Research

RESEARCH METHODS
What is research?

Meaning of Research
• It is conceptualized depending on
perspectives
-Simply research is a search for knowledge
-A careful inquiry for new facts intending to-A careful inquiry for new facts intending to
obtain answers of particular questions
about a phenomena or events through the
application of scientific procedures.

Research means…
• Kothari(2004) holds that Research is a
systematic and scientific search for
information on specific topic.
• He also views as an art of searching
information involving procedures.information involving procedures.
Educational research; it's the application of
scientific research methods and processes
and procedures in solving educational
problems in educational field.

Educational research cont..
• Gall et al(2005)define educational research
as a systematic collection and analysis of
data in order to get valid description &
generalization interventions in education.
Generally, Research is the way of explainingGenerally, Research is the way of explaining
and predicting a phenomena which is
helpful to make changes and
rearrangements.

Character… of Research
1. Research is systematic –has to follow structured
rules and principles/procedures
2. Research is logical-it employs a system that
needs reasoning i.e.. why this and not that?
3. It is empirical-it relies on empirical evidence3. It is empirical-it relies on empirical evidence
may be after observation. e.g.. Observed data
4. Research demands accuracy and description-
precise and accurate data are needed.

Characteristics cont..
5.Research is replicable/transferable-can be
repeated through being done by other people
or other places
i.e.. It can be recollected/replicated by reviewing
other research findings.other research findings.
6.Research is directed towards the solution, that
is, done in order to answer questions or finding
the relationship between variables.

Characteristics cont…
7.Research is generative-that is, it generates
other researches for other people to do.
8.Emphasizes on making generalization,
developing principles and establishment ofdeveloping principles and establishment of
theories.
9.Research forecast future events-predicts
future occasions

Obj/purpose of research
• General purpose,
To find answers to hidden questions which are
not yet known to solve problems.
General objectives;General objectives;
1.To gain deeper understanding of a phenomena
2.Enables to achieve new insights
3.Provides help to describe features of an individual
e.g.. accurate x-cs of a person

objectives cont…
4.To determine the frequency with which
something is happening, to what extent
the phenomena occurs.
5.To test hypothesis to obtain casual5.To test hypothesis to obtain casual
relationship of a phenomena.
Gall et al(2005)objectives
6.To achieve interventions of various
programs.

Significance of research (Rationale)
1. To have basic knowledge about research
2. It is part of developing careers i.e. Doctors,
teachers, counselors etc wishing to be consultants
3. Research inculcates us with the ability to evaluate3. Research inculcates us with the ability to evaluate
other researches or findings and use the info.
Collected to solve existing problems.
4. Enables us to make intellectual decisions in solving
existing problems in the society.

Significance cont…
5.It instills thinking-makes one to reason and
promote logical thinking (inspires thinking)
6.Is a basis for planning solution on social
problems.eg.Budgeting etc
7.Used for policy making and decisions by
policy makers
7.Used for policy making and decisions by
policy makers
8.Generates new ideas, facts and knowledge
9.May develop new theories and principles
which guides day 2day life styles

Types of Research
• There are different ways of classifying
research
a) Basing on purpose
b) Basing on nature
c) Basing on time
d) Basing on Approach

Basing on purpose
I. Basic/ pure/ fundermental research-
its purpose is to formulate
theories/make contribution to
existing body of knowledgeexisting body of knowledge
II. Applied research-An immediate and
practical solution applied to solve the
problem.
NB: Basic and Applied types are the primary
research types

Basing on Approach
I. Quantitative research-deals with
quantification ofinformation. In terms of
numbers and it uses objective
measurement & numerical measurement.
II. Qualitative research-uses words to explainII. Qualitative research-uses words to explain
the phenomena i.e.. Deals with
hypothesizing unlike quantitative by which
hypothesis is generated at the end.
-It doesn't use numerical measurement but
description

Quantitative categories
• Experimental quantitative-involves
control of variables
• Non-experimental quantitative-there is• Non-experimental quantitative-there is
no control of variables, relation ship is
maintained

Basing on nature
I. Descriptive research-descriptions
II. Analytical research-analysis
Basing on time
I. Cross-sectional research-looks
variables once within a short period of
I. Cross-sectional research-looks
variables once within a short period of
time.
II. Longitudinal research-carried over a
long period of time covers a wider
range of time

Types of research
• Other types of research
I. Empirical research- use evidences for data
interpretation
II. Conceptual research-concerns with abstract
theories & concepts mostly used by
II. Conceptual research-concerns with abstract
theories & concepts mostly used by
philosophers
-used by experienced researchers.
III Field searching research-A researcher go to
field /area –collect information to a study
area.

Other type cont…
IV. Laboratory research –conducted in the
laboratory it involve control of variables
e.g. specimen.
V .Simulation research-done when the
respondents/informants you observe
consider ethical to perform it
respondents/informants you observe
consider ethical to perform it
VI. Clinical /diagnostic research-conducted
for diagnostic purposes knowing the
casual relationship of the existing
phenomenon

Variables
• Express the constructs on which a person
wishes to find the relationship between
them.
• Variable is any thing which is subjected to
change –decreasing or increasingchange –decreasing or increasing
• Note -any thing that cant be subjected to
change is not a variable
• A variable is any thing which is varied
example age of students, different courses,
rate of dropout, performance curve etc.

Variables cont…
• For example, students are of the same age but
they have different characteristics
Examples of variables>weight, height, distance,
teachers qualification-Degree, diploma,
certificate etc.
Classification of variablesClassification of variables
I (a) Categorical variables-are those which
its subjects are classified into groups.
e.g.. A-level classes, Academic staff,
School heads etc.

Classification cont…
b) Continuous variables-are those which the
attributes have infinite number of ranges.
-Have wide number of ranges e.g.. Distance
when infinite
II a) Independent variables-are those whichII a) Independent variables-are those which
affect/influence another variables) e.g..
height of a child is influenced by his/her age.
-Hence, age is an independent variable,
influences height

Classification cont…
b) Dependent variables-are kinds of variables in
which its effects shown depends depend on an
independent variables
-Those which are influenced by other variables
eg. The height of a child is influenced by the age
of that child
Hence, height is a dependent variable in research.

RESEARCH PROCESS
• Activities involved in research process differ
in accordance with the field or location.
Sometimes may differ incase of the kind of
researchresearch
-Quantitative
-Qualitative

Processes
1.Identification of research problem
Define a research problem planned or intended to be
researched in a more detail and clearly.
-It should be a question to answer or a statement
-Should be from unknown aspects-Should be from unknown aspects
2.Literature Review
Involves reading previous research studies done by
others pertaining the same topic/problem
-It help a new researcher to find skills of attempting
such problem but in different ways.

Research process cont..
3.Formulation of hypothesis
A tentative answers upon the selected
problem. The assumptions, statement or
expectation.
i) Null hypothesis-a statement whichi) Null hypothesis-a statement which
negates the phenomenon
ii) Alternative hypothesis-this positive form
of statement of a problem

Process….
4. Identification of Variables
-Identifying variables that can be used in research
process
-The variables should be labeled after being identified-The variables should be labeled after being identified
i.e.. independent/dependent
5.Designing research study-conceptually, designing a
research structure which a researcher will follow (a
way) in conducting his/her research. ie design data
collection techniques

Research process cont..
-Selection of the design (way) to follow depends on the
nature of the research eg. Available resources like
money, participants/ respondents, time and
knowledge of a researcher like computer skills.
6.Selection of research methods6.Selection of research methods
-These are data collection and analysis methods
ie.Questionaire, observation, interview, focus group
discussion
-Nature of research determines the selection of
research method.

Process cont..
7.Development of research instruments
-Are questions in which a researcher will ask the
respondents which will assist him or her to obtain
appropriate information.
8.Data collection8.Data collection
-At field, a researcher is to collect information using
different data collection methods. Though
sometimes a researcher may post questionnaires to
the field without going there.

Process cont..
9.Interpretation and analysis of information
-Careful analysis and interpretation of info. according to
the methods used.
-It is so, in order to get meaningful info. about research-It is so, in order to get meaningful info. about research
conducted.
10.Report writing-the last and most important stage.
A research writes a report ready to be published for
knowledge acquisition.

Report writing….
-A report involves;
• procedures followed in you research
• Writings in past form and
• Put forward the research findings/information in the• Put forward the research findings/information in the
way that others may easily access.
Note. Research proposal is written in future
tenses-what is expected before research has
been done.

RESEARCH PROBLEM
Kothari(2004) defines research problem as difficult
which a researcher experiences in the context of
theoretical or practical situational and need to find
solution.
-Research problem doesn't exist in the vacuum there-Research problem doesn't exist in the vacuum there
should be people facing that problem and objectives
that at end, one needs to attain those objectives.

Characteristics of research problem
• Should be manageable- in terms of time and money
• Should be researchable
• Should be of interest to the researcher
• Should seek to bring originality• Should seek to bring originality

Sources of Research problem
Experience-experience of a difficult by a person may
be a source of a research problem and the problem
needs solutions. Hence a research study is employed.
Eg. Experience from delay of Loans to higher educationEg. Experience from delay of Loans to higher education
students.
Theory-one may draw research problem from
assumptions. E.g. Child development theory of
Bandura>As child interacts with environment his/her
growth is affected

Sources cont…
Literature review-reviewing what has been done by other
researchers of the same problem, research problem can be
drawn from that literary work by raising queries/doubts.
Practical/actual situation.
Policy change.
Curriculum development.Curriculum development.
Technological advancements.
Authority advise from expertise
How to select Research problem?
>Choose a particular field of experience
>Choose field of your interest
>Field selected should be familiar to a prospective researcher.

Selecting research problem….
>Should logically be selected-reasoning to be part of it.
>Narrow the selected problem to get very specific
problems
>Should be researchable-should access easily the
information from participants (respondents)information from participants (respondents)
i.e.. Sexual practices info can't be easily obtained, you
should select researchable problem

Selection of r. problem…
>Should be ethically appropriate-ethics is to be
considered ie. Methods of interviewing participants
should be ethical, unethical questions should end to
invalid info.
>Should be suitable to the researcher in terms of>Should be suitable to the researcher in terms of
knowledge
>Should add knowledge or solve problems
>Should open up to new research-other area of
searching

Format of research proposal
Mainly contains 3 main chapters
1.Chapter I-Introduction
2.Chapter II-Literature Review
3.Chpter III-Methodology
Before chapter I there is-Before chapter I there is-
>Preliminary information-Title of the topic
-Name
-Course/program
-Table of content(1pg)

RESEARCH PROPOSAL
• Is a description or plan to be followed in carrying
out a proposed study.
Rationale/purpose/why research proposal?
@Helps the researcher to think of important issues
about the study eg. How to collect data & where
necessary info is available.
about the study eg. How to collect data & where
necessary info is available.
@Helps the researcher to evaluate the study by
looking at the difficulties which are likely to be
involved.
@Provides a guide/plan of general strategies to be
undertaken-directs a researcher where to go

Research proposal….
After chapter III there is-
>References-list of books used
>Appendices/appendix-includes sample
of research instruments that you will use
eg. Questionnaire, intervieweg. Questionnaire, interview
In preliminary information:-
TITLE of the study should indicate major independent &
dependent variables.
-May include the population on which the study will be
undertaken

Preliminary info cont…
-Title should be brief preferably less than 19 words
Example of a title
1.“The influence of personality on academic
performance among the second year diplomaperformance among the second year diploma
students at Mpuguso teachers college”
i) Personality-independent variable
ii) Academic performance-dependent variable

Title
• Includes population eg.second year diploma
students
2.Gender & academic performance in LG courses
at UDOMat UDOM
-Gender>independent variable
-Performance in LG courses-dependent
variable

CHAPTER I/INTRODUCTION
(Before all prepare an abstract)
Organization of chapter I
-Contains a number of items/element including;
1.Background to the problem-info acquired for1.Background to the problem-info acquired for
understanding the problem. Provide the context of
the study by answering the question `why should the
study choose this problem?
-should start from broad to specific

Chapter I
In background-the research should try to convince the
experts have an argument to the problem.
-Expected to review other works to reveal what is
known eg. What is the subject?
what are the weaknesses of thewhat are the weaknesses of the
current?
Questions included;
i) What current & previous studies have done?

Questions cont…
ii) What is the available info on the magnitude nature &
causes of the problem?
iii) What are present gaps in knowledge?
iv) What makes that problem important for studying?iv) What makes that problem important for studying?
v) Why not been talked yet?
vi) What do you intend to do to fill the gaps/solve the
problems
vii) What do you intend to do to bring new in the
problem?

Chapter I cont..
2.Statement of the problem- An attempt which
focus on the study by providing direction on the
problem
-can be declarative statement or question, usually need
a lot of words (relatively 19-20 words) and state whya lot of words (relatively 19-20 words) and state why
is the proposed study?
3.Purpose of the study-A single statement or
paragraph which explains what the study intends to
accomplish.

Chapter I cont…
>Purpose of the study should specify variables that a
research intends to focus on
Eg.1.The purpose of the study is to examine the effect
of study hours on the memory of the students.of study hours on the memory of the students.
2.The purpose of the study is to discover the
relationship between the timing of the lesson & the
students attendance to the lecture/lesson.

Chapter I
4.Objectives of the study-are specific statements
which come from the purpose.
-They are indicators of what a researcher is going to do.
Examples of objectives:
-To show how the students attendance to lectures
differ according to the lecture hours
-To examine the relationship between sex and
attendance of lecture in different hours

Chapter I cont…
5. Hypotheses-likely outcome/expectation. Are
simply stated and can either be NULL or
ALTERNATIVE=(Ho or Ha) respectively.
-Null hypothesis is denying the phenomenon
E.g. “There is no relationship between lecture hour &E.g. “There is no relationship between lecture hour &
the attendance of students in lectures”
-Alternative hypothesis is a positive statement
Eg.“There is relationship between study hours and
memory of students”

Chapter I cont…
-Question can also be used to help a researcher
E.g.Is there a significant difference between attendance
of male students and those of female students in
different lectures.
6. Significance of the study-answers number of6. Significance of the study-answers number of
questions including;
-Why is the study important?
-To whom is it important?
-What benefit will be brought when the study is
conducted? (justify materials, time, money)

Chapter I
7.Limitations of the study-they could be money,
time, methodological weaknesses.
-Which practical & theoretical drawbacks are?
E.g.. Is the topic chosen could be achieved to the timeE.g.. Is the topic chosen could be achieved to the time
scheduled?

CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
• Literature Review starts from the beginning and
through out the research.
-Research starts in the library and ends in the library.
Literature Review is;Literature Review is;
1.Locating literature in a variety of sources, reading it
carefully and thoroughly, evaluating the content,
breaking down the content into things and organizing
it along the scenes of the study.

Literature Review cont…
2.The systematic identification & analysis of documents
containing info related to the study.
Features of Literature Review
>Should point how the problem of the study I related>Should point how the problem of the study I related
to previous research findings.
>Should demonstrate how the approach of the study is
likely to differ from others.
>Should justify the need for the study esp. if similar
study has been done before on a particular area

Literature Review features cont…
-look on the aim and method of the study to justify the
need to research for a similar study before done
before.
>Should find out methodological errors and any
oppositions among various findingsoppositions among various findings
-should show discrepancy of the different findings of
the similar study.
>Should start with broad ideas and narrow them down
to specific ideas
i.e. World issues to nation/institution level

Literature review features cont…
>Should not be list mere of research- not to list but give
an argument of your study
-should be complete
>Should be critical- should see if the result is objective
or subjective, were it contain facts etc.or subjective, were it contain facts etc.
-See what is lacking, what is not appropriate?
-was a researcher influenced by his political,
regional, religion atmosphere?

Literature review features cont…
>Should only concern itself with the variables of the
study-primarily to concern with the areas a
researcher intends to deal with.
Sources/documents of Literature review;
-Gvt documents e.g.. Edn & Training policy 1995-Gvt documents e.g.. Edn & Training policy 1995
-Dissertation & thesis
-Books, journals, magazines, articles, newspaper,
-Dictionaries, encyclopedia, Gvt BEST (Basic Edn Stat.)
and Conference papers.

Best/authentic source of L. Review
-Is the author/institution known & respected to the
field?
-Is the reference made to other work in this field?
-Is there a bias to this piece of info that affect the way
that it has presented?that it has presented?
>political, social, economic biases
-Does the info seem objective?
-Is there any motive behind/underlying
agenda/propaganda?
-How current is the information?

Why literature Review/purpose of
L.R
• To gain knowledge in subject area
• To find out where literature is fit-finding gap in
knowledge
• Gaining feedback info in order to rethink and focus a• Gaining feedback info in order to rethink and focus a
research problem.
• To discover how others have researched the chosen
topic area.-methods used, hypothesis made
• To justify why & how you have done the research in
the way you have done.

Purpose of L.R
• To have a body of information to compare
your research findings.
-to compare your results with the findings of
other researches.other researches.
Reflection
Think of your title and then write two pages of
Literature review (how can it look like?)

CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY (How to plan for)
1.Research design
2.Study population
3.Sampling strategy and sample size3.Sampling strategy and sample size
4.Area of study and its characteristics
5.Data collection techniques
6.Validity and Reliability
7.Ethical issues
8.Data analysis plan

1.Research Design
• Is your plan that will show the specific sources and
type of information relevant to your research
problem.
• Is your plan that shows the approach to be used forIs your plan that shows the approach to be used for
data collection and analysis
• Sometime your design gives a clue of time frame and
cost of the study.

Research Design cont…
• There are so many Research Designs-but consider
these you can practice
a) Experimental research design
b) Descriptive research design
c) Explanatory research designc) Explanatory research design
d) Exploration research design
e) Cross-sectional design
f) Longitudinal design

Research design..
• Things to consider when selecting research design
i. What is the study about?
ii. Why is the study being conducted?
iii. Where will the research be carried out?iii. Where will the research be carried out?
iv. What type of data is required?
v. Where can the required data be obtained?

Research design cont..
vi. What period of time will the study include?5yrs?
Vii What will be the sample design?
viii.What data collection techniques will be used?
ix. How will the data collected be analyzed?
x. What style will the research report be prepared and
presented?

Research design..
• Good research design meet these criteria:
The design is flexible-considers many aspects
Appropriate for the study
Efficient-yield what is requiredEfficient-yield what is required
Economical-takes less time and money
Minimizes bias & maximizes reliability of data
collection
NB. Not one design fits all kinds of studies

2.Study population
• What is population?
Population is the group that you will generalize
your results of the research (theoretical population)
Sometimes population can be something other thanSometimes population can be something other than
group of people, such as temperature, automobiles
produced by a given company,etc

2.Study population cont..
• But sometimes you might find difficulty in getting the
list of your population E.g. Street children in
Tanzania. It's hard to get their names in each urban
center.
• Hence the alternative is Accessible population
From this example the accessible population might
be street children in Dodoma municipality aged 5-18
years

Study population cont…
• Sampling Frame-this is the list of the accessible
population from which you will draw your sample.
From the example of street children of Dodoma
municipal, those you managed to reach and registermunicipal, those you managed to reach and register
is your Sample frame
However, it is not easy to study all respondents in the
sample frame. You need a sample

3. SAMPLE
• What is a sample?
Sample is a subset of the population
Sample is the small group of people you select to be in
your studyyour study
The reason you sample is to get an estimate for the
population from which you sampled

Who do you want to
generate to? Theoretical
population
What population The study population
Can u get access to?
How can u get The sampling frame
access to them?
Who is in your study?
The sample

Sampling techniques
Probability samples Non probability samples
-where the probability of Reflect an unknown proba
selecting each respondent bility of selection.
is known.
1.Simple random 1.Convenience sampling1.Simple random 1.Convenience sampling
2.Systematic sampling 2.Quota sampling
3.Stratified random s.. 3.Dimensional sampling
4.Cluster/area sampling 4.Purposive sampling
5.Snowball sampling
6.Mixed sampling design

a) Simple random sampling
• Simple random sample each person in the
population has an equal chance of being chosen for
the sample study. Criteria:
1.No one is listed more than once, nobody is excluded1.No one is listed more than once, nobody is excluded
2.Sampling without replacement ie.
1/100;1/50(selection is equal at any given stage of
sampling
3.Use table of random numbers, flip of coin, lottery or
spin of roulette wheel.

1 26 51 761 26 51 76 Determine the number of unitsDetermine the number of units
2 27 52 772 27 52 77 N=100N=100
3 28 53 783 28 53 78 Determine the sample size (N)Determine the sample size (N)
4 29 54 794 29 54 79 Want n=20Want n=20
5 30 55 805 30 55 80 The interval size is K=N/nThe interval size is K=N/n
66 31 56 8131 56 81 100/20=5 K=5100/20=5 K=5
7 32 57 827 32 57 82 Select a random integer from 1 to KSelect a random integer from 1 to K
8 33 58 838 33 58 83 chose 4chose 4
9 34 59 849 34 59 84
10 35 60 8510 35 60 85 select every k th unitselect every k th unit10 35 60 8510 35 60 85 select every k th unitselect every k th unit
11 36 61 8611 36 61 86
12 37 62 8712 37 62 87
13 38 63 8813 38 63 88
14 39 64 8914 39 64 89
15 40 65 9015 40 65 90
16 41 66 9116 41 66 91
17 42 67 9217 42 67 92
18 43 68 9318 43 68 93
19 44 69 9419 44 69 94
20 45 70 9520 45 70 95
21 46 71 9621 46 71 96
22 47 72 9722 47 72 97
23 48 73 9823 48 73 98
24 49 74 9924 49 74 99

b) Stratified random sampling
• You subdivide the population into smaller homogeneous
groups in order to get a more accurate representation of
the population.
DistrictDistrict MaleMale FemaleFemale TotalTotal
• The 4 groups(20, 30, 25, 15) are strata. Once the 4
groups have been formed, a simple random sample is
taken within each group.
Each strata represent the population
Moshi urbanMoshi urban 2020 3030 5050
Moshi RuralMoshi Rural 2525 1515 4040
TotalTotal 4545 4545 9090

Stratified random sampling
List of Clients
Asians
African-America
strata
Hispanic –American

C) Cluster/ Area Sampling
Cluster sampling is done when:
1. The study population is infinite
2. List of members is not available
3. Geographical distribution is widely scattered e.g.3. Geographical distribution is widely scattered e.g.
survey of all nomads in Tanzania. So
1st randomly sample 20 districts with nomads
2nd List all areas nomads were found, randomly pick 5
3rd Random sample of 500 nomads could be drawn

Non probability sample
a) Convenience sampling- its like a study for
secondary school students in Dodoma municipal,
you just pick Ng`ong`ona secondary school, its
closer and easy to access
b) Quota sampling-its like stratified sampling where youb) Quota sampling-its like stratified sampling where you
form strata easy to access
c) Purposive sampling its between convenience and
quota-where the nearest & available people are
studied

Non probability sample cont…
d) Snowball sampling
1st a person with best criteria is identified &
interviewed
2nd-The 1st person identify other who qualify to be2 -The 1 person identify other who qualify to be
included
3rd –the 2nd person calls in the 3rd person & it continue
until you have enough sample size.

Sample size
What is the minimum adequate sample size?
It depends on both the nature of the population and
the purpose of the study
An ideal study would have a sample large enough to
represent the population so generalization mayrepresent the population so generalization may
occur, yet small enough to save time, money and
complexity of data analysis.
Consideration of Sample
1.The larger the sample, the larger the likelihood of
representation of the population.

Consideration of sample size cont…
2. The greater the heterogeneity, the larger the
necessity for a larger sample
3. If there is no heterogeneity (homogeneity) even a
sample of ONE would suffice.sample of ONE would suffice.
Sample size
How to calculate sample size
n= (σ12 +σ22) (Z1-α/2+Z1-β)
Δ2

Sample size cont…
Where by, n=sample size, ∆=µ1-µ2 for the mean
difference of representative groups; σ1and σ2 are
respective group variances, respectively. 1.96 is the
Z-score at 95% confidence interval.
Sampling ErrorSampling Error
Sampling error is the degree in which the sample
means of repeatedly drawn from random samples
differ from one another; and from the population
mean.
E.g.. A researcher select 50 sec school students from-

Sampling error
the population of all students in Dodoma municipal.
The average marks of each student will not be the
same, although most of them will cluster around
population average.
Some will be relatively high/low by comparison.Some will be relatively high/low by comparison.
This variation in sample means is a result of sampling
error, its not a mistake in the sampling process but
rather an inevitable variation when a number of
randomly selected sample means (marks) are
compared.

4.Area of study and its characteristics
• Find a map that shows where your study will be
conducted
• Explain the main characteristics of the respondents
e.g.. The economy, social-economical activities ande.g.. The economy, social-economical activities and
cultural values that differ significantly with other
people
• Why the area and specific group was chosen
• What is so unique?

5. Data collection techniques
Quantitative study Qualitative study
1.Questionaires 1. Observation
2.Rating scale 2. Participants
3.Test scores observation 3.Document study3.Test scores observation 3.Document study
4.Computers
5.Indexes
6.Inventories

QUESTIONAIRE
Strength Weakness
1.Questionaire can be 1.Don`t have luxury of length
Administered in terms of 2.Can't use many items to tap
interview or self admini- person's evaluation of target,
stered measure. event, objective of fatigue
2.It has capacity to use 3. Its expensive eg.national survey2.It has capacity to use 3. Its expensive eg.national survey
both open-ended and
close-ended questions.

TYPES OF QUESTIONAIRES
1.open-ended questions-these tap persons feelings
with greater fidelity/correctness. E.g., What is your
favorite meal?
However, it's expensive in terms of developing methods
of analysis of the free items generated.of analysis of the free items generated.
2.Close-ended questions-you force the respondents
to choose among limited set of response options e.g.
What is your favorite meal among pasta, rice or
banana stew?

Ordering questionnaires
• Question ordering-It is important to establish
rapport to help ensure the quality of the
interaction, truthfulness and completeness of
the answers that respondent provide.
• Unfortunately, the questions are posed by a
more/less anonymous researcher, with little
attempt to build relationship with researcher
or are on sheet of paper with short
introduction of purpose.

Ordering questionnaires cont…
1.The least threatening items be presented first.
eg. Name of your school, how old are you? Which
class? Which tribe? How many brothers/sisters?
2. The respondent become comfortable with the2. The respondent become comfortable with the
research& some what committed by virtue of
answering a number of questions
3. Then ask more personal or threatening questions

Ordering questions
E.g. .A study on adolescent drug use, it is common that
non threatening queries be presented before items
assessing use of illegal substances are posed.
E.g.. Likewise a study assessing adolescent sexual
behaviorbehavior

Drop-out & no-opinion Response
Loosing a respondent is something we want to avoid
Whether the respondent's loss is due to refusal to
initiate the questionnaire or to complete it once itinitiate the questionnaire or to complete it once it
began, the loss is a threat to the generalizability of
any research study.

Some drop-outs are caused by the researcher.
E.g. When you allow respondent to hold a“ no opinion”
Question: Have you ever contracted STDs?
While others allow for a neutral position
Question: Condoms are expensive
YESYES NONO DON`T KNOWDON`T KNOW
StronglyStrongly
agreeagree
AgreeAgree NeutralNeutral DisagreDisagre
ee
StronglyStrongly
disagreedisagree

Yet other researchers do not allow “middle of the road
”by forcing the respondents to take a stand
Answers to their question will require YES/NO or
Agree/disagreeAgree/disagree
Studies have shown that there pros and cons for such
no-opinion response .
Most respondent will prefer no-opinion (don't know)
option and such altitude encourage respondents to
maintain interest in the question.

As such neutral responses are difficult to infer
Advantages of having a middle option outweigh theAdvantages of having a middle option outweigh the
negative possibilities. However have a clear
understanding of what neutral or no-response felling
about an item means.

RATING SCALE
Construction of rating scale:
These are formalized versions of questionnaires
designed to measure specific attitude, value or
personality disposition.personality disposition.
E.g. Renesis Likert scale (1932), Louis Thurstone`s
scale(1927)

Renesis Likert scale(1932)
ItemItem 11 22 33 44 55
I would use condom if one isI would use condom if one is
availableavailable
stronglystrongly
agreeagree
agreeagree NeutralNeutral disagreedisagree StronglyStrongly
disagreedisagree
Condoms are not easilyCondoms are not easily
availableavailable
StronglyStrongly agreeagree NeutralNeutral disagreedisagree StronglyStrongly
disagreedisagree
Condoms are not necessarilyCondoms are not necessarily stronglystrongly
agreeagree
disagreedisagreeWhen you plan to marry theWhen you plan to marry the
partnerpartner
agreeagree disagreedisagree
I would be embarrassed toI would be embarrassed to
buy a condombuy a condom
stronglystrongly
agreeagree
disagreedisagree
I am prepared to be testedI am prepared to be tested
HIVHIV
stronglystrongly
agreeagree
disagreedisagree

Likert scale
• Items are presented in multiple choice format
• Respondents will pick one out of 5 choices, for a +ve
wording like: The TTU has been a +ve force to change
teachers` lifeteachers` life
+1 strongly agree to +5 strongly disagree
For a -ve wording like: The TTU has had a –ve effects on
teachers` life
+5 strongly agree to +1 strongly disagree

Likert scale
• Likert scale proves more efficient in terms of time,
resources expenditure, and effective in developing
scale of high reliability, internal consistency and
temporal stability.

Purpose of Observation
• Three purposes of Observation
1.To provide description of behavior
2. To record situational behavior
3. To study a topic that leads to this method3. To study a topic that leads to this method
a) By providing description of behavior patterns under
real and accurate circumstances
b) Behavior can be recorded as it actually occur
4. This is the only method for studying infants, toddlers,
people with terminal cancer who can't be
interviewed or given questionnaires to complete.

Louis Thurstone`s scale
Thurstone scale.
1st step generate many potential items
2nd step judges are asked to rate their favorability of the
items of interest (the government)items of interest (the government)
3rd, judges independently estimate the degree of
favorability and find the mean for each item
4th the researcher determine the means and SD
5th The 15-25 items with higher rate are included in the
study. Higher values represent more –ve attitude

Louis Thurstone`s scale
Attitudes towards government
ItemItem
##
ItemItem ScaleScale
valuevalue
11 I think the teaching of the government is too superficialI think the teaching of the government is too superficial 8.38.3
22 I feel the government is petty always quarreling over matter of noI feel the government is petty always quarreling over matter of no
significancesignificance
8.68.6
significancesignificance
33 I respect any member's political party affiliation & beliefI respect any member's political party affiliation & belief 9.19.1
44 The government represent shallowness, hypocrisy, prejudiceThe government represent shallowness, hypocrisy, prejudice 10.410.4
55 I think the country would be better if multiparty system is closedI think the country would be better if multiparty system is closed 10.510.5
66 I think the organized political party is a parasite of the governmentI think the organized political party is a parasite of the government 10.710.7
77 I regard the government as staticI regard the government as static 11.011.0

Observation method
Observation methods is a scientific method if carried
under proper circumstances.
Criteria:
1.Must serve the research purpose1.Must serve the research purpose
2.Be planned systematically
3.Be recorded systematically
4.Be subject to checks and controls on validity &
reliability

Values of observation
• The study is conducted in naturalistic environment i.e.
manipulation or controls
• Its discovery approach carried out in the field where
the researcher understand better the context within
which the behavior occurwhich the behavior occur
• It enables the respondents to understand the aims of
the study through interaction with researcher
• The first-hand experience enable the researcher to use
inductive approach

Values of observation cont..
• The researcher can observe behaviors that are routine
to those in the study interest
• The researcher can learn behavior that can not be
revealed in an interview or questionnaire
• The researcher is able to present a comprehensive• The researcher is able to present a comprehensive
view of the behavior because s/he can move beyond
the perceptions of the respondents
• The researcher use his/her knowledge, experience
In terms of feelings, reflections, introspection

Methods of Observation
Two methods:
1.Unstructured method of observation-the
researcher is involved as participant observer,
filming, videotaping an occurrence
2.Structured method-the researcher select activities2.Structured method-the researcher select activities
to be observed before they occur and plan a
systematic recording of the observations (duration,
continuous, frequency count & interval)
NB; Prepare observation form to record each time

Methods of Observation
Observation form for staff meeting
Each time a H/teacher asks a question, place a check
next to one of the following categories that best
describes the questiondescribes the question
Qns Frequency Total
a. Asks personnel for direct input xxx 3
b. Asks personnel to answer specific qns xxxx 4
c. Asks for general questions xxxxx 5
d. Other xxxxxxx 7

Ethnomethodology
Ethnomethodology-an organizational study of a
person's knowledge of his/her affairs, enterprises
Advantage of Ethnomethodology
1.It study both verbal & nonverbal behavior1.It study both verbal & nonverbal behavior
2. Its longitudinal because it is ongoing & changes of
behavior can be viewed over time
3. It gives insight onto what & people think about
common place activities & behaviors why

Ethnometh……..
• Disadvantages
1.It investigate the process of how behavior occur
rather than the product of that occurrence
2.You can not investigate large scale studies but smaller2.You can not investigate large scale studies but smaller
investigations

Document study
Is reading documents of the institution you are
studying, eg. Factors for effective guidance &
counseling services in secondary schools in Tanzania
1.Routine client records
2.Correspondence from and to staff2.Correspondence from and to staff
3.Financial charts
4. Official & unofficial documents generated by or for
the program

Document study
• The above documents provide the researcher with
basic sources of information regarding activities and
processes of the schools, and can view other
questions not previously considered to follow up on
observations participantsobservations participants
observation or ethnomethodological research.

Types of Documents
1.Internal documents e.g.. Memos-in large institutions like
UDOM it's the amount of papers that flow from top to
bottom. Of course some flow in the opposite direction
as well
2.External communication-the materials that circulate
outside the organizationoutside the organization
3.Personal records-about hiring & firing practices,
promotion & rewards
NB: A good qualitative study will most likely put to use
most of these methods as they are all beneficial.

6. Validity and Reliability
• Validity-in research is how sound your research
is.
You can consider validity in 4 four types, these are:
a) Internal Validity-is attained when the researcher
managed to control all the extraneous variables.managed to control all the extraneous variables.
e.g.. In a study of the effectiveness of teaching
method, lets say mediated learning experience
(MLE). One group will be taught using MLE while
the other will not.

Validity cont…
After sometime give the same test to both groups.
If you managed to control all extraneous variables, then
you will attain internal validity. Internal validity is
very difficulty to achieve.very difficulty to achieve.
As you try to control extraneous variables, external
validity is threatened
So, you must compromise because you can not control
all threats..

Threats of internal validity
• Maturation-due to time that has elapsed
• Test-retest can give a clue of the study
• History events that occur simultaneous with the study
• Instrumentation- use of different tools can change
resultsresults
b) External validity- is the researchers` ability to
generalize the findings of a study.
As a researcher when you control threats of internal
validity you create artificial environment which
generalization of other settings is impossible.

Threats of external validity
• Reactive of testing
• The interactive effects of selection of respondents
• The reactive effects of experimental arrangement
• Multiple treatment interference• Multiple treatment interference
c) Statistical Validity-refers to the accuracy of the
conclusion drawn from the statistical test.
Eg. If your results show that enrolment at UDOM is 70%
males and 30% females, then you conclusion that there
is equal opportunity at UDOM.
Such conclusion is wrong

Validity cont…
d) Construct validity address the degree to which the
underlying theory of research explains the
observed results.
E.g.. Theory show that adolescents are sexually active
as such they are vulnerable to consequences suchas such they are vulnerable to consequences such
as unplanned pregnancies, induced abortion, STDs
including HIV/AIDS
However, your findings from 1000 students shows
that 12-20 years students none is sexually active,
then these results are not valid.

Reliability
• We often speak of reliable friend
• We often speak of reliable machine
• News, people speak of reliable source of
information
• Whatever the case may be, what is reliability?
Reliable usually mean dependable or trustworthy
In research Reliability has to do with quality of
measurement
Reliability is the consistency or repeatability of
your measures

Reliability
• A measure is considered reliability if it would give
you the same results over and over again (when you
assume what you are measuring is not changing) is a
composition of two components: true ability (or true
level) of respondent on that item; and random errorlevel) of respondent on that item; and random error
Eg..You observed Juma`s score of 85% in SE 301 timed
test.
However, in reality the ability of Juma might be better
than the score indicated eg,89%
So the error for Juma is 89%-85%= -4%

Reliability
What does this mean?
While Juma`s ability is 89% he may have had bad day,
like no breakfast, quarreled with someone, some
distract while doing the test etcdistract while doing the test etc
Measures like these can contribute to errors in
measurement that makes the students` observed
abilities appear lower than their true or actual
abilities.

Reliability cont..
If your measure of 85% is reliable, you should find
that if you measure/observe twice on the same
persons the score should be pretty much the same
Why would they be the same? How do you know?
X1 X2
T+e1 T+e2

Reliability
The two error scores(e1 and e2) have different values,
because you are likely to have different errors in
different occasions.
However, the true score “T” is the same for both testsHowever, the true score “T” is the same for both tests
NB: 1.Sometimes errors will lead Juma to perform
better on test than his ability eg. good day for
guess work
2.The error is randomly distributed

Types Reliability
a) Inter-rater or inter-observer reliability-is used to
assess the degree to which different raters or
observers give consistent estimates of the same
behavior.
b) Test-retest reliability-is used to assess theb) Test-retest reliability-is used to assess the
consistency of a measure from one time to
another.
c) Parallel forms reliability-is used to assess the
consistency of the results from one test
constructed in the same way from the same
content domain.

Types cont…
d) internal consistency reliability- is used to assess the
consistency of results across items within a test.
When you are done with validity & reliability you move
onto data analysis planonto data analysis plan

7.Data analysis plan
What is data?
-Is something known or assumed as fact
-A thing given as a basis of reasoning or calculation
What is variable?
Variable is observed quantity or attribute which varies
from one member of the population/sample being
studies to another.

Dependent variables
Dependent/response variable (s) are those depend
upon the values of independent variables.
Commonly used symbol is Y
E.g..E.g..
1.Students performance
2.Teachers motivation
3.Knowledge, attitude and practice

Independent variables
Independent/explanatory variable-is the one that is
manipulated by the researcher; Commonly use X
symbol
E.g..E.g..
1.Working hours
2.Age
3.Gender
4.Years of experience
5.Level of education

Classification of variables
One way of classifying;
Data (information)
Quantitative data Qualitative data
represented numerically Attributes are measured
eg. The body of mass of eg. Gender or eye coloreg. The body of mass of eg. Gender or eye color
each member of a group of
people

Classification cont..
Quantitative data
Discrete Continuous
Data can only have known can have any value within
fixed values eg. number of a defined rangefixed values eg. number of a defined range
Admissions to medical eg. Body mass
ward
0, 1, 2, 3. 4 50kg 60kg 70kg

Measurement scales
1.Nominal scale-is mutually exclusive category that
varies qualitatively eg. Gender, religion, region
For computational purposes, numbers are attached to
the categories when using SPSSthe categories when using SPSS
E.g. Gender: man=1; woman=0
Eye colour:1=blue, 2=brown, 3=black
Note that these doesn't mean the categories are
unequal

Scales cont…
2.Ordinal scale-is more informative than nominal and
differ from nominal in that the categories are
preserved in the analysis. For computation,
numbers are attached to reflect their relative
order.
a) Social economic status: High=3; medium=2;low=1
or 1st, 2nd,3rd etc
Note that the difference between medium and high is
not equal as between low and medium. Even
though numerically 3-2=1and 2-1=1
The numbers just give the rank.

Scales cont…
3.Interval scale-is more informative than nominal and
ordinal scales. The difference between adjacent
categories are equal, however, there is no true ZERO
point.
E.g.. Centigrade temperature scales where 40oC is
higher than 30oC and the difference between 30oC
and 40oC is the same as 10oC and 20oC
However 40oC is not twice the temperature of 20oC,
since 0oC is not absolute ZERO.

Scales cont…
4.Ratio scale-differ from interval scale that there is true
zero point. Ratio scale is more informative that the 3
preceding scales
E.g.. Consider the height in meters. A stick 6 meters. AE.g.. Consider the height in meters. A stick 6 meters. A
stick 6 meters long is twice as much as 3 meters long
stick.
Or A baby 12kg weight is twice as much heavier than a
6kg baby.

Measurement scale
Types of measurement scale based on Puri BK(1996) statistics for the Health science
with permission from WB sources London
Property Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio
Categories mutually exclusive √ √ √ √
Categories logically ordered √ √ √
Distance between adjacent categories √ √Distance between adjacent categories √ √
True zero point √

Data Analysis
• Statistics analysis
What is statistics?
This is the language that can be employed to express
concepts and relationships than can not beconcepts and relationships than can not be
communicated in other way
Statistics is a language to organize, analyze, and
interpret numerical data

Data analysis cont…
• Statistics-can function to
i) Describe data, i.e..
-To explain how the data look
-Where the center point of data is-Where the center point of data is
-How spread out the data may be
-How one aspect of the data may be related to one or
more other aspects.

Data analysis cont…
Eg. If you want to describe the total number of
pregnancies in the adolescent population, you must
calculate:
• The average age at the time of pregnancy,The average age at the time of pregnancy,
• The age range of the group,
• The relationship between age at first coital
experience and at the time of pregnancy,
• And the number of premarital complications.

Data analysis
You should describe this group of adolescents
(Descriptive statistical analysis)
NB: No conclusion can be made beyond this group
Any similarities to those outside (adolescents) can not
be assumed

Data analysis
ii) The second function of statistics is to infer-
(Inferential statistical analysis)
You observe a sample, conclusions about the
population are inferred from the obtained
information from the sampleinformation from the sample
E.g.. If you were observing the behavior of random
sample of adolescent mothers from Moshi Urban.
You could make inference of all adolescent mothers of
Tanzania. Here generalization can be made from the
sample results.

Inferential statistical analysis
Inferential statistical analysis-can be used for
estimation and predictions.
E.g. Graduate Examination Records (GRE) can predict
how well a candidate may perform in a graduate
studies programstudies program
Extrapolation is also a component of inferential
statistics. E.g. Estimation of Tanzania population in
2020 with current HIV/AIDS prevalence.

Levels of measurement
There are several statistical techniques available to
social science researchers who wish to describe the
observed research group.
1. Measures of Central Tendency
2. Measures of Dispersion, spread or variation2. Measures of Dispersion, spread or variation
3. Measures of relationship
a) Spearman rank order correlation (rs)
b) Pearson product-moment correlation (r )
• It is the responsibility of the researcher to select the
technique that best fits her/his data

Measures of central tendency
• Mode-is the most frequently occurring score
E.g.
Mode-is 7
Mode is the quickest estimate of
central value & show the most
studentstudent Score (x)Score (x)
11 99
central value & show the most
typical case
11 99
22 88
33 77
44 77
55 77
66 66
77 55
88 44
99 22

• Unlike the mean, median is not affected by extreme
scores
In some instances it can be the more stable measure of
central tendency than the arithmetic mean, Our 9
scores with a median of 7 is a good example.scores with a median of 7 is a good example.
However, it is reserved when a quick measure of central
tendency is required to mark the
skew ness of distribution

2.Median-is the measure of position or point above and
below which one of the scores fall.
Mean=Σx =55=6.11
studentstudent Score (x)Score (x)
11 99 Mean=Σx =55=6.11
n 9
Mean=6.11
Where:
x=scores in distribution
N=number of students
11 99
22 88
33 77
44 77
55 77
66 66
77 55
88 44
99 22

Mean is the fulcrum/balance point of a
distribution, and its one of the most useful
statistical measures because it provides much
information.information.
It is affected by all scores in the distribution
It serves as basis of further computations such
as variability.

Measures of spread/variation
• Although measures of central tendency are useful,
sometimes we need to know more about the
description of the sample or population.
E.g. When comparing two groups with the same mean

Group 1Group 1
EnglishEnglish
Score (x)Score (x) Group 2Group 2
KiswahiliKiswahili
Score (x)Score (x)
MargeMarge 1515 KimKim 11
SarahSarah 11 JumaJuma 55
PeterPeter 11 LouiseLouise 55
TeresaTeresa 44 TaramaTarama 66
WendyWendy 44 VanesaVanesa 44
LizLiz 33 FredFred 11
GeorgeGeorge 11 AshaAsha 55
KarenKaren 33 SiliaSilia 55
ΣΣx=32x=32 ΣΣx=32x=32

Group1.ΣX=32; mean is ΣX/n;32/8; mean=4
Group2. ΣX=32; mean is ΣX/n;32/8; mean=4
When you have similar mean like these, you would like
to know the spread of the scores whether similarto know the spread of the scores whether similar
(homogeneous) or quite different (heterogeneous)

Therefore measures of spread includes:
a) Range-basically this is the difference between the
highest score and the lowest score in a
distribution. It account only the extremes and notdistribution. It account only the extremes and not
the bulk of observations.
From the table above
group 1 range will be 15-1=14
Group 2 range will be 6-1=5

b) Variance Score Results for Kiswahili
S2=Σ(X-mean)2
n
Score( x)Score( x) XX--meanmean (X(X--mean)mean)22
11 --33 99
55 +1+1 11
S2=(26)2/8=676/8=84.5
ΣX=32=4 Variance=84.5
8
55 +1+1 11
66 +2+2 44
44 00 00
11 --33 99
55 +1+1 11
55 +1+1 11
ΣΣX=X=3232=4=4 ΣΣX=0X=0 ΣΣX=26X=26

Measures of spread or Variation
Standard Deviation How to obtain
S= √Σ(X-mean)2 standard deviation is
n computed by obtaining the
square root of variance.square root of variance.
Hence from the above
example
√84.5=9.12 or 9.1
SD=9.1

Measures of relationship
Correlation coefficient take the values from -1 to +1
A correlation coefficient of zero “0” indicates no
relationship
The closer to -1 or +1, the stronger the relationshipThe closer to -1 or +1, the stronger the relationship
A perfect positive correlation (1.00) specifies that for
every unit increase in one variable there is a
proportional unit increase in the other variable.

Measures of relationship
A perfect negative correlation (-1.00) concomitantly
means that for every unit increase in one variable
there is a proportional unit decrease in the other
variable.
Perfect correlation are highly unlikely in dealing with
human education.

Measures of Relationship
• Scatter gram is the means of presentation of
the data in correlations showing variables that
correspond to the X and Y axis.
• The line that you draw to coordinate the
points is called the line of best fit or
Regression line.
(Refer Correlation scatter plots)

• You must be careful not to fall into the trap of
attributing a course-and effect relationship to
variables that might be related
• E.g.. Kuzma (1984) reported a strong relationshipE.g.. Kuzma (1984) reported a strong relationship
between a child's foot size and handwriting ability.
This is not a cause and effect relationship although
both increase with age.

Spearman Rank Order Correlation
Spearman Rank order Correlation is used to determine
the relationship between two ranked variables (not
interval or ratio data)
This is designed for nonparametric data.This is designed for nonparametric data.
E.g. “The relationship between type of family and
marital status”

Pearson product-Moment Correlation
(r)
Pearson product-moment correlation (r) is often used
for parametric data and is the most precise
coefficient of correlation.
E.g. The relationship between age and weight forE.g. The relationship between age and weight for
infants between age and weight. See the MCH card
(clinic card)

Early 1990s a statistician named Charles Spearman
developed a technique for analyzing ordinal/rank data
known as Spearman Rank Order Correlation (rs) which
is used to determine the relationship between two
ranked variables or ordinal data (not interval or ratio
data)data)
This is designed for nonparametric data only
E.g.. “The relship btn type of family & marital status

(rs)
• 1st step. Replace the observations by rank number in
ascending order. If two or more variable are equal, find
the average rank.
• 2nd step. Record the difference btn the ranks
• 3rd Square the differences and• 3rd Square the differences and
• 4th step. Sum up the squared differences. See example
below. The formula is
rs=1- 6Σd2
n(n2-1)
E.g.. There is no relationship btn social rank and skill rank
among primary school pupils in Ipagala primary school

Spearman rank order correlation
There relationship between social rank and skill rank
r =1- 6
(18)10(1001)
108/990;10.11;
pupilpupil SocialSocial
rankrank
(x(x
Skill rankSkill rank
(y)(y)
D orD or
(X(X--Y)Y)
DD22
(X(X--Y)Y)
AA 22 11 11 11
BB 44 33 11 11
CC 11 22 --11 11108/990;10.11;
rs=0.89DD 88 88 00 00
EE 33 66 --33 99
FF 66 44 22 44
GG 99 1010 --11 11
HH 55 55 00 00
II 1010 99 11 11
JJ 77 77 00 00
ΣΣDD22=18=18

From the answer above, then we would like to know
whether or not the difference between social rank
and skill rank is significantly from 0
rs= 0.648 for 10 pupilsrs= 0.648 for 10 pupils
There is a rs critical table to compare the answer. See
Table C is the answer significantly different from 0 at
0.05 level of significant?
a) At 0.05= rs 0.648

b) Since our rs observed is 0.89>rs 0.648 from the
table, we would reject the null hypothesis.
We conclude that a correlation coefficient of this
size=0.89 did not happen just through sampling
error, and we would then state that it is significantlyerror, and we would then state that it is significantly
different from 0 at 0.05 level of significant.
In terms of the study, we would conclude that
“A relationship exist between social rank and skill
rank, those pupils with high scores in social had
better scores in skill”

The meaning of rs
1. When there is perfect positive correlation between
2 variables, the pairs of ranks (x,y) for each
individual would be identical.individual would be identical.
2. As such all differences D or ( x-y) would be 0; the
squared difference D2 or (x-y)2 would be 0; and the
fraction 6ΣD2/n(n2-1) would be 0,
leaving rs=1-0=1

rs
3.As the relationship drops, the differences and ΣD2
increase and rs of course gets smaller
4. Finally when there is a negative correlation, the
difference and ΣD2 are very large indeed so that thedifference and ΣD are very large indeed so that the
fraction to be subtracted from 1 is greater than 1,
resulting in a negative rs
NB: However, this outcome does not necessarily imply
a cause-and-effect relationship.

Pearson product-moment
correlation r
Karl Pearson (1857-1936) was an English Statistician
who derived Pearson product-moment correlation( r)
Often used for parametric data (interval or Ratio) and is
the most precise coefficient of correlation.the most precise coefficient of correlation.
E.g. a) The relationship between height and weight for
infants
b) There is no significant relationship between SE
301 and SE 300 among UDOM third year students.

Relationship btn Maths & Civics
Performances among Makole std 5 pupils
PupilPupil Math's (x)Math's (x) Civics yCivics y xx22 YY22 XYXY
AA 44 44 1616 1616 1616
BB 66 33 3636 99 1818
CC 77 55 4949 2525 3535CC 77 55 4949 2525 3535
DD 33 11 99 11 33
EE 33 99 99 8181 2727
FF 44 33 1616 99 1212
GG 44 33 1616 99 1212
HH 22 88 44 6464 1616
II 99 77 8181 4949 6363
JJ 88 66 6464 3636 4848
ΣΣx=50x=50 ΣΣy=49y=49 ΣΣxx22=300=300 ΣΣyy22=299=299 ΣΣxy=250xy=250

correlation
(r) Formulae
r= NΣXY-ΣXΣYr= NΣXY-ΣXΣY
√NΣX2-(ΣX)2√NΣY2-(ΣY)2

Relationship btn Maths & Civics
Performances among Makole std 5 pupils
r = 10(250)-(50)(49)
√10(300)-(300)√10(299)-299
= 2510-2450= 2510-2450
√(2700)(√2691)
68
r = (51.96)(51.87) =68/2695=0.02
r =0.02

correlation r
• Meaning of r significance
• The r observed is =0.02 we compare it with r critical
from table B
Our df is N-2; 10-2=8 at significant level of 0.05
r critical is 0.632r critical is 0.632
r observed 0.02<r critical 0.632 at 0.05 significant level
Hence, we accept the null hypothesis that “There is no
relationship btn Maths & Civics performances among
Makole std 5 pupils.

Other standard scores
Chi-square-denoted by Greek letter (X2) is a
nonparametric test that require independent
sample, i.e. observation of one participant is
independent of any other observationindependent of any other observation
The formulae for X2 is:
X
2
=Σ(O-E)2
E

Chi-Square (X2)
• Chi-square is a technique that can determine
whether or not there is a significant difference
between Observed frequencies and Expected
(theoretical) frequencies in two or more categories
E.g.. Suppose you flip a coin 20 times and record the
observation. From law of Probability we should
expect 10 heads and 10 tails. But because of
sampling error we could come up with 9 heads and
11 tails; or 12 heads, 8 tails

Chi-Square (X2)
Table 13.1
Calculating a x2 One way classification
ObserveObserve
dd
ExpecteExpecte
dd
(O(O--E)E) (O(O--E)E)22 (O(O--E)E)22
EE
Heads
Tails
dd dd EE
1212
88
2020
1010
1010
2020
22
--22
44
44
0.40.4
0.40.4
X2=0.8X2=0.8

Chi-square
• What does a chi square of 0.8 mean?
The degree of freedom is rows-1 i.e. (2-1=1)
Look at Table F we see that a X2 is 3.84 at df 1 or
greater is needed to be significant at 0.05 levelgreater is needed to be significant at 0.05 level
The X2 of 0.8 in coin flipping experiment happened due
to sampling error,
• We conclude that the deviations between the
observed frequencies and expected frequencies are
not significant.

Chi-squareStudents with learning disabilities have large standard deviations. See
the example below
Table 13.2
Comparing low achieving & learning disabled students on variability
StandardStandard
deviati.ndeviati.n
ObserveObserve
dd
ExpectedExpected (O(O--E)E) (O(O--E)E)22 (O(O--E)E)22/E/E
X2 =(1) =6.36, p>.05
LargerLarger 1515 9.59.5 5.55.5 30.2530.25 3.183.18
SmallerSmaller 44 9.59.5 --5.55.5 30.2530.25 3.183.18
1919 1919 --6.366.36

Chi-square
Note that again df is (r-1; 2-1) 1. Table F df 1
indicate X2 must be equal or exceed 3.84 to
be significant at 0,05 level.
Since our calculated is 6.36>3.84 at p=0.05. WeSince our calculated is 6.36>3.84 at p=0.05. We
conclude, there were significant difference btn
the low achieving & learning disabled students
Lets compare more than just two categories

Chi-square X2 Distribution
In SE 301seminar (with 200 students), the leader would
like to see the “normal distribution”
Using X2 to check “normality” of a grade distribution
GradesGrades ObserveObserve
dd
ExpecteExpecte
dd
(O(O--E)E) (O(O--E)E)22 (O(O--E)E)22/E/E
A(3.5%)A(3.5%) 1515 77 88 6464 64/7=9.1464/7=9.14A(3.5%)A(3.5%) 1515 77 88 6464 64/7=9.1464/7=9.14
B(24%)B(24%) 5353 4848 55 2525 25/48=0.5225/48=0.52
C(45%)C(45%) 8787 9090 --33 99 9/90=0.109/90=0.10
D(24%)D(24%) 3333 4848 1515 225225 225/48=4.6225/48=4.6
99
E(3.5%)E(3.5%) 1212
200200
77
200200
55 2525 25/7=3.5725/7=3.57

Chi-square X2 Distribution
X2 (4)=18.02 P>.01
Results show that X2 is 18.02 and the df (r-1 i.e..
5-1)=4
From Table F a X2 of 18.02 or greater is neededFrom Table F a X2 of 18.02 or greater is needed
for X2 to be significant at level 0.01. So we
conclude that the leaders` score distribution
deviates significantly from a normal
distribution.

Other standard scores
• Z-score is simply a way of telling how far a
score (or individual) is from the mean in
standard deviation.
• E.g.. If you was calculating the standard• E.g.. If you was calculating the standard
deviations of height of standard one pupils (in
cm), then the Z-score will be given in cm

How to calculate Z-score
• English Test Results
Z-score= x-mean
SD
Variance=Σ(x-mean)2
N
SD= √Σ(x-mean)2
N
PupilsPupils ScoreScore
(x)(x)
xx--meanmean (X(X--meanmean))22 ZZ--scorescore
AA 11 --33 99 --3/23/2
BB 55 11 11 ½=0.5½=0.5
CC 55 11 11 ½=0.5½=0.5
SD= √42/8=√5.2=2
Z-score= 2
CC 55 11 11 ½=0.5½=0.5
DD 66 22 44 11
EE 44 00 00 00
FF 11 33 99 1.51.5
GG 55 11 99 0.50.5
HH 55 11 99 0.50.5
ΣΣ32/8=32/8=
44
ΣΣ(X(X--mean)mean)22

Inferential analysis
Inferential analysis-is when you use data from a
sample to make inference to the population.
Eg. Results from a study done in Songea Boys
Sec students you infer to all secondary schoolSec students you infer to all secondary school
students in Tanzania

Testing Statistical significance
• When analyzing data using inferential
statistics, two procedures can be done.
1. Testing hypothesis which is commonly used
oror
2. Estimating parameters (confidence interval-
CI), is used when we do not have value of a
population characteristics.

Estimating parameters
• Constructing a CI around a sample mean
establishes a range of values for a population
parameter in addition to a certain probability
of being correct.
• Usually the CI is arbitrary, and researchers
used either 95% 0r 99%
• This means the researcher allows an error of
5%(0.05) or 1% (0.01) only.

HYPOTHESIS TESTING
• Hypothesis testing is a procedure to test
whether all observed differences (from the
sample) provide enough evidence to believe
that there is corresponding difference in thethat there is corresponding difference in the
population. It determine:
1. The difference should be attributed to
random error. BUT if you find there is
difference you reject the null hypothesis.

Hypothesis testing cont…
2. Whether the difference is large enough for us
to conclude that the population values are
different. If there is large difference you
accept the null hypothesisaccept the null hypothesis

Level of significance
To accept or reject
Null hypothesis
Depends on a
ProbabiliProbabili
ty valuety value
InterpretationInterpretation
>.05>.05 Results notResults not
Significant,Significant,Level of significance
(alpha level-α) which
is 5% (0.05) 0r 1%(0.01)
or 0.01%(0.001) alpha
Level.
Significant,Significant,
Accept HoAccept Ho
<.05<.05 Result significant,Result significant,
accept Hoaccept Ho
<.01<.01 Results is highlyResults is highly
significant, rejectsignificant, reject
HoHo

Accept or Reject the Ho
As a rule of thumb: Accept or Reject the Ho if;
rrss
rr OBSERVED >OBSERVED > CRITICAL/TABULATEDCRITICAL/TABULATED
REJECTREJECT
NULLNULL
HYPOTHESIHYPOTHESI
xx22
HYPOTHESIHYPOTHESI
SS
rrss
rr
XX22
OBSERVED <OBSERVED <
CRITICAL/TABULATEDCRITICAL/TABULATED
ACCEPTACCEPT
NULLNULL
HYPOTHESIHYPOTHESI
SS

Normal Curve
Many physiological
measurements (height,
weight, length of nose, behavioral
measurement e.g.. IQ scores, aptitudesmeasurement e.g.. IQ scores, aptitudes
tests etc. are normally distributed;
The frequency polygon for the
distribution is bell-shaped
asymmetric curve called
Normal curve
• Majority of scores are at center.

Skew ness
The times when the
distribution is concentrated
in either side is called
Skewness.Skewness.
If the scores are
concentrated at the UPPER
end , so the tail is of the curve
skews to the left, we call the
curve is NEGATIVELY SKEWED

Skewness
But if the scores are
concentrated at the
LOWER end of the
distribution, so thedistribution, so the
tail of the curve
skews to the right,
We say the curve is
POSITIVELY SKEWED

Skewness
We can compare two frequency
distributions with appropriately
equal values of N as seen in the
figure.figure.
It is easy to compare the spread
and the concentration and the
ability of girls is superior in
that test than boys.
scores

HYPOTHESIS TESTING
Characteristics of Hypothesis
1.It should be clear and precise otherwise your
hypothesis will not be taken as reliable.
2. It should be capable of tested for confirmation or2. It should be capable of tested for confirmation or
disproved by observation.
3. It should state relationship between variables
(i.e. DVs & IVs), if its relational hypothesis.
E.g.. Academic performance and birth order.

Cont..
4.It should be specific and limited in scope. Narrower
hypothesis are more testable
5.It should be tested in most simple terms to be
understood by all concerned.
6. It should be consistent with facts/theories
7. It should be agreeable/pleasant to testing within a7. It should be agreeable/pleasant to testing within a
reasonable time because one can not spend life-time
collecting data to test it.
8. Hypothesis must explain the facts that give time to
the need for explanation i.e. it should have empirical
reference

TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
• Alternative hypothesis-this is positive
statement and is the one which we wish to
prove true,e.g.There is relationship between
academic performance and birth order of
secondary school students.secondary school students.
• Null hypothesis-it's a negative statement and
is the one which we wish to disprove (reject).
E.g. There is no relationship between
academic performance and birth order of
secondary school students.

Level of Significance
• Level of significance is the power the
researcher has to make decisions on whether
or not his/her hypothesis (or observed
evidence) is true.
• Researchers normally take the probability of• Researchers normally take the probability of
5% (0.05) risk of making error and 95% being
correct; or 1% (0.01) error and 99%;
• As such we say that a researcher is willing to
take 0.05 or less risk of reject Ho when it is
true.

Level of Significance
• Thus 0.05 is the maximum value of the
probability of rejecting Ho when it is true,
and normally you determine it before testing
the hypothesis.the hypothesis.
• In case you run statistics and get significant
level of 0.06, will you accept or reject the Ho?
• In case you run statistics and get significant
level of 0.02, will you accept or reject the Ho?

Decision Rule or Testing Hypothesis
To accept or reject null
hypothesis depends
upon
a level of significance
ProbabilityProbability
valuevalue
InterpretatioInterpretatio
nn
>.05>.05 Result notResult not
significantsignificant
accept Haccept Hoo
a level of significance
(alpha level or α ) which
is 5% (0.05) or 1% (0.02)
or 0.01% (0.001) alpha
level
accept Haccept Hoo
<.05<.05 Result isResult is
reject Hreject Hoo
<.01<.01 Result isResult is
highlyhighly
reject Hreject Hoo

Type I and Type II Errors
• In the process of testing hypothesis, there are
same errors we can make
• If we reject Ho when Ho is true we have
committed type 1 error known as alphacommitted type 1 error known as alpha
error=α
• But if we accept Ho when in fact Ho is not true
we have committed type II error known as
beta error=β error

Decision
Accept Ho Reject Ho
Correct Type I errorCorrect Type I error
Ho(true) Decision α error
Ho(false) Type II error Correct
β error decision

• Researchers always try their best to minimize
both errors. However, as you try to reduce
Type I you are most likely to commit Type II
error.error.
• You can not control both types
simultaneously.
• Hence you trade-off between the two types
of errors depending on which one is more
costly in your results and conclusions

E.g. There is no relationship between malaria
and chloroquine
If Type 1 involves the time and funds to conduct
the experiment of manufacturing thethe experiment of manufacturing the
medicine
While Type II error means taking risk of
distributing the medicine to patients with
uncertainty of treating malaria.
Then what would you prefer?

When testing hypothesis, you must make all
possible efforts to strike a balance between
committing Type 1 and Type 11 errors.
HOW?HOW?
By setting a very high level for Type 1 error
when testing technique of a certain
hypothesis

Interpretation of findings
What is interpretation?
r observed 0.02<r critical0.632 at 0.05 significant
level
Hence, we accept the null hypothesis that,Hence, we accept the null hypothesis that,
“There is no relationship between Math's &
Civics performance among Makole std 5
pupils”

We can say that interpretation is:
1.Drawing inference from the collected data
after an analysis
2.It is a search for a broader meaning of the2.It is a search for a broader meaning of the
research findings

Interpretation involves the following aspects:
1. To establish continuity in research through
linking your results to those of others.
2. To establish relationship (of DVs and IVs2. To establish relationship (of DVs and IVs
within the collected data
3. To extend beyond the data of the study to
include theories and hypotheses.

In short interpretation is an exercise through
which the facts from the study could be
explained and understood better.
Also interpretation provide a theoretical
conception which can serve as a guide to
further research.

Cont….
Why do we interpret our findings?
1.Because it is a way the researcher can make
his/her abstract findings be understood by
society and they can link the study with thosesociety and they can link the study with those
of others
2. Because it is a way to open new avenues of
intellectuals and stimulates the quest for more
knowledge

Cont…
3.Because is the way the researcher can
appreciate his/her work, make others
understand the significance of the study.
4. Because it serves as a transition from4. Because it serves as a transition from
explanatory to experimental research.
Explanatory study does not have hypothesis to
begin with, but later the interpretation of
results lead to experimental research to test
the worthiness

Techniques of Interpretation
1.Give reasonable explanation of the relations
found in the study-know how generalization is
done and concepts being formulated
2. Extra information if collected must be2. Extra information if collected must be
considered during final interpretation of
results, as this may be key factor in
understanding the problem under study.

Techniques of Interpretation
3.Make consultations with genuine expert who
will omit errors which does not bring logical
argumentation. This person will help make
correct interpretation and enhance the utility
of the findingsof the findings
4. You must be in no hurry while interpreting
results, because the conclusions which appear
to be alright at the beginning may not at all be
accurate.

Precautions in Interpretation
NB: Even when you try hard to minimize errors in
sampling the respondents, collecting data and
analyzing, making a mistake interpretation would
lead to inaccurate conclusions
Precautions in interpretation…Precautions in interpretation…
Some hints to consider
1.Satisfy yourself that
You have appropriate and adequate data for
drawing inference

Precautions in Interpretation
Data reflect good homogeneity
Proper analysis has been done using proper
statistical methods
2.Must be cautious about errors e.g.
i. Error due to false generalization/wrongi. Error due to false generalization/wrong
interpretation e.g. Application of results beyond
the range of observation, identify cause and effect
etc,
ii. Don’t affirm relationship with either Ha or Ho if its
not there
iii. Be competent with correct statistical measures for
drawing inferences in your study

Precautions cont..
3. You can not separate analysis and
interpretation so:
a. Take much care of reliability of data
b. Computational checks from time to timeb. Computational checks from time to time
c. Validation of results and
d. Comparison of results

Precautions cont
4.Remember your task is:
i. Both to make sensitive observations of
relevant occurrences and identify and
disengage the factors that are initially notdisengage the factors that are initially not
seen by our eyes.
ii. Avoid generalization because your sample is
restricted to particular time, particular are,
and particular conditions
Hence frame your results within their limits

Precautions
5.Remember there is constant interaction
between initial hypothesis to be tested,
theoretical conceptions and empirical
observations in the field.observations in the field.
This is the opportunity to show creativity and
originality of your work. So pay much
attention to this interaction while engaged in
interpretation

REPORT WRITING
• No matter how brilliant your hypotheses are or how
well designed and conducted your research is, the
most important part of it is to communicate the
results to others.
• This is the purpose of research, to search knowledge
and share with others.
• Research report is the last step in research study
which requires different skills to accomplish.

Steps in Report writing…
1. Logical analysis of the subject matter
a) Either logically from simple to complex
structure or
b) Chronologically i.e. on the bases of sequence
in time or occurrencein time or occurrence
2. Preparation of final outline-this outline is a
guide/aid to the logical/chronological
organization of the report.
The guide is a remind of the important points to be
included in the full report.

Steps cont..
3. Preparation of the rough draft- put down
what you have done in your research study
Here you rewrite the first 3 chapter by changing
the action verbs to past tense.the action verbs to past tense.
In chapter one you will put all various limitations
faced in the field the techniques adopted for
analysis, the presentation of findings,
generalization of results, various suggestions
and conclusions.

Steps cont
4. Rewriting and polishing of the Rough Draft.
This is the most difficult part of the report
writing because: i) it requires more time than
the rough draft in careful revision, looking atthe rough draft in careful revision, looking at
the weakness in logical devt or presentation
e.g.>Whether or not the material has unity &
consistency (pulling together the information)
>The report stand upright, firm & exhibit a
definite pattern

Steps
>whether or not it resemble an old wall of
molding e.g. cement and loose brick
>Check also whether in your rough draft you
was consistent or not.was consistent or not.
>Also check the mechanics of writing e.g.
grammar, spelling and usage of correct word
phrases

Steps
5. Preparation of the final Bibliography
Bibliography which is normally appended to the
research report is:
i) A list of pertinent books to the research. Iti) A list of pertinent books to the research. It
must contain all the works you consulted in
the course preparation of proposal and
analysis.
ii) It should be arranged alphabetically

Steps
6. Writing the Final Draft
Your final draft should be written in:
i) Concise and objective style
ii) In simple language i.e. avoid vague phrases
e.g.. “It seems…” “there may be…”e.g.. “It seems…” “there may be…”
iii) Avoid also abstract terminologies &
technical slang (jargon)
iv) Illustrations & examples on common
experiences must be incorporated for effective
communication of the findings to others

Steps cont..
v) It should enthuse people (not dull) and
maintain interests & must show originality
NB: Each research is intended to solve some
intellectual or societal problem, so:intellectual or societal problem, so:
a) It must contribute to the solution of a
problem
b) Must add to knowledge of both the
researcher and readers.

Layout of the research Report
Layout is what the report should contain. Unless
for an academic research report (dissertation
and thesis) others must contain 3 main parts
a) Preliminariesa) Preliminaries
b) Main text
c) End matter

Layout of the Research Report
1. Preliminaries-these include:
• Title and date
• Acknowledgement or preface or foreword
• Table of contents• Table of contents
• List of tables, figures, charts, maps etc
• Abbreviations

Preliminaries for a Dissertation you have more items
like:
• Certification-where your supervisors certify that they
have read and agree the document it is ready for
submission. Their names signature and data appearsubmission. Their names signature and data appear
• Declaration & Copyright
• Dedication
• Acknowledgement
• Abstract or Executive summary and the list continue
table of contents and the following.

2.Main text-this provides the main detail of the
report
• Each main section of the report begin on a
new pagenew page
• The main text should have the following
subsections:
i) Chapter I one-Introduction
ii) Chapter II-Literature review and conceptual
theoretical framework

Layout cont..
iii) Chapter III –Methodology
iv) Chapter IV-Presentation of the results and
discussion
V) Chapter V-Conclusion, suggestion and theV) Chapter V-Conclusion, suggestion and the
summary

Layout
3.End matter-these are the appendices attached
at the end of research report. These are:
i) Bibliographies
ii) Technical data e.g. questionnaires, sampleii) Technical data e.g. questionnaires, sample
information, mathematical derivations

Types of Reports
1.Technical report- this emphasizes on:
i) The methods used in the study
ii) The assumptions/hypothesis tested in the
course of studycourse of study
iii) Detailed presentation of results including
supporting data.

Types of Reports
2. Popular report-this emphasize on simplicity
and attractiveness of reporting the results
through
i) Clear writingi) Clear writing
ii) Minimization of technical e.g mathematical
iii) Details and liberal use of charts & diagrams

Types cont
iv) Attractiveness layout with large print, many
subheadings, charts even cartoons are
characteristics of popular report.
v) Much emphasis also is given on the practicalv) Much emphasis also is given on the practical
aspects and policy implications.

Oral presentation
Sometimes you will be required to present your
results orally.
This is effective particularly when policy
recommendations are demanded by projectrecommendations are demanded by project
results

Oral presentation
Pros-It provides opportunity of give-and take
decisions, better understanding of results
and their implications
Cons-
i) It lack permanent record concerning thei) It lack permanent record concerning the
research details
ii) Its possible the findings may fade away from
peoples memory even before the action is
taken

Oral present…..
Hence, in order to overcome this ,a written
report may be circulated before the oral
presentation and allow participants to refer to
during the discussionduring the discussion
-Oral presentation is effective when
supplemented by various devices eg. Slides,
wall charts, tables, use of black board/white
board as it reduce boredom

Precautions for writing Research
Report
Research report is a channel of communication
between the researcher and the reader, thus this
task must be done efficiently and effectively. To
note of these
1. It should be long enough to cover the subject but
short enough to maintain interest
1. It should be long enough to cover the subject but
short enough to maintain interest
2. It shouldn't be dull, but sustain readers interest
3. Avoid abstract terminologies and technical
language. The report should convey the results as
simple as possible

Precautions
4. Readers are often interested to acquire a
quick knowledge of the main results
5. Report should be appropriate and accordance
to the objective of the studyto the objective of the study
6. Report should be free from grammatical
errors
7. Present the report with logical analysis

Precautions
8.Show originality of the results and attempt to solve a
problem & must add new knowledge
9.At the end show policy implications related to the
problem. Also forecast on the probable future
research on the same field.research on the same field.
10.Appendices must be enlisted appropriately
11.Bibliographies must be of good quality (not more
than 10 years)
12.Report must be attractive in appearance, neat,
clean, whether typed or printed.

Precautions
13.Calculated confidence limits must be
mentioned in advance, and various
constraints, challenges/limitations
experienced in conducting the study should
also be listedalso be listed
14.Lastly, forget not to clearly state the
objectives of the study, nature of the problem,
methods employed and data analysis
techniques.

Ethical Issues
• Since the subject matter of the social scientist is
human behavior, it is inevitable that scientific
interests will conflict at times with values placed on
the right of individuals to privacy and self
determinationdetermination
• American psychological Association's Committee on
Ethical standards stress the “informed consent” i.e.
Participants volunteer to participate in the study.

Ethical issues
• In universities, there are institutional Review
Board expected to review proposals for ethical
consideration
• At national level, there is national Board• At national level, there is national Board

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
1.DR.KISANGA Sipora (UDOM-Coed)
2.MR.TARIMO P (UDOM-Coed)
3.MS MSIGWA Albina (UDOM-Coed)
By;
NGAPONDA, Elenzian C (2010/2011)
BED MAD 3rd year
The University of Dodoma-Coed

LADIES AND GENTLEMEN
SUCCESS
AND
BETTER LIFE
STRUGGLE
AND
ATTITUDINAL
BETTER LIFE
EDUCATION
ATTITUDINAL
CHANGE

Research

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