Research PPT.pptx

CHAPTER-TWO
DEFINING RESEARCH PROBLEM AND
HYPOTHESIS FORMULATION
2.1. What is Research Problem?
 Research forms a cycle. It starts with a problem and ends
with a solution to the problem. The problem statement is
therefore the axis which the whole research revolves around,
because it explains in short the aim of the research.
 A research problem is the situation that causes the researcher
to feel anxious, confused and ill at ease. It is the demarcation
of a problem area within a certain context involving the who
or what, the where, the when and the why of the problem
situation.

What is Research Problem?...
 On the surface, “problem” appears to be very easily defined.
Dictionary definitions include “a situation, person or thing
that needs attention and needs to be dealt with or solved”
(Cambridge online dictionary, 2007) and “a question raised for
inquiry, consideration, or solution” (Merrianwebster online
dictionary, 2007).
 From a scientific perspective, a research problem is defined
as a general issue, concern, or controversy addressed in
research. Moreover, a research problem “must integrate
concepts and theoretical perspective of the literature into the
problem to be addressed”.
 A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty,
which a researcher faces (experiences) in the context of both
a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a
solution for the same.

 A research problem exists if at least two elements are
present. First, the current state differs from the ideal state
(Sekaran, 2003).
 Second, there is not an “acceptable” solution available. The
absence of an acceptable solution can entail either there is no
solution documented in the literature, or the solutions noted
in the literature are leading to mixed results or contradictions
(i.e. not properly addressing the problem) (Creswell, 2005).
 There are many problem situations that may give rise to
research. Three sources usually contribute to problem
identification.

1) Own experience or the experience of others may be a source
of problem supply.
2) Scientific literature. You may read about certain findings and
notice that a certain field was not covered. This could lead
to a research problem.
3) Theories could be a third source. Shortcomings in theories
could be researched
Research can thus be aimed at :
 clarifying or substantiating an existing theory,
 clarifying contradictory findings,
 correcting a faulty methodology, at correcting the
inadequate or unsuitable use of statistical techniques,
 at reconciling conflicting opinions, or at solving existing
practical problems.

2.2. Techniques or Approaches to Problem Definition
 The prospective researcher should think on what caused the
need to do the research (problem identification). The
question that he/she should ask is: Are there questions about
this problem to which answers have not been found up to the
present?
 Research originates from a need that arises. A clear
distinction between the problem and the purpose should be
made. The problem is the aspect the researcher worries
about, thinks about, and wants to find a solution for.
 The purpose is to solve the problem, i.e. find answers to the
question(s). If there is no clear problem formulation, the
purpose and methods are meaningless.

Techniques or Approaches to Problem Definition...
Keep the following in mind:
• Outline the general context of the problem area.
• Highlight key theories, concepts and ideas current in this area.
• What appear to be some of the underlying assumptions of
this area?
• Why are these issues identified important?
• What needs to be solved?
• Read round the area (subject) to get to know the background
and to identify unanswered questions or controversies,
and/or to identify the most significant issues for further
exploration.

 The research problem should be stated in such a way that it
would lead to analytical thinking on the part of the researcher
with the aim of possible concluding solutions to the stated
problem.
 Research problems can be stated in the form of either
questions or statements.
• The research problem should always be formulated
grammatically correct and as completely as possible.
• You should bear in mind the wording (expressions) you
use. Avoid meaningless words.
• There should be no doubt in the mind of the reader what your
intentions are.
• Demarcating the research field into manageable parts by
dividing the main problem into sub problems is of the utmost
importance.

Sub problem(s): Sub problems are problems related to the
main problem identified. Sub problems flow from the main
problem and make up the main problem. It is the means to
reach the set goal in a manageable way and contribute to
solving the problem.
Statement of the problem: The statement of the problem
involves the demarcation and formulation of the problem, i.e.
the WHO/WHAT, WHERE, WHEN, WHY. It usually includes
the statement of the hypothesis.
CHECKLIST FOR TESTING THE FEASIBILITY OF THE RESEARCH
PROBLEM (from the word)

Points to be Observed by a Researcher in Selecting a
Research Problem
• Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for
it will be a difficult task to throw any new light in such a case.
• Controversial subject should not become the choice of an
average researcher
• Too narrow and too vague problems should be avoided
• The subject selected for research should be familiar and
feasible so that the related research material or sources of
researcher are within one’s reach.
• The importance of subject, the qualification and the training
of a researcher, the costs involved, and the time factor are
few other criteria
• The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary
study

Sources of Research Problem...
There are some important sources of problems, which are helpful to
a researcher for selecting a problem. These include the following:
 Professional experience
 Inference from theory
 Technological and social changes
2.3. Components of Research Problem
The problem consists of the following components:
1. The decision maker (which can be individual, organization, etc..,)
who has some difficulties or problem.
2. There must be some objectives (goals) to be attained. If one wants
nothing, there cannot have a problem. The objective of the decision
maker provides motivation to solve the problem.
3. There must be alternative courses of action for obtaining the
objective(s) one wishes to attain. If individual has no choice of
alternative, he cannot have a problem.

2.3. Components of Research Problem...
4. There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher
with regards to the selection of alternatives.
5. There must be some environment(s) to which they difficulty
pertains.
4. Research Hypothesis and Research Questions
 Hypothesis form is employed when the state of the existing
knowledge and theory permits formulation of reasonable
prediction about the relationship among variables.
 Hypothesis is considered as the principal instrument in
research. Its main function is to suggest new experiments and
observations.
 Decision makers often face a situation wherein they are
interested in testing hypotheses on the basis of available
information and then take decisions on the basis of such
testing.

2.4. Research Hypothesis and Research Questions
 The term hypothesis refers to an idea or a suggestion that is
based on known facts and used as a basis for reasoning or
further investigation. It is also referred to as a mere
assumption or some supposition to be proved or disproved.
 Quite often a research hypothesis is a predictive statement,
capable of being tested by scientific methods.
Examples of hypothesis:
 An increase in sales person’s effort will increase the sales of a
product
 Business faculty students purchase more than the education
students
 Females are more loyal than males in repayment of loan

Role of hypothesis
In research, a hypothesis serves important functions:
 It guides the direction of the study
 It identifies facts that are relevant and those that are not
 It suggest which form of research design is likely to be most
appropriate
 It provides a framework for organizing the conclusions that
result
Characteristics of Hypothesis
• A good hypothesis must possess the following characteristics
Hypothesis should/must be:
 Clear and precise
 Capable of being tested

Characteristics of Hypothesis
 State relationship between variables
 Limited in scope and must be specific
 Consistent with most known facts
 Stated as far as possible in simple terms
 Amenable to testing within a reasonable time
 Explain the facts that give rise to the need for explanation
The Research Question and Hypothesis (See the
word)

CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
3.1. What is a Research proposal?
 A research proposal is a written document requesting both
authorization and funds to undertake a specific research
project. Its always includes a statement explaining the
purpose of the study or a definition of the problem.
 It systematically outlines the particular research methodology
and details the process that will be utilized at each stage of
the research process.
In research proposal:
 What information will be required?
 What research procedures will be implemented? will be
clearly specified so that others may understand their exact
implications.

3.2. Functions of the Research Proposal
 Research proposal may function at least in three ways,
namely, as a means of communication, as a plan and as a
contract.
1. Proposal as a means of communication serves to
communicate the investigator’s research plan to those who
give consultations and/or disburse fund. In general, the
quality of assistance and the probability of financial support
will all depend directly on the clarity and justification of the
proposal.
2. Research proposal as plan, helps the researcher to organize
his ideal in a systematic manner and to look for strengths and
flaws, a successful proposal sets out the plan in step by step
detail. That is, it provides an inventory of what must be done
and which materials have to be collected as a preliminary
step.

3.2. Functions of the Research Proposal
3. Proposal also functions as a contract. A Completed proposal
approved for execution and signed by all members of the
sponsoring committee, constitute a bond of agreement
between the researcher and that committee.
 An approved grant proposal results in a contract between the
investigator (and often the university) and funding sources.
 Proposal for thesis and dissertation should be in final form
prior to the collection of data.
 Once document is approved in final form, neither the student
nor the sponsoring faculty members should be free to alter
the fundamental terms of the contract by unilateral decision.

3.3. The Purpose of Proposals
The general purposes for writing proposals include:
1. To present the problem that will be researched and to show its
importance
2. To discuss the research efforts of others who have worked on
related problems
3. To identify the data that are necessary for solving the problem
and how these data will be gathered, treated, and
interpreted.
3.4. Why Does Research Proposal Fail?
 The research proposal may fail by sponsoring institutions or
advisor because of the following:
1) Aim and objectives of the research proposal are unclear

3.4. Why Does Research Proposal Fail?
2) There is a mismatch between the approach being adopted and
the issues to be addressed
3) The overall plan is too ambitious and difficult to achieve in the
time table
4) The researcher does not seem to have conducted enough in
depth background research
5) Problem is of insufficient importance
6) Information about data collection is insufficiently detailed
7) Information about the data analysis method is insufficiently
detailed
8) Time scale is inappropriate or unrealistic
9) Resources and budget have not been carefully thought out
10) If the topic selected has been done too many times before

3.5. General Format and Elements of Proposal…
 There is no a hard and a fast format in scientific research
proposal writing. It varies from one organization to another
and from one country to another.
 Some universities and funding agencies make very specific
demand for the format of proposals. Others provide general
guidelines for form and content.
 Though the format varies, the essence expressed in different
proposal remains the same.
The major components (Elements of proposal) include:
1. Cover Page
2. Title
3. Abstract (Optional)
4. Introduction

The major components of proposal…
5. Statement of the problem
6. Objective of the study
7. Significance of the Study
8. Scope (delimitation) of the study
9. Literature review
10. Materials and methods (methodology)
11. Work plan (time budget)
12. Cost Budget
13. References
14. Appendix

 Each of them can have their own separate section in research
proposal.
 Each main section should begin on a new page. Some can be
merged. Some on the other hand can be split into separate
sections or into further subsections.
1. Cover Page
 Cover page contains introductory information for the
proposal: the names of the proposed project or title of the
research, the author of the proposal or principal investigator
and the institution which funds the research, and date.
2. Title
 The title is one of the most important parts of a proposal. It
will immediately attract or lose the interest of any potential
donor.

 The title should be as explicit as possible and transparent
 It should be clear and short
 It should capture and reflect the content of the proposal. It
should enable the readers to understand the concepts of the
study
 Try to get the title down to one line or two
3. Abstract (Optional in Proposal)
 Is summary, which reflects the whole content of the proposal
(most of the time less than 300 words).
 Abstract should be concise (to the point), informative and
should provide brief information about the whole problem to
be investigated.

Abstract…
The abstract of a proposal should contain the following points :
 Title or topic of the research
 Statement of the problem and objective
 Methodology of investigation
 Key facts that demonstrate the need for the program, outline
specific activities that will be undertaken
 Key elements that you believe make your program
extraordinary
 Amount you are requesting from the particular funding
source, and the total cost of the program
 Expected result (tentative only if a researcher starts with a
formulated hypothesis)

4. Introduction …
 This section in research proposal should give the general
background of the study and the need for undertaking the
study.
 It reviews the previous work to reveal what is known of the
subject.
Some question to be addressed in this part may include:
 What are current and previous studies that have been made
on the issues to be studied?
 What is the present gap in knowledge and current trend?
 What makes worth studying?
 Why has the problem not been solved yet?
 What do we intend to fill the gap or solve the problem?

5. Statement of the Problem
 The problem statement is the one area of the proposal that
should describe the nature of the problem and the difficulties
facing the people you serve.
 This section should include a clear and concise statement of
the purpose or goal of the project.
 It consists of (1) the specific question(s) to be answered, (2) a
brief explanation of the need for or significance of the study,
and (3) an explanation of how the results will contribute to
study the existing body of knowledge.
 The problem statement describes the context for the study
and it also identifies the general analysis approach. A problem
might be defined as the issue that exists in the literature,
theory, or practice that leads to a need for the study.

5. Statement of the Problem…
 It is important in a proposal that the problem stand out—that
the reader can easily recognize it. Sometimes, obscure and
poorly formulated problems are masked in an extended
discussion.
 In such cases, reviewers and/or committee members will have
difficulty recognizing the problem. In general, effective
problem statements answer the question “Why does this
research need to be conducted.”
6. Objective
 In this section, the proposal can indicate what is expected to
occur and why, suggest the variables that determine a
relationship, or provide an explanation for a phenomenon to
that has been observed, which strengthens the proposal and
research agenda.

6. Objective…
Generally this section should focus on the points
 What is to be achieved by the proposed investigation has to
be stated plainly and concisely
 Should be to the point and logically arranged
 Should be stated in a form which shows the relations between
variables
 Must clearly state the target of the research activity, i.e. what
kind of results are expected or sought from conducting
research.
7. Significance of the Study
 Indicate how your research will refine, revise, or extend
existing knowledge in the area under investigation.
 Note that such refinements, revisions, or extensions may have
substantive, theoretical, or methodological significance.

7. Significance of the Study…
When thinking about the significance of your study, ask
yourself the following questions:
 What will results mean to the theoretical framework that
framed the study?
 What suggestions for subsequent research arise from the
findings?
 What will the results mean to the practicing educator?
 Will results influence programs, methods, and/or
interventions?
 Will results contribute to the solution of educational
problems?
 Will results influence educational policy decisions?

Significance of the Study…
 What will be improved or changed as a result of the proposed
research?
 How will results of the study be implemented, and what
innovations will come about?
8. Scope (Delimitation) of the Study
 Delimitation addresses how a study will be narrowed in scope,
that is, how it is bounded.
 This is the place to explain the things that you are not doing
and why you have chosen not to do them—the literature you
will not review (and why not), the population you are not
studying (and why not), the methodological procedures you
will not use (and why you will not use them).

8. Scope (Delimitation) of the Study…
 Limit your delimitations to the things that a reader might
reasonably expect you to do but that you, for clearly
explained reasons, have decided not to do.
9. Literature Review
 Literature review means locating literature in a variety of
sources reading it carefully and thoroughly organizing it into
the study along with the line of investigation.
 The review of the literature provides the background and
context for the research problem.
 It should establish the need for the research and indicate that
the writer is knowledgeable about the area.

9. Literature Review …
In your literature review,
• Demonstrate to the reader that you have a comprehensive
grasp of the field and are aware of important recent
substantive and methodological developments
• Avoid statements that imply that little has been done in the
area or that what has been done is too extensive to permit
easy summary. Statements of this sort are usually taken as
indications that the writer is not really familiar with the
literature.
• Make sure that the literature review is generally brief and to
the point.
The literature review accomplishes several important things:
• It shares with the reader the results of other studies that are
closely related to the study being reported.

9. Literature Review …
• It relates a study to the larger, ongoing dialogue in the
literature about a topic, filling in gaps and extending prior
studies.
• It provides a framework for establishing the importance of the
study, as well as a benchmark for comparing the results of a
study with other findings.
• It “frames” the problem earlier identified.
• It is not necessary to have a separate heading for the review
of literature in a proposal.
• In many respects it is more useful to show that such a review
has been made by citing useful literature in problem
statement (introductory part), objective, methodology and
where ever this information has been helpful in developing
the research proposal.

10. Material and Methods (Methodology) or Data and
Methodology
• The methodologies are the core and the largest part of the
scientific research proposal. The methodologies are largely
descriptive.
• This section is an essential prerequisite for validating the
results and hence acceptability of the proposal.
• Methodology should give full details to show how the
research activity is going to be carried out.
• Since this section is the largest and the most important part of
the research proposal, researchers are advised to split it into
sub sections.
• Such effort makes the proposal transparent and clear to the
readers as well as the reviewing committee and therefore,
minimizes the risk of being rejected by a research committee
(examiners board).

Material and Methods…
The suggested sub sections can be:
– Data (materials)
– Methodology (methods) a
a. Data (some authors prefer Materials)
 In this subsection of the methodology, information required to
attack the problems is explained.
 Each variable or indicator identified by a researcher is
explained and justified to show how it is relevant to the
current study.
 The source of the data, the site (location) of the study and
time that will be included (relevant time period) should also be
specified.
 Detailed techniques of sampling, data collection and method
of analysis would be left to the next sub section.
 This is important particularly when a researcher plans to
collect primary data to test the basic hypothesis.

Methods (Methodology)
In this subsection the details of all technical matters will be
explained. These include:
 Method of data collection:
 How the data are obtained from earlier specified sources.
There are different methods to collect primary data.
 All available methods are expected to be considered by a
researcher and the best one is selected.
 The researcher explains and justifies how his/her selection of
a particular method is relevant and appropriate to his/her
study.
 Method of sampling: from which elements are the data
collected? The researcher has to specify the elements from
which the desired information is collected and how these
elements are selected.

Methods (Methodology) …
 There are different sampling techniques. The researcher is
expected to consider all of them and select the one, which is
appropriate for the current study.
 Justification of his choice of a particular sampling technique is
relevant here. The sample size should also be specified with
its method of sample size determination.
 Method of analysis:
 Once the information is collected how it will be processed and
analyzed will also be explained.
 Particularly if the researcher uses mathematical models like
simple or multiple regression, time series or liner
programming models, he has to show their mathematical
derivations and relations briefly to demonstrate their
relevancy for the current study.

Method of presenting the outcome
 Sometimes it is worth to mention how the outcome of the
research will be presented to consumers (general public).
11. Budget of time

Choosing the Questions
It is desirable also to define at an early stage the population to
whom the question is to be directed and to decide the nature
of the sample to be drawn, as this may influence the drafting of
the question.
Each question should contribute clear information on a specific
aspect to be explored or else the question should be discarded
ruthlessly.
It may be necessary to choose questions and to specify
possible answers in such a way as to facilitate coding.
The questionnaire should start with simple factual questions,
so that the person completing it gets it a good start.

 The distinction between a leading question and a neutral
question is sometimes difficult to decide.
For example, which of following is a neutral wording?
 Are you in favour of abolishing corporal (physical)
punishment?
 Should corporal punishment be abolished?
 Should corporal punishment be retained etc.?
Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire
 covering letter of the questionnaire is drafted in a befriending
tone .
 The questionnaire contains directions which are clear and
complete
 It is reasonably short, though comprehensive enough to
secure all relevant information.

 It does not seek information which may be obtainable from
other sources such as school records and University results.
 It is attractive in appearance, neatly arranged, clearly
duplicated and free from typographical errors.
 It avoids annoying or embracing questions, which arouse
hostility in the respondent.
 Items are arranged in categories which ensure easy and
accurate responses.
 Questions do not contain leading suggestions for the
respondents and are objective in nature.
 They are arranged in good order. Simple and general
questions should precede the specific and complex ones.
 They are so worded, that it is easy to tabulate and interpret
the responses.

Limitations of the Questionnaire Technique
 In this technique, a research worker has to depend on several
hundred persons from whom response is expected and it is
not an easy job to get active and willing cooperation of all the
respondents.
 One may be very diligent and sincere about his work but one
cannot be sure that the responses would be forthcoming.
 Some of the respondents may hold back their replies because
they are skeptical about the value of research
 Others may not respond for want of time, or because they do
not feel interested in the problem in hand or because they
have not been sufficiently motivated by the introductory
letter.
 The research worker may therefore remain in a state of
expectancy and his work may be delayed.

4. Depth Interviews
 depth interviews are those interviews that are designed to
discover underlying motives and desire and are often used in
motivational research.
 Such Interviews are held to explore needs, desires, and
feelings of respondents.
5.2. Secondary Data
 Secondary data means data that are already available i.e.
they refer to the data which have already been collected and
analyzed by someone else.
 Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished
data.
 Secondary data is information gathered for purposes other
than the completion of a research project.

Secondary Data…
 The two major advantages of using secondary data in market
research are time and cost savings.
 The secondary research process can be completed rapidly –
generally in 2 to 3 week.
 When secondary data is available, the researcher need only
locate the source of the data and extract the required
information.
 Secondary research is generally less expensive than primary
research.
 Secondary research expenses are incurred by the originator of
the information.

Disadvantages of secondary data…
There are also a number of disadvantages of using secondary
data. These include:
 Secondary information pertinent to the research topic is
either not available, or is only available in insufficient
quantities.
 Some secondary data may be of questionable accuracy and
reliability.
 Data may be in a different format or units than is required by
the researcher.
 Much secondary data is several years old and may not reflect
the current market conditions.
5.2.1. Sources and Methods of Secondary Data Collection
 Secondary data is classified in terms of its source – either
internal or external.

Sources and Methods of Secondary Data Collection…
 Internal, or in-house data, are secondary information
acquired within the organization where research is being
carried out.
 External secondary data are obtained from outside sources.
Internal Data Sources
Internal secondary data are usually inexpensive information
source for the company conducting research, and is the place to
start for existing operations.
There are three main sources of internal data
1. Sales and marketing reports
 Type of product/service purchased
 Type of end-user/industry segment
 Method of payment

Main sources of internal data…
• Product or product line
• Sales territory
• Salesperson
• Date of purchase
• Amount of purchase
• Price
• Application by product
• Location of end-user
2. Accounting and financial records
3. Miscellaneous reports

External Data Sources
A good place to start your search is the local city, college or
university library.
• Federal government
• Provincial/state governments
• Statistics agencies
• Trade associations
• General business publications
• Magazine and newspaper articles
• Annual reports
• Academic publications
• Library sources
• Computerized bibliographies
• Syndicated services.

The four methods of secondary…
 Internet search, using online resources to gather data for
research purposes.
 Library search and indexing, this technique requires to go
through written texts that have already done similar work and
utilizing their researches for your dissertations.
 Data collection organizations, for example Gallup and AC
Nielsen conduct
 News Papers and Magazines, journals and other similar
periodicals.

CHAPTER SIX
SAMPLE DESIGN AND PROCEDURE
Some Fundamental Definitions
Researchers usually cannot make direct observations of every
individual in the population they are studying. Instead, they
collect data from a subset of individuals – a sample – and use
those observations to make inferences about the entire
population.
Ideally, the sample corresponds to the larger population on the
characteristic(s) of interest. In that case, the researcher's
conclusions from the sample are probably applicable to the
entire population.

Definitions…
 This type of correspondence between the sample and the
larger population is most important when a researcher wants
to know what proportion of the population has a certain
characteristic – like a particular opinion or a demographic
feature.
 Public opinion polls that try to describe the percentage of the
population that plans to vote for a particular candidate, for
example, require a sample that is highly representative of the
population.
 Before going to details and uses of sampling it is appropriate
to be familiar with some basic definitions concerning
sampling:

Definitions…
1) Population: is the theoretically specified aggregation of survey
elements from which the survey sample is actually selected.
2.) Sampling Frame: is the lists of elements from which the
sample is drawn
3. Sample: A subset or some part of a larger population.
4. Sample design: is a definite plan for obtaining a sample frame.
5. Sampling: is the process of using a small number or part of a
larger population to make conclusion about the whole
population.
6. Element: is unit from which information is collected and which
provides the basis of analysis.
7. Statistic: is a characteristic of a sample

Definitions…
8. Parameter: is a characteristic of a population
6.2. Sampling Procedure
It involves the following procedures:
1) Defining population
 Defining the target population implies specifying the subject of the
study.
 If the researcher problem is not properly defined the defining
population will be difficult.
 Therefore,the researcher must begin with careful specification of
his/her population.
2) Census Vs Sample
 Once the population has been defined, the researcher must decide
whether the survey is to be conducted among all members of the
population or only a subset of the population.
 That is, a choice must be made between census and sample.

Census vs Population…
Advantages of Census
• Reliability: Data derived through census are highly
reliable. The only possible errors can be due to
computation.
• Detailed information: Census data yield much more
information.
Limitation of Census
• Expensiveness: Investigating each elements of the
population is expensive to any individual researcher
• Excessive time and energy: Beside cost factor, census
survey takes too long time and consumes too much
energy.

Need for Sampling
Some of the major reasons why sampling is necessary are:
• The destructive nature of certain test
• The physical impossibility of checking all items in the population
• The cost of studying all the items in a population is often prohibitive
• The adequacy of sample results
• To contact the whole population is often time consuming
Sampling techniques is used under the following conditions:
• Vast data
• When at most accuracy is not required
• Infinite population
• When census is impossible
• Homogeneity

Limitation of Sampling Technique
• Less accuracy
• Misleading conclusion
• Need for specialized knowledge
Essentials of ideal Sample
An ideal sample should fulfill the following four basic
characteristics
• Representativeness: an ideal sample must represent
adequately the whole population. It should not lack a quality
found in the whole population.
• Independence: each unit should be free to be included in the
sample
• Adequacy: the number of units included in the sample should
be sufficient to enable derivation of conclusion applicable for
the whole population.
• Homogeneity: the element included in the sample must bear
likeness with other element.

3. Sampling Design
Operationally, sample design is the heart of sampling planning.
Sample design should answer the following:
• What type of sample to use?
• What is the appropriate sample unit?
• What frame (list of sampling) is available for the population?
• How are refusals and non-response to be handled?
4) Sample Size Determination
 A researcher is worried about sample size because of the fact
that sample size (number of elements in sample) and
precision of the study are directly related.
 The larger the samples size the higher the accuracy. The
sample size determination is purely statistical activity, which
needs statistical knowledge. There are a number of sample
size determination methods:

Sample Size Determination Methods
1) Personal judgments: the personal judgment and subjective
decision of the researcher in some cases can be used as a
base to demine the size of the sample.
2) Budgetary approach: is another way to determine the sample
size. Under this approach the sample size is determined by
the available fund for the proposed study.
3) Traditional inferences: this is based on precision rate and
confidence level. To estimate sample size using this approach
we need to have information about the estimated variance
population, the magnitude of acceptable error and the
confidence interval.
5) Estimate Cost of Planning
The sample plan must take in to account the estimated cost of
sampling. Such costs are of two types, overhead costs and,
variable costs.

6) Execute Sampling Process
The actual requirement for sampling procedure:
• Sample must be representative
• Sample must be adequate
6.3. Sampling Techniques
There are essentially two types of sampling: probability and
non-probability sampling.
6.3.1. Probability Sampling
Probability or random sampling gives all members of the
population a known chance of being selected for inclusion in
the sample and this does not depend upon previous events in
the selection process.
There are five basic types of random sampling techniques:

1) Simple Random Sampling
• This is the ideal choice as it is a ‘perfect’ random method.
• Using this method, individuals are randomly selected from a
list of the population and every single individual has an equal
chance of selection.
• This method is ideal, but if it cannot be adopted, one of the
following alternatives may be chosen if any shortfall in
accuracy.
2) Systematic Sampling
• When performing systematic sampling, every Kth element
from the list is selected (this is referred to as the sample
interval) from a randomly selected starting point.
• For example, if we have a listed population of 6000 members
and wish to draw a sample of 200, we would select every 30th
(6000 divided by 200) person from the list.

Systematic Sampling…
• In practice, we would randomly select a number between 1
and 30 to act as our starting point.
• The one potential problem with this method of sampling
concerns the arrangement of elements in the list.
• If the list is arranged in any kind of order e.g. if every 30th
house is smaller than the others from which the sample is
being recruited, there is a possibility that the sample
produced could be seriously biased.
3) Stratified Sampling
• Stratified sampling is a variant on simple random and
systematic methods and is used when there are a number of
distinct subgroups, within each of which it is required that
there is full representation.

Stratified Sampling…
• A stratified sample is constructed by classifying the population
in sub-populations (or strata), base on some well-known
characteristics of the population, such as age, gender or
socio-economic status.
• The selection of elements is then made separately from
within each stratum, usually by random or systematic
sampling methods.
4) Cluster Sampling
 This technique will sample economically while retaining the
characteristics of a probability sampling.
 In cluster sampling the primary sampling unit is no more the
individual elements in the population rather it is say
manufacturing unit, city or block city, etc…

Cluster sampling…
• Cluster sampling clearly will reduce costs by concentrating
survey in selected cluster. But it is less precise than random
sampling. Cluster sampling is used only because of the
economic advantage it possesses.
5. Multi-Stage Sampling: Sometimes the population is too large
and scattered for it to be practical to make a list of the entire
population from which to draw Simple random samples.
6.3.2. Non-Probability Sampling
The difference between non probability and probability
sampling is that non probability sampling does not involve
random selection and probability sampling does.

Non-Probability Sampling…
• Does that mean that non probability samples aren't
representative of the population? Not necessarily.
• But it does mean that non probability samples cannot depend
upon the rationale of probability theory.
• At least with a probabilistic sample, we know the odds or
probability that we have represented the population well.
• With non probability samples, we may or may not represent
the population well, and it will often be hard for us to know
how well we've done so.
• In general, researchers prefer probabilistic or random
sampling methods over non probabilistic ones, and consider
them to be more accurate and rigorous.

Non-Probability Sampling…
• However, in applied social research there may be
circumstances where it is not feasible, practical or
theoretically sensible to do random sampling. Here, we
consider a wide range of non probabilistic alternatives.
We can divide non probability sampling methods into two
broad types: accidental or purposive.
1) Accidental, Haphazard or Convenience Sampling
 It is the traditional "man on the street”
 In many research contexts, we sample simply by asking for
volunteers.
 Clearly, the problem with all of these types of samples is that
we have no evidence that they are representative of the
populations we're interested in generalizing to -- and in many
cases we would clearly suspect that they are not.

2) Purposive Sampling
• In purposive sampling, we sample with a purpose in mind. We
usually would have one or more specific predefined groups
we are seeking.
• One of the first things you're likely to do is verify that the
respondent does in fact meet the criteria for being in the
sample.
• Purposive sampling can be very useful for situations where
you need to reach a targeted sample quickly and where
sampling for proportionality is not the primary concern.
• With a purposive sample, you are likely to get the opinions of
your target population, but you are also likely to overweight
subgroups in your population that are more readily accessible.
• Purposive sampling has the following subcategories.

a. Modal Instance Sampling
• In statistics, the mode is the most frequently occurring value
in a distribution. In sampling, when we do a modal instance
sample, we are sampling the most frequent case, or the
"typical" case.
b. Expert Sampling
• Expert sampling involves the assembling of a sample of
persons with known or demonstrable experience and
expertise in some area. Often, we convene such a sample
under the auspices of a "panel of experts.“
c. Quota Sampling
• In quota sampling, you select people non- randomly according
to some fixed quota. There are two types of quota sampling:
proportional and non proportional.

d. Heterogeneity Sampling…
• We sample for heterogeneity when we want to include all
opinions or views, and we aren't concerned about
representing these views proportionately. Another term for
this is sampling for diversity.
e. Snowball Sampling
• In snowball sampling, you begin by identifying someone who
meets the criteria for inclusion in your study. You then ask
them to recommend others who they may know who also
meet the criteria.

CHAPTER SEVEN
DATA PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS
• The goal of any research is to provide information out of raw
data. The raw data after collection has to be processed and
analyzed in line with the outline (plane) laid down for the
purpose at the time of developing the research plan.
• Response on measurement instruments (words, check mark
etc) conveys little information as such. The complied data
must be classified processed, analyzed and interpreted
carefully before their complete meanings and implications can
be understood.
• There are two stages of data analysis, data processing and
analysis. Some authors do like to make difference between
processing and analysis. However we see them separately
these terms briefly.

Data Processing and analysis…
7.1. Data processing
• Data possessing implies editing, coding, classification and
tabulation of collected data so that they are amendable to
analysis.
 Editing: is a process of examining the collected raw data to
detect errors and omission (extreme values) and to correct
those when possible. Editing can be either field editing or
central editing.
 Coding: Refers to the process of assigning numerical or other
symbols to answers so that responses can be put in to a
limited number of categories or classes.
 Classification: Most research studies result in a large volume
of raw data, which must be reduced in to homogeneous
group, which means to classify the raw data or arranging data
in groups or classes on the basis of common characteristics.

Classification…
• Classification according to attributes: Data are classified on
the basis of common characteristics, which can either be
descriptive (such as literacy, sex, honesty, etc) or numerical
(such as, weight, age, height, income, expenditure, etc).
• Classification according to class interval: Unlike descriptive
characteristics the numerical characteristics refer to
quantitative phenomenon, which can be measured through
some statistical unit.
• For example, individuals whose incomes, say, are within 1001-
1500 Birr can form one group, those whose incomes within
500-1000 Birr form another group and so on.

7.2. Analysis
• Data analysis is further transformation of the processed data
to look for patterns and relations among data groups.
• Analysis can be categorized as
 Descriptive Analysis
 Inferential (Statistical) Analysis
7.2.1 Descriptive analysis
 Descriptive analysis is largely the study of distribution of one
variable. Analysis begins for most projects with some form of
descriptive analysis to reduce the data into a summary
format.
 Descriptive response or observation is typically the first form
of analysis. The calculation of averages, frequency distribution
and percentage distribution is the most common form of
summarizing data.

7.2.2 Inferential Analysis
• Most researcher wishes to go beyond the simple tabulation of
frequency distribution and calculation of averages and / or
dispersion.
• They frequently conduct and seek to determine the
relationship between variables and test statistical
significance. When the population is consisting of more than
one variable it is possible to measure the relationship
between them.
• If we have data on two variables we said to have a bivariate
variable, if the data is more than two variables then the
population is known as multivariate population. If for every
measure of a variable, X we have corresponding value of
variable, Y, the resulting pairs of value are called a bivariate
population

Inferential Analysis…
• In case of bivariate or multivariate population, we often wish
to know the relationship between the two or more variables
from the data obtained.
Example we may like to know, “whether the numbers of
hour’s students devote for study is somehow related to their
family income, to age, to sex, or to similar other factors.
•

CHAPTER EIGHT
INTERPRETATION AND REPORTING THE
RESEARCH RESULT

INTERPRETATION AND REPORTING THE RESEARCH RESULT
 After collecting and analyzing the data, the researcher has to
accomplish the task of drawing inferences followed by the
report writing.
 Interpretation has to be done carefully so that misleading
conclusion will not be drawn and the whole purpose of doing
research will not be violated.
 It is through interpretation that the researcher can expose
relations and processes that underline his/her findings. If
hypotheses are tested and upheld (confirmed), the researcher
may arrive at generalization.
8.1 Meanings and Technique of Interpretation
Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from
the collected facts after analytical or experimental study.

Why Interpretation
• Interpretation is considered as a basic component of research
process because of the following reasons: it is through
interpretation that the researcher can well understand the
abstract principle that works beneath (beyond) his findings.
• Researcher can only be better appreciated only through
interpretation why his findings are what they are and can
make others to understand the real significance of his
research findings.
Precaution in interpretation
Researcher must pay attention to the following points for
correct interpretation.
• At the outset, researcher must invariably satisfy himself that
the data are appropriate, trust worthy and adequate for
drawing inferences.

Precaution in interpretation…
 The researcher must remain cautious about the errors that
can possibly arise in the process of interpreting results.
 Broad generalization must be avoided, because the coverage
restricted to a particular time; a particular area and particular
condition.
 The researcher must remember that there should be constant
interaction between initial hypothesis and, empirical
observation and theoretical conceptions.
8.2. Reporting the research result
 Writing report is the last step in a research study and requires
set of skills somewhat different from those called for in
research of the earlier stages of research.
 This task should be accomplished by the researcher with a
most care.

Reporting the research result …
• He/she may also seek the assistance and guidance of experts for
the purpose. The research task remains incomplete till the report
has been presented and /or written.
• He/she may also seek the assistance and guidance of experts for
the purpose. The research task remains incomplete till the report
has been presented and /or written.
Layout of research report
Layout of the report means as to what the research report should
contain and look like. A comprehensive layout of the research
report should comprise:
• Preliminary pages (Title, acknowledgement, table of contents, List
of tables or figures, acronym or abbreviations if any, abstract)
• The main text (introduction, objectives, literature review,
methodology, results and discussion, summary, conclusion and
recommendation)
• The end matter(References or bibliography and appendix)

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