desired/Ideal
Situation
Current situation
Gap = problem
We need to understand the current situation ( measured,
standard )
A gap b/n a desired and actual condition

14. NECESSITY OF DEFINING THE PROBLEM
qQuite often we all hear that a problem clearly stated is a
problem half solved. This statement signifies the need for
defining a research problem.
qThe problem to be investigated must be defined
unambiguously for that will help to discriminate relevant
data from the irrelevant ones.
q A proper definition of research problem will enable the
researcher to be on the track whereas an ill-defined
problem may create hurdles.

15. DEFINING THE PROBLEM WELL IT MAY ANSWER THE
Questions like:
• What data are to be collected?
• What characteristics of data are relevant and need to be
studied?
• What relations are to be explored.
• What techniques are to be used for the purpose?
• And similar other questions crop up in the mind of the
researcher who can well plan his strategy and find
answers to all such questions only when the research
problem has been well defined.

16. ¸. Usually we say that a research problem does exist
if the following conditions are met with:
i. an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the problem.
ii. some objective(s) to be attained at.
§ If one wants nothing, one cannot have a problem.
iii. Must be alternative means (or the courses of action) for obtaining the
objective(s) one wishes to attain
• There must be at least two means available to a researcher for
• if he has no choice of means, he cannot have a problem.
iv. There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to
the selection of alternatives.
üThis means that research must answer the question concerning the relative
efficiency of the possible alternatives.
v. There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains.

17. 2.2. SELECTING THE PROBLEM
FThe following points may be observed by a researcher in selecting a
research problem or a subject for research:
1. Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will
be a difficult task to throw any new light in such a case.
2. Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average
researcher.
3. Too narrow or too vague (fuzzy) problems should be avoided.
4. The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so
that the related research material or sources of research are within
one’s reach.
5. The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training
of a researcher, the costs involved, the time factor are few other
criteria that must also be considered in selecting a problem.
6. The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary
study.

18. 2.3 TECHNIQUE IN DEFINING A PROBLEM
i. statement of the problem in a general way;
ii. understanding the nature of the problem;
iii. surveying the available literature
iv. developing the ideas through discussions; and
v. rephrasing the research problem into a working
proposition.

19. (i) Statement of the problem in a general way
vthe problem should be stated in a broad general way, keeping
in view either some practical concern or some scientific or
intellectual interest.
vIn case of social research, it is considered advisable to do some
field observation, some sort of preliminary survey or what is
often called pilot survey.
• Then the researcher can himself state the problem or he can
seek the guidance of the guide or the subject expert in
accomplishing this task.

20. (ii) Understanding the nature of the problem:
FUnderstand its origin and nature clearly.
Fto discuss it with those who first raised it in order to find out
how the problem originally came about and with what objectives
in view.
FA discussion with those who have a good knowledge of the
problem concerned or similar other problems.
FThe researcher should also keep in view the environment
within which the problem is to be studied and understood.

21. (iii) Surveying the available literature:
– All available literature concerning the problem must necessarily be
surveyed and examined.
• To find out what data and other materials -- “Knowing what data
are available often serves to narrow the problem itself as well as
the technique that might be used.”
• If there are certain gaps in the theories, or whether the existing
theories applicable to the problem under study are inconsistent
with each other, or whether the findings of the different studies do
not follow a pattern consistent with the theoretical expectations
and so on.

22. (iv) Developing the ideas through discussions
–Discuss problem with colleagues and others who have enough
experience in the same area or in working on similar problems ---
known as an experience survey.
–People with rich experience are in a position to enlighten the
researcher on different aspects of his proposed study and their advice
and comments are usually invaluable to the researcher --- sharpen his
focus of attention on specific aspects within the field.

23. (v) Rephrasing the research problem
F To rephrase the research problem into a working proposition
F Rephrasing the problem into analytical or operational terms is not a
difficult task.
F Through rephrasing, the researcher puts the research problem in as
specific terms as possible so that it may become operationally
viable and may help in the development of working hypotheses.

24. Chap- 3 The Research Proposal
What is A Research Proposal?
ÑA research proposal is an activity that incorporates decisions
made during early research-project planning phase of the study
including management –research questions hierarchy and
exploration.
ÑA research proposal is a written statement of the research design
that includes a statement explaining the purpose of the study
and a detailed, systematic outline of a particular research
methodology (Zikmund, 2000).
ÑA research proposal is a work plan, outline, prospectus,
statement of intent, draft plan.
ÑA proposal is an individual’s or a company’s offer to produce a
product or render a service to a potential buyer or sponsor.
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25. vA proposal tells us:
vWhat will be done
vWhy it will be done
vHow it will be done
vWhere it will be done
vTo whom it will be done, and
vWhat is the benefit of doing it?
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26. Purpose of Research Proposal
According to Emory (1991), the purpose of a
research proposal is:
vTo present the problem to be researched and
its importance
vTo discuss the research efforts of others who
have worked on related problems.
vTo set forth the data necessary for solving the
problem
vTo suggest how the data will be gathered,
treated and interpreted
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27. The research proposal: CONTENTS
• Title of the topic
§ Resume/abstract
• 1.1. Introduction/Background
• 1.2 Problem Statement
• 1.3. Research questions and hypothesis
• 1.4. Objectives of the research
• 1.5. Scope of the study
• 1.6. Significance/ Implications
• 2. Review of Literature
• 2.1. Theoretical Literature
• 2.2. Empirical Literature
3. Research Methodology
• Time frame and work schedule
• Budget
• Bibliography
• Appendices

28. 1. RESEARCH TITLE
1. Research Title must be reflective of its problem
2. It must answer the following questions:
Ø What are you trying to investigate?
Ø What are you trying to find out, determine or discover?
Ø Who are the respondents or subjects of the study?
Ø Where questions will indicate the research locale, setting or the
place where the research study is conducted?

29. 2. Abstract
F An abstract is required in completed research studies; it is an optional section in a
research proposal.
¸ The elements of the abstract will include the following:
Ø Concise statement of research hypothesis or research questions.
Ø Statement of expected number and characteristics of participants.
Ø Brief summary of procedure or way data will be collected.
Ø Brief statement of how will analyze results.
Ø Abstract is optional in proposals.

30. 3. Introduction/Background of the study
Ñ The purpose of this section is to introduce your research idea, establish its
importance (i.e., you want to “sell” it to your reader), and explain its
significance.
F Flow of the introduction:
– Start with a general introduction that
• defines the research topic.
• demonstrates its importance.
– Then review the relevant literature.
– This review should lead directly into a statement of the purpose of the
study and your research questions.
Ñ The introduction gives the background and provides the rationale of the
study, moving from general to specific.
Ñ This is done by establishing a research area and establishing a gap in that
area. Then, the writer sets out to occupy that gap.

31. 4. Statement of the Problem
Ñ The first, and the most important step in research:
– “A problem well-defined is half solved”
– Nature of the problem determines the type of study to conduct.
– Symptoms, for example, declining sales, profit, market share, or
customer loyalty are not problems.
Ñ Answer the question: “What is the gap that needs to be filled?” and/or
“What is the problem that needs to be solved?”
Ñ State the problem clearly early in a paragraph.
Ñ Limit the variables you address in stating your problem or question.
Ñ Consider framing the problem as a question

32. The Process of Problem Definition
• .
Ascertain the
objectives
Understand
background of the
problem
Identify the
problem, not the
symptoms
Determine unit of analysis
Determine relevant variables
State research questions
and objectives

33. 5. Research questions
F Identifying the research problem and developing a question to be
answered are the first steps in the research process.
F The research question will guide the remainder of the design
process.
Qualitative:
Expand or understand a phenomenon
– What is the nature of…?
– What are the lived experiences of…? Includes no hypotheses
Study driven by induction and exploration
Quantitative:
Understand relationship between two+ variables
– What is the relationship between A and B?
– What is impact of X on Y?

34. .
6. HYPOTHESESE
¸ This is understood as:
• a statement of what one expects to find;
• a statement to be proven;
• an initial answer to the research questions;
• a common sense statement;
• an expected relationship between variables;
• an explanation of the phenomena;
• a statement of patterns of behavior.
¸ In a research that strives to explain and predict, the hypothesis states
an expected pattern, a relationship and a cause.

35. THE HYPOTHESIS MAY HAVE THE FOLLOWING FORMAT:
• There is a relationship between variables, where a change in one (independent
variable) causes a change in the other variable (dependent variable).
• There is a cause and effect relationship between the variable.
• There is an association between the variables. A relationship exists between two
variables but it is not in the sense that one is the cause and the other is the effect.
• We will use variables in stating the hypothesis. When we want to find the cause-
and-effect or other forms of relationship between two variables, two “mutually
exclusive hypothesis” are formulated: (1) null hypothesis, and (2) alternative
hypothesis.

36. FORMS OF HYPOTHESIS
ÑNULL HYPOTHESIS. This says “there is no difference,” meaning
the independent variable does not affect the dependent variable. If
data reject the null hypothesis, then the alternative hypothesis should
be true.
ÑALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS. This says “there is a difference,”
meaning, that the independent variable affects the dependent variable.
The alternative hypothesis serves as the real concern of the research. It
is a definite statement of the relationship between variables. This is
what the research hopes to determine.
WAYS OF STATING THE ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
• NON-DIRECTIONAL FORM. A difference exists between the
related variables (without expressing the direction of the relationship).
It does not tell us if the relationship is direct or inverse.
• DIRECTIONAL FORM. This states very explicitly that the
relationship is direct or inverse.

37. 7. Research objectives
ÑIf you do not know what you are looking for, you won’t find it”
F The objectives refers to the questions to be answered through the
study.
F They indicate what we are trying to get from the study or the
expected results / outcome of the study.
F Research objectives are related to and determined by the problem
definition.
F In establishing research objectives, the researcher must answer the
following questions:
i) What specific information should the project provide?
ii) If more than one type of information will be developed from
the study, which is the most important? and finally,
iii) What are the priorities?

38. 8. SCOPE of the study
F This section explains the nature, coverage, and time frame of the
study.
F It presents in brief the subject area of investigation, the place, the
time period, or school year covered.
F It discusses the variables included in the study and the exclusion
of other variables which are expected to be included.
F It indicates the extent of capability of results arising from the
sampling population

39. 9. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
ÑThis section describes the contributions of the study to knowledge.
ÑThis could be in the form of new knowledge in the field, a check on
the major findings of other studies, a check on the validity of
findings in a different population, a check on trends over time and a
check on the other findings using different methodology.
ÑIt discusses the importance of the study to the society, the country,
the government, the community, the institution, the agency
concerned, the curriculum planners and developers and to the
researchers.
ÑIt expounds on the study’s probable impact to education, science,
technology, on-going researchers and etc.

40. 10. Operational Definitions
Ø Define technical terms, jargon, or familiar words used in specialized
ways in your study
Ø Do not define familiar definitions of familiar terms (e.g., data,
perceptions).
• GUIDELINES IN WRITING DEFINITION OF TERMS
• Define those terms, which though may be common, may have a special
meaning or differently used.
• Define special terms or languages created by some disciplines. This
applies as well to terms familiar in one discipline and borrowed or
transformed by another discipline.
• Define only what is absolutely necessary and do so precisely by using an
authoritative document.
• If you cannot find an authoritative definition, find one or two such
definitions; cite them and try to create your own definitions as used in
research;
• Complicated and lengthy definitions like those required in mathematics
or science, should be placed in an appendix.

41. 11. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
F Related literature includes research findings, published or
unpublished theories and principles formulated by experts or
authorities in some field or discipline; and ideas or opinions of
experts contained in books, pamphlets magazines and periodicals.
F It should be written in terms of the purpose of the study.
F It should give more weight to studies considered more
authoritative as evaluated and should give reference to primary
rather than secondary sources.
F It should be organized thematically to conform with the specific
problems.
F It should be synthesized such that evidence from all the studies
reviewed would get an overall understanding of the state of
knowledge in the problem area.

42. Searching the Literature Should Answer These
Questions:
üWhat is already known about this area?
üWhat concepts and theories are relevant?
üWhat research methods and strategies have
been used in this area?
üAre there any controversies?
üAre there any inconsistencies in findings?
üAre there unanswered questions?

43. Why should you do a literature review?
F You need to understand what is currently known about your
topic
F Provides a conceptual/theoretical framework for the research
F Provides an integrated overview of the field of study
F Helps establish a need for the research
F May help clarify the research problem
F Helps to demonstrate researcher’s familiarity with the area
under consideration (theory and /or methods)
F Relates your study to ongoing dialogue in the literature

44. 12.METHODOLOGY
¸ The function of the Methodology is to describe in detail the
research and to answer the questions when, where and how.
¸ It includes the main components of design, population and sample,
data collection and instrumentation, and analysis.
¸ It must be explicit enough to allow the replication of research

45. 1.1 Research Design and Approach
1.2 Population, and Sampling technique
• This describes the target population and the sample frame.
• It specifies the sampling technique used and how the sample size
is determined.

46. Steps in Sampling Design
v Determine the universe/target population
v Sampling unit
v Source list/Sampling frame
v Size of sample
v Sampling procedure ( Show how and why you are going to
use the different techniques of probability and/or
nonprobability sampling techniques)
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46

47. 1.3 Data source, type and Research
Instrument
ÑThis explains the specific type of research instrument used such as
questionnaire, checklist, questionnaire-checklists, structured
interview, teacher–made test, standardized instrument which are
adopted or borrowed with permission from the author or from
other sources.
ÑThe parts of the instruments should be explained and what bits of
information are derived.
ÑThe establishment of validity and reliability should be explained
and only experts should be chosen to validate such instrument.

48. Data collection Procedures ( show in detail)
v How the Questionnaire will be administered
v Who will be involved?
v How many people will be involved?
v When will data be collected?
v Where will data be collected?
v How Data collection will be administered?
v How other methods will be applied in combination (Triangulation)
Focus Group discussions
Interviews
Observation
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48

49. .
Characteristics of Good Measurement Scales
1. Reliability
• The degree to which a measure accurately captures an individual’s
true outcome without error; Accuracy
ü synonymous with repetitive consistency
§ A measure is reliable when different attempts at measuring
something converge on the same result
§ Think of a scale to measure weight. You would expect this scale to
be consistent from one time to the next.
2. Validity
• The degree to which a measure faithfully represents the underlying
concept; Fidelity
• It is indicates the degree to which an instrument measures
what it is supposed to measure.
• Are we accurately measuring what we think we are measuring ?

50. 1.4 Method of Data analysis
Ø This describes exactly how you propose to analyze the data you
plan on collecting.
Ø In a quantitative study, you will use some type of statistical
analysis. You need to specify those analyses.
Ø In a qualitative study, there is no one or “right” way of analyzing
the data.
Ø You must explain the approach you propose to use and justify its
use.
Ø In general, qualitative analysis will involve coding and searching
for relationships and patterns in qualitative data.

51. 14. Time Frame & Work Schedule
v The proposal should include the sequence of tasks to
be performed, the anticipated length of time required
for its completion and the personnel required
v It can be presented in tabular or graphic form (Gantt
chart)
v Flow charts and other diagrams are often useful for
highlighting the sequencing and interrelationship of
different activities in the study

52. 15. FINANCIAL PLAN
v Work plan and financial plan must go hand in hand.
v The purpose is to trace all the activities to be accomplished in
undertaking the study and the corresponding financial
requirements in carrying out these activities.
• The researcher/proponent must make careful estimates of all
expenses that are likely to be incurred in carrying out the
project. It contains the following: Personnel Requirement,
Materials and Supplies, Communication Services and Other
operating expenses such as research-related travel and
transportation, materials reproduction, testing fee,
computerization, evaluation fee, etc.

53. BIBLIOGRAPHY
v This include all materials used and reviewed by the
researcher, such as books, magazines, periodicals,
journals, thesis or dissertation (published or unpublished).
• Monographs, speeches and modules, web page or internet,
etc.
Difference between a reference list and a bibliography
q The reference list only identifies sources referred to
(cited) in the text of your assignment. You may also be required
to provide a bibliography.
q A bibliography is presented in the same format as a reference
list but it includes all material consulted in the preparation
of your assignment.
• In other words, a bibliography presents the same items as a
reference list but it also includes all other sources which
you read or consulted but did not cite.

54. Chap-4 Research Design
4.1. Research Design: Definition
A Research Design is a framework for conducting the research project.
It specifies the details of the procedures necessary for obtaining the
information needed to structure and /or solve research problems.
A Research Design is the detailed blueprint used to guide a research
study toward its objectives. generate, the data collection method, the
measurement approach.
Research design requires the specification of procedures. These
procedures involve decisions on what information to the object to be
measured, and the way in which the data are to be analyzed.
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55. 4.2.Types of Research Design
.
Single Cross-Sectional
Design
Multiple Cross-Sectional
Design
Research Design
Conclusive Research
Design
Exploratory Research
Design
Descriptive
Research
Causal
Research
Cross-Sectional Design Longitudinal Design
Mar-22

56. Research Design Can Be Classified Into Two:
Exploratory Research and
Conclusive Research
1. Exploratory research is one type of research design, which has
as its primary objective the provision of insights into and
comprehension of the problem situation confronting the
researcher.
Ø also termed as formulative research studies
Ø Exploratory Research is most commonly unstructured,
informal research that is undertaken to gain background
information about the general nature of the research
problem.
Ø Exploratory research is aimed at gaining additional
information about a topic and generating possible
hypothesis to test.
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57. Uses of Exploratory Research
The main purpose
F formulating a problem for more precise investigation
F The major emphasis is on the discovery of ideas and
insights
¸A variety of methods are available to conduct exploratory
research:
• Secondary Data Analysis
• Experience Surveys : To obtain insight into the relationships
between variables and new ideas relating to the research
problem
• Case Analysis ,Focus Groups
Mar-22

58. 2. Conclusive Research
ØResearch designed to assist the decision maker in
determining, evaluating, and selecting the best course
of action to take in a given situation.
is typically more formal and structured than
exploratory research.
It is base do large, representative samples, and the
data obtained are subjected to quantitative analysis.
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59. The findings from the research are considered to be
conclusive in nature in that they are used as input into
managerial decision-making.
Conclusive research can be either descriptive or
causal and descriptive research can be either cross-
sectional or longitudinal.
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60. Descriptive Research
A Descriptive Research is a type of conclusive research that has as its
major objective the description of something-usually
characteristics or functions.
Describing the characteristics of a particular individual, or of a group
Provides answers to questions such as who, what, where, when and
how, as they are related to the research problem but not why.
Typically, answers to these questions, are found in secondary data or
by conducting surveys.
• Two basic classifications of descriptive :
• Cross-sectional studies
• Longitudinal studies
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61. I. Cross-Sectional Designs
A type of research design involving the collection of
information from any given sample of population
elements only once.
Single cross-sectional design
In this type of design only one sample of respondents is
drawn from the target population, and information is
obtained from this sample only once.
Multiple-cross-sectional design:
A cross sectional design in which there are two or more
samples of respondents, and information from each
samples is obtained only once.
It allows comparisons at the aggregate level but not at the
individual respondent’s level.
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62. II) Longitudinal Designs
A type of research design involving a fixed sample of
population elements that is measured repeatedly on the same
variables.
 The sample remains the same over time, thus providing a
series of pictures which, when viewed together, portray a vivid
illustration of the situation and the changes that are taking
place over time.
A longitudinal design differs from a cross-sectional design in
that the sample or samples remain the same over time
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63. Causal Research
A type of research where the major objective is to
obtain evidence regarding cause –and effect (causal)
relationships.
Causality may be thought of as understanding a
phenomenon in terms of conditional statements in the
form of “if X, then Y.”
These,” if -then” statements become our way of
manipulating variables of interest.
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64. Causal Research is Appropriate for the Following Purposes:
To understand which variables is the cause
(independent variables) and which variables are the
effect (dependent variables) of a phenomenon.
To determine the nature of the relationship between
the causal variables and the effect to be predicted.
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65. .
Chapter 5
Sources and Methods of data
collection

66. 1. Primary Data
Ø These are the data that are collected for the first time by an investigator for a
specific purpose.
Ø The primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time,
and thus happen to be original in character.
Ø Primary data: information that is developed or gathered by the researcher
specifically for the research project at hand.
Ø Primary data is data that is collected by a researcher from first-hand
sources, using methods like surveys, interviews, or experiments. It is
collected with the research project in mind, directly from primary sources.
Ø “Data which are gathered originally for a certain purpose are known as
primary data.”

67. Primary Data collection method
Methods - how you will collect /gather the
information
Common methods of collecting primary data,
include
ü Interviews
ü Questionnaires
ü Survey
ü Experimentation
ü Case Study
ü Observation
.

68. Interview
Ø A purposeful discussion between two or more people.
Ø The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-
verbal stimuli and reply interms of oral-verbal responses.
Ø It can help you to gather valid and reliable data that are relevant to your
research question and objectives.
Ø This method can be used through personal interviews and, if possible,
through telephone interviews.
Ø Personal interviews: It requires a person known as the interviewer asking
questions generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person or persons.

69. Type of Interivew
1. Structured interview: using standardized questions.
-involve the use of a set of predetermined questions and of highly
standardised techniques of recording.
- it follows a rigid procedure laid down, asking questions in a
form and order prescribed.
2. Unstructured interview: informal, there is no prepared questions
before interview.
--are characterised by a flexibility of approach to questioning.
---do not follow a system of pre-determined questions and standardised techniques
of recording information.
--It is used to explore in depth a general area in which you are interested.
3. Semi-structured interview: mix between the two

70. Focus Groups Discussion
• Another unstructured group meeting conducted by a manager or a
consultant.
• A small group of 10-15 people is selected representing a larger
group of people.
• Group discussion is started by asking general questions and group
members are encouraged to discuss their answers in some depth.
• The richness and validity of this information will depend on the
extent that trust exists.

71. Questionnaires
Ø A questionnaire is a set of questions for gathering information from
individuals.
Ø You can administer questionnaires by mail, telephone, using face-
to-face , as handouts, or electronically (i.e., by e- mail or through
Web-based questionnaires).
§ Questionnaires can be paper-based, or electronic.
§ List of a research or survey questions asked to respondents, and
designed to extract specific information from the respondents is called
as questionnaire.

72. Questions can be :
1. Unstructured questionnaires (Open-ended)
Or
2. Structured questionnaires (Closed Ended
Questions)
3. Semi-structured questionnaires
(Partially Structured Question)

73. Open-ended questions
F An open-ended question is one in which you do not provide any
standard answers to choose from.
F These questions ask respondents to construct answers using their
own words.
F Non-structured questions, or open-ended questions, are questions
where there is no list of answer choices from which to choose.
F Respondents are simply asked to write their response to a question.
Here is an example:
•

74. .
ü It is best to use non-structured questions when you are exploring
new ideas and you don't really know what to expect from the
respondents.
ü Open questions can generate rich and candid data, but it can be
data that is difficult to code and analyse.
• Example of a Non-structured Questions
1. How old are you? ______ years.
2. What do you like best about your job?
3. What are the facilities and services do you expect from your
library?

75. .
2. Structured questionnaires (Closed Ended
Questions)
ü are based predominantly on closed questions which produce
data that can be analyzed quantitatively for patterns and
trends.
ü Closed ended: question that asks the respondent to make a
selection from a limited list of responses.
ü The agenda is entirely predetermined by the evaluator and
provides little flexibility for respondents to qualify their
answers.
Closed questions include:
Dichotomous
Multiple choice
scales (Likert , rank-order scale,etc.

76. Dichotomous
• Dichotomous Question:
a question that has two possible responses
– Could be
• Yes/No
• True/False
• Agree/Disagree
• for/against
• Do you currently smoke? A. YES B. NO

77. Multiple Choice Questions
• What purpose do you visit the library?
( ) To read news papers
( ) To refer books
( ) To borrow and return books
( ) To brows Internet
Scaled questions
• Responses are graded on a continuum (example: rate the appearance of the
product on a scale from 1 to 10, with 10 being the most preferred appearance).
• Examples of types of scales include the Likert scale, semantic differential scale,
and rank-order scale

78. A likert scale
• A statement with which the respondent shows the
amount of agreement or disagreement.
• Likert scale measures the feelings/ degree of
agreement of respondents
Example: To what extent the information obtained from the web
based resources are useful to you?
1 Unsatisfied 2 Somewhat satisfied 3 Neutral 4 Satisfied 5 Extremely
satisfied
Agreement SD D ND A SA
Satisfaction SD D ND S SS
Quality VP P Average G VG

79. 3. Semi-structured questionnaires (Partially
Structured Question)
§ take a mixed approach.
§ In some situations, you may have a partial list of answer choices,
but you may still have some doubt or uncertainty about other
possible responses. You can create a partially structured question
such as the following:
Example of a Partially Structured Question
•What purpose do you use web based resources?
•For research work
•To write assignments
•To improve subject knowledge
•For the purpose of seminar presentation
Any other (Please specify): 1.________________
2. ________________

80. Cautions regarding Questions and Questionnaires
Construction
1. Question number
2. Order of Questions
3. Check the spellings of the question statements
4. Do not use offensive language
5. Avoid double-meaning Questions
6. If there are any difficult terms in the questionnaire than do explain them
7. Avoid unnecessary questions
8. Know the academic and mental capacities of the target population
9. If there are certain personal or emotional questions ask them in the middle or
at the end
10.Don't ask for elaborate answers
11.Use polite language
12.Don't write questions that already contain the answer to the question
13.Let the respondents know that their privacy will be ensured

81. Observation Method
Ø The observation method is the most commonly used method
specially in studies relating to behavioural sciences.
Ø Under the observation method, the information is sought by
way of investigator’s own direct observation without asking
from the respondent.
Ø The main advantage of this method is that subjective bias is
eliminated, if observation is done accurately.
Ø Secondly, the information obtained under this method relates to
what is currently happening; it is not complicated by either the
past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes.

82. Types of observations.
1. Non-participant: In this role, the researcher does not become, nor aims
to become an integral part of the system or community they are
observing.
---when the observer observes as a detached emissary without any
attempt on his part to experience through participation what others feel.
2. Participant: In this role, the researcher is, or becomes, a part of the
team, community, or cultural group they are observing.
--If the observer observes by making himself, more or less, a member of
the group he is observing so that he can experience what the members
of the group experience,

83. 2. Secondary Data
F Secondary data: information that has previously been gathered
by someone other than the researcher and/or for some other
purpose than the research project at hand.
Ø The secondary data are those which have already been
collected by someone else and which have already been passed
through the statistical process.
Ø Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer
to the data which have already been collected and analysed by
someone else.
Ø This means that this kind of data has already been collected by
some researchers or investigators in the past and is available
either in published or unpublished form.

84. Secondary Data Source
Internal Corporate Information
Government Agencies
Trade and Industry Associations
Marketing Research Firms
Commercial Publications
News Media

85. .
Chapter 6
Sample Design and Procedure

86. Sampling Fundamentals
¸ Sampling may be defined as the process of obtaining information
about an entire population by examining only a part of it.
¸ A s a m p l e i s a s u b s e t , o r s o m e p a r t ,
of a larger population.
¸ The purpose of sampling is to estimate an unknown
characteristic of a population.
¸ The items so selected constitute what is technically called a
sample, their selection process or technique is called sample
design and the survey conducted on the basis of sample is
described as sample survey.

87. SOME FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS
1. Universe/Population:
ü refers to the total of the items or units in any field of inquiry,
ü refers to the total of items about which information is desired.
ü Any complete group of entities that share some common set of
characteristics.
ü The attributes that are the object of study are referred to as
characteristics and the units possessing them are called as elementary
units (population element).
ü The aggregate of such units is generally described as population.

88. .
ØThe population or universe can be finite or infinite.
v The finite population if it consists of a fixed
number of elements so that it is possible to
enumerate it in its totality.
üFor instance, the population of a city, the number of
workers in a factory are examples of finite
populations.
v An infinite population is that population in which it
is theoretically impossible to observe all the elements.
• Thus, in an infinite population the number of items is
infinite i.e., we cannot have any idea about the
total number of items.
ü The number of stars in a sky, possible rolls of a pair of
dice are examples of infinite population.

89. 2. Sampling frame:
ØA list containing all sampling units is known as
sampling frame.
ØThus sampling frame consists of a list of items
from which the sample is to be drawn. It is also
called
working population.
3. Sampling design:
v A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a
sample from the sampling frame.
• It refers to the technique or the procedure the
researcher would adopt in selecting some sampling
units from which inferences about the population is
drawn.

90. 4. Statistic(s) and parameter(s):
• A statistic is a characteristic of a sample, whereas
a parameter is a characteristic of a population.
• Parameter: A summary description of a variable in the
population (e.g., the mean and standard deviation are
parameters).
• Statistic: A summary description of a variable in the
sample.
• Confidence Level: The amount of error the researcher is
willing to tolerate (e.g., 5%)

91. Population Vs. Sample
• Population of Interest
Sample
Population Sample
Parameter Statistic
We measure the sample using statistics in order to draw
inferences about the population and its parameters.

92. 5. Sampling error:
v In general, there are two types of errors:
a. non-sampling errors and
b. sampling errors(random sampling errors).
1. Sampling Error
• Sampling error is the error that arises in a data collection
process as a result of taking a sample from a population rather
than using the whole population.
• Random sampling error is the difference between the sample
result and the result of a census conducted using identical
procedures.
2. Non-sampling errors(systematic sampling error)
v These are errors that arise during the course of all data
collection activities.

93. Sampling vs Cesus
v All items in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘Universe’ or
‘Population.’
v A complete enumeration of all items in the ‘population’ is
known as a census inquiry.
v The respondents selected should be as representative of the total
population as possible in order to produce a miniature cross-section.
• The selected respondents constitute what is technically called a
‘sample’ and the selection process is called ‘sampling technique.’
§

94. Sample vs. Census

95. SAMPLE DESIGN
Ø A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a
given population.
• It refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher would
adopt in selecting items for the sample.
Ø Sample design may as well lay down the number of items to be
included in the sample i.e., the size of the sample.
• Researcher must select/prepare a sample design which should be
reliable and appropriate for his research study

96. The Sampling Design Process
• .
Define the population
Determine sample procedure
Determine Sampling Frame
Probability Sampling
Simple Random Sampling
Stratified Sampling
Cluster Sampling
Non-Probability Sampling
Convenience
Judgmental
Quota
Determine Appropriate
Sample Size
Conduct fieldwork

97. Classification of Sampling Techniques
• .
Sampling Techniques
Nonprobability
Sampling Techniques
Probability
Sampling Techniques
Convenience
Sampling
Judgmental
Sampling
Quota
Sampling
Snowball
Sampling
Systematic
Sampling
Stratified
Sampling
Cluster
Sampling
Other Sampling
Techniques
Simple Random
Sampling

98. Probability Sampling
Ø A n o b j e c t i ve p r o c e d u r e i n w h i c h t h e
probability of selection is nonzero and is
known in advance for each population unit.
Ø It is also called random sampling.
Ø Every element in the population has known,
nonzero probability of selection.

99. 1. Simple Random Sampling (SRS)
q Population members are selected directly from the sampling frame
• Equal probability of selection for every member (sample
size/population size)
• Use random number table or random number generator
• EXAMPLE:
• A population consists of 845 employees of an Industry
• A sample of 52 employees is to be selected from that population. The
name of each employee is written on a small slip of paper and deposited all
of the slips in a box.
• After they have been thoroughly mixed, the first selection is made by
drawing a slip out of the box without looking at it.
• This process is repeated until the sample of 52 employees is
chosen.

100. 2.Systematic Sampling
• Order all units in the sampling frame based on
some variable and number them from 1 to N
• Choose a random starting place from 1 to N and
then sample every k units after that

101. systematic random sample
number the units in the population from 1 to
N
decide on the n (sample size) that you want
or need
k = N/n = the interval size
randomly select an integer between
1 to k
then take every kth unit

102. 3. Stratified Sampling
• The chosen sample is forced to contain units from each of
the segments, or strata, of the population
– equalizing "important" variables
• year in school, geographic area, product use, etc.
• Steps:
§Population is divided into mutually exclusive and exhaustive strata
based on an appropriate population characteristic. (e.g. race, age,
gender etc.)
§Simple random samples are then drawn from each stratum.

103. Stratified Sampling
• Direct Proportional Stratified Sampling
– The sample size in each stratum is proportional to the
stratum size in the population
• Disproportional Stratified Sampling
– The sample size in each stratum is NOT proportional to
the stratum size in the population
– Used if
1) some strata are too small
2) some strata are more important than others
3) some strata are more diversified than others

104. 4. Cluster Sampling
§ Clusters of population units are selected at random and then all or
some randomly chosen units in the selected clusters are studied.
Steps:
§ Population is divided into mutually exclusive and
exhaustive subgroups, or clusters. Ideally, each
cluster adequately represents the population.
§ A simple random sample of a few clusters is selected.
§ All or some randomly chosen units in the selected
clusters are studied.

105. Non-Probability Sampling
Ø Subjective procedure in which the probability of
selection for some population units are zero or
unknown before drawing the sample.
Ø information is obtained from a non-representative
sample of the population.
Ø Survey results cannot be projected to the population

106. Types of Non-Probability
1. Convenience Sampling
– A researcher's convenience forms the basis for selecting a sample.
– refers to sampling by obtaining people or units that are conveniently available.
ü Selecting easily accessible participants with no randomization.
For example, asking people who live in your dorm to take a survey for your
project.
2. Judgment Sampling
– A researcher exerts some effort in selecting a sample that seems to be most
appropriate for the study.
– an experienced individual selects the sample based on his or her judgment about
some appropriate characteristics required of the sample member.
– Researchers select samples that satisfy their specific purposes, even if they are
not fully representative.

107. 3. Snowball Sampling
§ Selecting participants by finding one or two
participants and then asking them to refer
you to others.
§ For example, meeting a homeless person, interviewing that
person, and then asking him/her to introduce you to other
homeless people you might interview.
4. Quota Sampling
– The population is divided into cells on the basis of relevant control
characteristics.
– A quota of sample units is established for each cell.
• 50 women, 50 men
– A convenience sample is drawn for each cell until the quota is met.
(similar to stratified sampling)

108. Quota Sampling
• Quota sampling is the non probability equivalent of stratified sampling.
§ First identify the stratums and their proportions as they
are represented in the population
Then convenience or judgment sampling is used to select the
required number of subjects from each stratum
Quota sampling may be viewed as two-stage restricted judgmental
sampling.
– The first stage consists of developing control categories, or quotas,
of population elements.
– In the second stage, sample elements are selected based on
convenience or judgment.