Remote Sensing Of Aerosols, Clouds And Precipitation

Remote Sensing Of Aerosols, Clouds And Precipitation
Book Title
Remote Sensing of Aerosols, Clouds, and Precipitation
EDITORS
Tanvir Islam, NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, USA
Yongxiang Hu, NASA Langley Research Center, USA
Alexander Kokhanovsky, EUMETSAT, Germany
Jun Wang, University of Nebraska, USA
BACKGROUND INFORMATION AND READERSHIP
The atmospheric parameters, including, aerosols, clouds, and precipitation, play very important role
in our Earth's climate system. The climate feedbacks influencing the global climate variability are
directly or indirectly affected by aerosols, clouds, and precipitation, and thus, modulate the Earth's
radiation and surface energy balance. Therefore, global observations of aerosols, clouds, and
precipitation are crucial not only to better understand the processes involved in the climate system
but also to predict the future climate change.
Satellite remote sensing as a tool can be very valuable to acquire such global observations of
aerosols, clouds, and precipitation for monitoring Earth's climate system. In particular, some of the
regions in the Earth are not easily accessible to obtain in situ data while on those regions; space
borne instruments can act as complimentary data sources. Besides, large scale data mapping and
monitoring are only feasible with space–based observations.
A good progress has been made in the recent years in dealing with remote sensing of the aerosols,
clouds, and precipitation using satellite measurements for global observations. Notably, the remote
sensing
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The Importance Of Weather Patterns And Extremes
Weather Patterns and Extremes
The Central Valley has many weather hazards that can be linked to cyclones and various frontal
formations, with the most common hazards being droughts and heat waves. Chang et al. (2015)
evaluated the change in precipitation due to extratropical cyclone activity and found that most of the
precipitation that the region receives during the winter is due to extratropical cyclones and their
fronts. When evaluating three consecutive winters, results showed that precipitation was below
average. This lack of precipitation, paired with higher than average temperatures, caused extreme
dryness, and as a result, much of California, including the Central Valley, experienced a drought
(Chang et al. 2015).
Severe droughts ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The geography of the valley seems to play a large role in its climate type. El Bosque, Chile has
geography that is very similar to Sacramento, California. Just like Sacramento, El Bosque is a city
that is centrally located in a bowl–shaped valley and has mountain chains located to the east and
west of it. Additionally, both cities are separated from the Pacific Ocean by a western mountain
chain (The Geography of Chile). Also noteworthy is the fact that both cities are classified as hot
Mediterranean climates (Csa). El Bosque and Sacramento both receive moderate amounts of
precipitation in the winter and hot temperatures in the summer with dryness. This shows that
geographical features, specifically proximity to the ocean and mountain ranges, can greatly affect an
area's climate.
However, latitude also appears to play a role. Bakersfield and San Pedro de Atacama, in California
and Chile respectively, retain the same aforementioned geographical features, yet they have a
different climate type (BWh) than Sacramento and El Bosque do. This can be attributed to their
latitudes, as they lie closer to the equator than their counterparts.
Climate Change
The climate of the Central Valley has seen various ups and downs in its past, especially in regards to
temperature. Many of these changes can be seen by looking at sediment cores and fossilized
vegetation. About 150 million years ago, the Central Valley was an inland sea that slowly filled over
time

Factors That Influence Rainfall in the United States
Factors that Influence Rainfall in the United States
A type of precipitation is rainfall and it develops when water vapor condenses into droplets in the
atmosphere thus becoming too heavy to stay suspended in the air so gravity causes them to fall. The
pattern or occurrence of rainfall in the United States or basically anywhere in the world depends on
several factors such as ground elevation, wind directions, location within a continental mass, areas
of low pressure, cool fronts, jet streams and even mountain ranges. For instance mountains have an
influence on wind and wind is an important feature in rainfall, "The windward sides of mountainous
islands in the trade wind regime are among the rainiest places on earth, where rains exceed ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
When the pressure is 'high' it means that the air's pressure is higher than the pressure of the
surrounding air in the area. A 'low' is where it is lower. This means that where the air is slowly
descending the pressure is high and vice versa. So, as air descends, it warms, which inhibits the
formation of clouds. This means that the air that descends in high pressure area has to get to high
altitudes in some way which is why air actually rises in low pressure areas. Winds tend to blow into
low pressure areas because are moves from higher pressure areas into lower pressure areas. When
the wind moves into a low area the air moves up and eventually cools and rainfall comes about. Also
the low pressure that causes the air to rise has to do with the Criolis Effect, which is the force caused
by the Earth's spin that redirects moving air to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in
the Southern Hemisphere. According to meteorologist Tony Pann, who works with Coriolis Effect
stated, "With the Coriolis effect, air circulates in patterns that depend on latitude. At the mid–
latitudes of the USA, most weather systems move from west to east. However, systems tend to move
from east to west near the poles and in the tropic" (Pann). The upslope flow is also related low
pressure areas which is basically the result of air rising and cooling while being forced to ascend to
higher terrain.

What´s Supercell Thunderstorm? Essay
Supercell Thunderstorm:
A Supercell Thunderstorm is an extraordinary and uncommon type of storm that can carry on for
hours. These storms are responsible for most all of the momentous windstorms and hailstones,
greater the size of a golf ball. Other referred names are called Rotating Thunderstorms. Supercells
are regularly secluded from other rainstorms, and can change the weather conditions up to 35
kilometres away. With the severe climate, these Supercells are also well–known to produce
dangerous winds and flash flooding.
Rotating Thunderstorms have three groups, which include: Classic, Low–precipitation and High–
precipitation. Low–precipitation thunderstorms are found in environments that are waterless, such as
the Outback in Australia, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Mini Supercell (low–topped Supercell) has different structures (Davies, 1999.) These smaller
thunderstorms are weak and harmless to land, however it can still produce small hail storms and
cause some flooding to local areas.
There are 3 stages of a thunderstorm life cycle: The towering cumulus stage: If the temperature
rises; the Supercell will arise along with it. After the storm rises, it will slowly lose its temperature
and heat is reflected, which helps the oxygen remain warmer than usual and the storm will continue
to build up its speed. The air will create an updraft (thermal.) A towering cumulus will form with
tough and strong edges.
The second stage: Mature thunderstorm: The hot oxygen proceeds to intensify until eventually the
surrounding air loses its hot temperature. This usually takes a long period of time, thus meaning that
the storm has reached a tall height of 10–16 kilometres above land. Once the storm slowly reduces,
the top wind levels begin to push the bottom part, creating an anvil. Anvils can spread out
approximately to 160 kilometres. A storm's can support up to 8000 tonnes of water per minute. The
weight of the droplet overpowers air and cascades after a short period of time (10 minutes.)
The third stage: Dissipating: As the rain/hail meets land, the cold air starts to

Acid Precipitation In Canada
Arguably the most prevalent environmental issue of its time, pollution was effectively dealt with in
that Canada reduced the levels of acid precipitation, water pollutants, and land wastes. Acid
precipitation and its impacts are detrimental to both humans and wildlife alike but is a difficult issue
to handle due to the large number of factors contributing to it. Despite this, Canada has effectively
been able to lower levels of this weather phenomenon. Acid precipitation is the deposition of acidic
substances on the earth's surface and is caused by many chemicals including sulfuric acid
synthesized from sulfur dioxide and nitric acid from nitrogen oxides. Sulfur dioxide is mainly
emitted into the atmosphere by smelters in Sudbury that process copper and nickel. In 1983,
"Canada adopted a target ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In 1985, Canada signed the "United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) Helsinki
Protocol" which demanded it reduce its sulphur compound emissions and thus the amount of acid
precipitation by 1993. In addition, Canada also signed the Oslo Protocol which aimed to cap acidic
emissions to 1.75 million tonnes in areas ravaged by acid precipitation. Canada evidently responds
effectively to pollution in terms of acid precipitation in that it found the root cause, sulfur and
nitrogen oxides, and uses various technologies and agreements to lower the levels at which they are
emitted. Canada effectively sets goals such as the Oslo protocol that are realistic or achievable,
specific, measurable, and reflect Canada's fore thoughtfulness in that it recognizes the importance of
non acidic water bodies for future generations. Canada responded effectively to pollution in terms of
harmful substances being released in water bodies. These pollutants are classified as pathogens,
nutrients, and toxic materials and many measures were taken to eliminate or lower the levels of
these factors. For

Defining Meteorology
Hannah Flanery
ATM SCI 100
Final Project
Spring 2016
1) Defining Climate, Weather, and Meteorology.
The field of meteorology is a science that incorporates distinctive terminology. Unfortunately, some
of these terms' meanings have a tendency to be portrayed inaccurately. It could be argued that the
most familiar concepts falsely defined would be the meteorology terms weather and climate. It is
important to provide a distinction between weather, climate, and the field of meteorology.
When discussing atmospheric conditions over a long period of time (e.g. for several years) at a
particular surface area, the climate is being analysed. It is distinct from weather in that climate
focuses on a longer period of time over a specific area while ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Updrafts in a single cell thunderstorm produce precipitation. Surrounding conditions cause this
precipitation to become too heavy for a cloud to carry. The precipitation falls from the cloud which
drops the air temperature and forms a downdraft. The evaporation by this precipitation produces a
cooling effect that infiltrates the updraft when the downdraft and updraft finally interact. With help
from the coolness produced by evaporation, the updraft is eradicated by the downdraft. Ordinary
single cell thunderstorms live a short cycle because of the short time it takes for the updraft and
downdraft to interact. This short cycle also functions to prohibit the growth of severe

Deforestation Effects On Amazon Forest Resilience
Trees and any plantation for that matter are often taken for granted as they provide many of the
essentials such as photosynthesis regulation, habitat, food, and even save ground to build
construction. However, as more people demand more, more space will be needed and cutting away
the trees for humans to use. Deforestation is the act of cutting and clearing a large area of trees. It is
the cause of extreme damage to the ecosystem and sustainability of life. Deforestation is negatively
affecting the interaction between the water cycle, soil sustainability, and trees stability.
There is a chain reaction due to deforestation. Deforestation leads to decrease in biotic pump
disrupting the water cycle leading to a decrease in transpiration and ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
2017). Deforestation also indirectly affects the water cycle by disturbing the atmospheric circulation
patterns. As evapotranspiration occurs in the water cycle from the forests, the water rises up to the
atmosphere and the wind moves the rain. So when trees are cleared, the cycle of losing natural
resources continues as fewer trees lead to less water to evaporation in the water cycle which
decreases the precipitation the Amazonian forest need. This finally leads to more death of trees and
the ecosystem within the forest. Zemp et al.'s result on forest resilience in their simulation supports
that the Amazon's forest survival also decrease as there is an overlap in Zemp et al.'s statement when
they state that in their simulations, forest resilience decreases overlap with deforested areas. Despite
the evidence showing the detrimental effects of deforestation, Zemp et al.'s research focus on the
quantity of the forest and deforestation, therefore, the research has a gap such that other
geographical influences such as fertilization, greenhouse gases, and water use are not accounted for.
However, Zemp et al.'s had gained more understanding as they have used other research papers, like
[Spracklen and Garcia–Carreras, 2015; Lejeune et al., 2015], to close the gap of unanswered gaps in
the deforestation issue. Although the paper has

Precipitation Of Precipitation
Precipitation Analysis
With an average annual total rainfall of 53.1 inches, the six stations examined and their mean rates
of precipitation are consistent with the claim that the entire state of Florida receives, on average, 54
inches of precipitation annually. Stations like Deland, Inverness, High Springs and Canal Point
differed little from the expected mean, while Marathon Shores and Niceville deviated noticeably.
This deviation, however, is chiefly explained by the stations' locations and the patterns of rainfall
associated with those positions. For example, Marathon Shore's aberration is likely due to the fact
that the area received comparatively less rainfall during the summer months of June through
September with a rather low mean ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Deland, Inverness and Canal Point, for example, are situated much closer to the coast when
compared to High Springs, and they exhibit a greater total annual precipitation rate of 53.72 inches
as opposed to High Spring's 52.27 inches and a greater annual monthly mean of 4.48 inches
compared to the 4.36 inches of High Springs. While relatively small, this variance among
precipitation rates is still great enough to confirm the claim that most of the time, at least, stations
located closer to the coast experience overall higher mean monthly and mean annual precipitation
rates.
Using the data collected solely from the selected six stations, a possible correlation is unclear
between the amount of precipitation received and the number of hurricane strikes within a given
area despite the claim made in the conceptual model. Niceville, for instance, experiences the highest
overall mean monthly and mean annual precipitation of the six stations in addition to experiencing
the highest mean precipitation rate during the specified months of July through October with a mean
of 6.68 inches, but according to the first map provided in the guidance document, it did not
experience the highest number of hurricane strikes. Between the years of 1900 to 2010, Niceville
was hit but 10 to 12 hurricanes, but the station that received the least amount of rain both in terms of
mean monthly and mean annual precipitation and the

The Effect Of Precipitation On The Water Cycle
Precipitation Precipitation is water that is either is solid or liquid form that falls from the Earth's
atmosphere. The major types of precipitation are rain, snow, and hail. When air is lifted from the
atmosphere, it expands and cools (Wilson, 2015 ). Cool air can't hold as much water in vapor form
as warm air, and the condensation of vapor into droplets or ice crystals may occur. The droplets will
keep growing, they will eventually be heavy enough to fall to the Earth's surface (Wilson, 2015 ).
Precipitation in liquid from will include drizzle and raindrops. Snowflakes are formed by
aggregation of solid ice crystals within a cloud, while hailstones are cooled water droplets and ice
pellets. Warm clouds are explained as that do not extend to levels where temperatures are 32°F,
whereas cold clouds exist at part in temperatures that are below 32°F (Wilson, 2015 ). Precipitation
is the third step in the water cycle. The water cycle is a process in which water circulates between
the Earth's oceans, atmosphere, and land. The water cycle involves precipitation such as rain, snow,
drainage in streams and rivers, and then returns to the atmosphere by evaporation and transpiration.
Evaporation is when the sun heats up the water in rivers, lakes, or oceans and turns it into vapor or
steam (Guenther, 1998–2015). The water vapor or steam will leave the river, lake, or ocean and will
go into the air. Condensation occurs when water vapor in the air gets cold and changes back into

How Does Precipitation Affect Precipitation Patterns
2.2. Effect of alteration of precipitation pattern
Precipitation rates are predicted to increase by about 25 percent by 2050 in response to global
warming. However, at regional scales, this increase will be unevenly distributed with either
increases or decreases projected in different areas (Knutson and Tuleya, 1999; Walsh and Ryan,
2000; Houghton et al., 2001). Changes in precipitation patterns caused by climate change may have
a profound effect on both the growth of mangroves and their aerial extent (Field, 1995; Snedaker,
1995). Regional climate models predict that precipitation will decrease in certain areas (e.g., Central
America during the months of winter, Australia in winter) (Houghton et al., 2001). Decreased
precipitation may not ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In Australia, mangroves grow taller, more productive, and more diverse in areas of higher rainfall
(Ellison, 2000). Harty (2004) suggests that increases in rainfall reduce salinity levels within salt–
marshes which allows mangroves to migrate and outcompete salt–marsh vegetation. This trend of
mangrove transgression into salt–marsh habitat has been observed in southeast Australia due to
increases in precipitation.
In Indian Sundarbans region, mangrove species like Heritiera fomes and Nypa fruticans are
gradually vanishing from the central region owing to complete cut–off of the freshwater supply due
to Bidyadhari siltation. These species are, however, coming up luxuriantly in low saline pockets of
Sundarbans particularly in the western part, which is gradually freshening due to more flow of
freshwater through Ganga–Bhagirathi–Hugli channel (Mitra et al., 2009). Decrease in salinity in this
important World Heritage site, by ways of Bidyadhari dredging and interlinking the Ganga–Hugli–
Bhagirathi channel (in the western Indian Sundarbans) with the Rivers of the hypersaline central
sectors (like Matla) may increase the mangrove species diversity in and around the Matla River in
the central Indian Sundarbans.
2.3. Effect of rise in CO2 concentration
Atmospheric CO2 has increased from 280 parts per million by volume (ppmv) in the year 1880 to
nearly 370 ppmv in the year 2000

Hot Desert Research Paper
Deserts have an average rainfall of 10 inches
Deserts can both be cold and hot, some deserts have snow
The four types of deserts are Hot and Dry deserts, Semiarid Desert, Coastal Desert, and Cold desert.
Deserts lack water, because there is little vegetation
Most animals that live in the desert need little water to survive. Most animals are lizards and snakes.
Hot and dry deserts are hot and the day and get very cold at night
Deserts cover ⅕ of earth's surface
The Sahara Desert is the largest desert in the world at a length of 4,800 km.
Some Deserts can reach –18 degrees at night.
Deserts have little humidity.
Jesse Pace
The Dusty Desert Dunes
Savor the Season Sizzling in the Sun and Sand!
The average temperature of the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The bee relies on the cactus to get the nutrients that it needs and the cactus gets pollinated because
they bee takes the pollen from plant to plant.
The Chuckwalla:
When this lizard senses danger it will go inbetween a rock and inflate itself. Chuckwallas are
commonly found in a rocky area. This is an adaptation because Chuckwallas live where there is lots
of rocks and do this for survival..
Chuckwallas live in the southwestern desert.
Different types of chuckwallas have different adaptations. For example, the Spiny Chuckwalla has a
spiny tail. Usually Chuckwallas tails are flat.
Bearded Dragon:
When bearded dragons feel threatened or is being territorial, they will puff– up their beard and scare
the predator away. They have adapted to this because they have lots of predators.
Bearded dragons can also flatten out their body to make themselves look bigger, they will also bob
their head to look intimidating.
Prickly Pear Cactus:

The prickly pear cactus stores water in its leaves because of the lack of water they need to store
water and drink as little as possible.
They have spikes on the leaves, this protects them from animals eating their

Heating Of The Earth Exterior And Atmosphere And...
Heating of the earth exterior and atmosphere and influences patterns of precipitation the sun heats
the air at the equator causing it to expand and rise. Since cool air holds less water vapor than warm
air, the water carried by the rising air mass condenses and forms clouds which produce the heavy
rainfall associated with the tropical environment. Eventually this equatorial air mass began to rise
and spreads north and south. The high altitude air is dry since the moisture it once held fell as a
tropical rainfall. When the air mass flows north and south it cools, which increases more density. It
goes back to the earth's surface at about 30 latitudes and spreads north and south. The air draws
moisture from the lands over which it flows and creates deserts during the process. Temperature is
plotted on the left vertical axis and precipitation on the right vertical axis. Temperature and
precipitation are potted on different scales so 10 C is equivalent to 20 mm of precipitation. Climate
diagrams for areas like the tropical rain forest compress the precipitation scale for precipitation
above 100mm, so that 10C is equivalent to 200mm of precipitation. This will change the scale
rainfall data from very wet climates can be fit on a graph of convenient size. The temperature and
precipitation scales are constructed so that 10C equals 20 mm of precipitation. Precipitation is
mainly to do with the temperature of the air. Slice the tropics are warmer the air holds more
moisture

Precipitation Reaction Essay
Precipitation Reactions
2–4: Precipitation Reactions
1. Start Virtual ChemLab and select Precipitation Reactions from the list of assignments. The lab
will open in the Inorganic laboratory.
2. React each of the cations (across the top) with each of the anions (down the left) according to the
data table using the following procedures:
Data Table | AgNO3 (Ag+) | Pb(NO3)2 (Pb2+) | Ca(NO3)2 (Ca2+) | Na2CO3 (CO32–) | A. Pink | F.
White | K. White | Na2S (S2–) | B. Black | G. Black | L. NR | NaOH (OH–) | C. Brown | H. NR | M.
White | Na2S04 (SO42–) | D. NR | I. White | N. NR | NaCl (Cl–) | E. White | J. White | O. NR |
a. Enter the stockroom by clicking inside the Stockroom window. Once inside the ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
If no precipitate forms write NR for no reaction.
3. What happens in grid space d? What other reactions give similar results? Is it necessary to write
an equation when no reaction occurs? Explain. There is no reaction in grid space E. Grid spaces H,
L, N, & O all give similar results to grid space E. all the ions are soluable there is no
precipitate..
4. Write balanced equations for all precipitation reactions you observed.
45
Virtual ChemLab: General Chemistry Laboratories, Student Lab Manual/Workbook, v.2.5, Third
Edition, by Brian F. Woodfield, Matthew C. Asplund, and Steven Haderlie.
Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Reactions and Stoichiometry
AgNO3 + Na2CO3 = NaNO3 + AgCO3
AgNO3 + Na2S = NaNO3 + Ag2S
AgNO3 + NaOH = NaNO3 =AgOH

AgNO3 + NaCl = NaNO3 + AgCl
Pb(NO3)2 + Na2CO3 = NaNO3 + PbCO3
Pb(NO3)2 + Na2S + NaNO3 + PbS
Pb(NO3)2 + Na2SO4 = NaNO3 + PbSO4
Pb(NO3)2 + NaCl = NaNO3 + PbCl2
Ca(NO3)2 + Na2CO3 = NaNO3 + CaCO3
Ca(NO3)2 + NaOH = NaNO3 + Ca(OH)2
5. Write balanced net ionic equations for all precipitation reactions you observed.
Ag+ (aq) + CO32– (aq) = AgCO3 (s) Ag+ (aq) + S2 (aq) = Ag2S (s)
Ag+ (aq) + OH (aq) = AgOH (s)
Ag+ (aq) + Cl– (aq) = AgCl (s)
Pb2+ (aq) + CO32– (aq) = PbCO3 (s) Pb2+ (aq) + S2– (aq) = PbS (s) Pb2+ (aq) + SO42– (aq) =
PbSO4 (s)

Criminology: The Victim Precipitation Theory
Victim Precipitation Theory
Criminologists have been studying the actions of the offenders and the victims for the past few
years, which are now seen as different theories that attempt to explain the causes of victimization.
According to several articles and data from other sources, most of the time there is always
something about the relationship between the offender and the victim that may spark some negative
outcomes. One theory that focuses on this belief is the victim precipitation theory, which is a
criminology theory that sees that victims may initiate, either actively or passively, the confrontation
that leads to their victimization. Just like all other criminology theories, victim precipitation relates
to how and why crime happens. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Although most of the people that are often victimized according to the victim precipitation theory
don't see it coming to them at all. There are some people that may act negatively towards other
people in purpose. Some of these people had a purpose of provoking their offenders to do such
thing. There have been cases where people wanted to commit suicide, but they couldn't so they
provoked someone to offend them. Some people get killed by police officers due to their own
actions and willingness to die. "One aspect of Wolgang's work that researchers have almost wholly
ignored, however, is his idea that at least some victim–precipitated homicides are actually suicides"
(Klinger, 2001, pg. 207). There is a variation on homicide–suicide cases where research indicates
that some individuals kill other people in order to receive capital punishment. "Although there are
no firm data on how often victims of violence at the hands of other citizens are suicidal, there does
exist one empirical hint about the relative frequency of victim–precipitated suicide in citizen–on–
citizen violence of different sorts" (Klinger, 2001, pg. 220). Homicides that are victim precipitated
can either be intentional or

Drought Is A Lack Of Precipitation Essay
Drought is a lack of precipitation over an extended period of time that results in a water shortage for
a particular area. Drought occurs in nearly every climate on earth but depending on the particular
areas annual rainfall can mean different amount of precipitation shortages. It effects both rural and
urban areas of the world as well. Drought is difficult to predict and the effects are underestimated
but with risk management the negative effects of drought can be prevented or reduced. Why plan for
a drought if we do not know if it will happen or not? Droughts are expensive and it costs more to fix
the repercussions than to prevent them. Droughts cost the United States an average of eight billion
dollars a year. Farmers suffer the most from drought; wells run dry, crops fail, and food for livestock
decreases. This keeps small farms from expanding and the costs spread to taxpayers and consumers
who are part of that food system. Urban water supplies decrease because of drought; big cities built
in the western United States such as Los Angeles and Phoenix were developed in rather rainy
seasons for that area so dry seasons were not taken into consideration. Growing populations in dry
areas create a problem because they depend on regular rainfall therefore drought planning is a must.
Understanding risk management is key when preparing for future droughts. How likely is it? What
can happen? What are the impacts? These are all questions that need to be answered in risk

The Effect Of Climate Change On The Earth 's System
Scientific Paper Report Climate change is when there is an identifiable change in weather over time.
Unlike weather, scientists can predict the climate for the next fifty years; they can predict the
changes in the atmospheric composition and the long–term weather in a certain area. Climate
change is the predicted average weather and the change in an average weather, also known as the
different temperatures, seasons, and precipitation. Climate can be viewed within the entire Earth
itself, rather than just one place. This means that the Earth can have changes in the atmosphere, land,
oceans, precipitation, and land. The Earth's climate is always changing. An example of climate
change within the entire Earth, between summer and winer. The seasons change because of
geographical patterns of energy absorbed and radiated away by the Earth. Climate changes are
formed by the changes in heat energy in the Earth's system. Human activities are also a major factor
to climate changes. Humans have made various changes in the amounts of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere, as well as changes made in the land. The sun is another source of what makes up
Earth's climate. The Earth is much colder than the sun, therefore it radiates at longer wavelengths.
Climate is affected by the Earth and how much solar energy is has. The atmosphere, also known as
the clouds, absorb the thermal radiation emitted by the land and ocean. This process is also called
the Greenhouse Effect. The green house has

An Evaluation Of The Uncertainty Of Precipitation Type...
Herein, an evaluation of the uncertainty of precipitation–type observations and its eect on the
validation of forecast precipitation type is undertaken.The forms of uncertainty considered are
instrument/observer bias and horizontal/temporal representivity of the
observations.Instrument/observer biases are assessed by comparing observations from the
Automated Surface Observing Station (ASOS) and meteorological Phenomena Identification Near
the Ground (mPING) networks.Relative to the augmented ASOS, mPING observations are biased
toward ice pellets (PL) and away from rain (RA).Consequently, when mPING is used to validate
precipitation–type forecasts, the Probabilities of Detection (PODs) for RA (PL) are decreased
(increased) relative to those ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Forecasts of precipitation type are created by post–processing algorithms that are applied to
numerical–model output.Hence, errant diagnoses may be a product of poor algorithm
assumptions.There is a wide range of approaches and degrees of complexity to precipitation–type
algorithms.Some use bulk properties from the temperature and humidity profiles (eg.Baldwin et
al.1994; Bourgouin 2000; Schuur et al.2012; Elmore et al.2015b; Chenard et al.2015), others
attempt to calculate or infer the liquid–water content of falling hydrometeors (Ramer 1993; Czys et
al.1996; Reeves et al.2016), while still others use mixing ratios from microphysical parameterization
schemes as the primary discriminant (Thériault et al.2010; Ikeda et al.2013).As a result, dierent
algorithms may produce very dierent results, particularly when the environmental temperature is
near 0C (Manikin et al.2004; Manikin 2005; Reeves et al.2014).In some cases, strong biases
exist.For example, the Baldwin algorithm has a well–known bias toward PL.The Ramer algorithm is
known to be biased toward FZRA and the algorithm described in Schuur et al.(2012) is strongly

Precipitation Surveillance In California
There are already mechanisms in place that are used to predict high and low years for weather
temperatures and rainfall. In 1997, prior to the El Nino in 1997–1998 (called El Nino 97/98), the
scientific community was able to surveil and predict its occurrence, thus giving weather researchers
and their science, credibility by the public and those who make decisions. (Below is a historical
table of all recorded El Nino events). (Kovats, Bouma, Hajat, Worrall, & Haines, 2003) Unlike a
moving storm or hurricane, predicting an El Nino season or phenomenon is more complicated that
once thought. Like other public health approaches, using an evidence–based one is best. Even
though there is a confirmed relationship between precipitation ... Show more content on
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For example, because the California springs and summers are warm the rate of snow pack melt and
runoff can be calculated to predict the mosquito breeding, population growth, the frequency of blood
feeding, the rate of virus development and lastly and most importantly, the frequency of virus
transmission. Since WNV is of the top priority in California, mosquito control agencies rely on rapid
detection so that human infections can be reported and documented, then control implementations
set forth to prevent further infection. One method that is used is called RAMP (rapid analyte
measurement platform) that is an immunoassay test for WNV and was evaluated to be found the
gold standard in rapid detection (Kesavaraju et al., 2012). Once a case is documented, the
information and specimen is sent to the local county health department and eventually ArboNET at
the CDC facility in Atlanta, GA. Title 17 of the California Code of Regulations, requires physicians
and laboratories to report all cases of WNV to the health department. Other documentation is done
on daily weather, mosquito samples, and abundances that have been determined by trapping, and the
same information for sentinel chickens, birds, and horses. Assessment reports are sent to each
applicable agency by Monday of

Prac Report-Precipitation
Will it Precipitate?
Precipitation occurs when two aqueous (soluble solids) solutions are combined and the reaction
forms an insoluble solid. When insoluble solids are formed the process is known as a precipitation.
An insoluble solid is a solid that cannot dissolve unlike a soluble solid. Therefore only insoluble
solids can form precipitates.
In the following experiment six solutions were mixed with each other (groups of twos) in test tubes
to test which reaction will result in an insoluble solid. See method for more detail.
It is expected that the following compounds will form precipitates Silver Sulphate, Copper
Hydroxide, Copper Iodide, Silver Hydroxide, Silver Iodide, Cobalt Hydroxide and two Silver
Chlorides. This was worked out ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
| Light blue solid (P) | Mustard solid. (P) | Sodium Chloride | | | White solid (P) | Pink water | No
reaction | Water slightly yellow | Silver Nitrate | | | | Pink water, brown solid (P) | White solid (P) |
Yellow solid (P) | Cobalt Chloride | | | | | Purple solid (P) | No reaction | Sodium Hydroxide | | | | | |
Slightly yellow water | Potassium Iodide | | | | | |

California Water Infrastructure
Infrastructure of California's Water supply System:
. "California is home to one of the most extensive water supply systems in the nation." The state's
water supply system consist of over 1,000 reservoirs, hundreds of groundwater basins and many
local and regional water conveyance systems. It is a system that is quite remarkably engineered to
say the least (California's Water: California Water Systems)
Economically speaking, California depends on an extremely intricate network of water storage and
delivery systems to supply the state's cities, farms, businesses, and environment with sufficient
water throughout the year. California's water supply infrastructure has made it possible for the state
to grow and prosper. Its highly seasonable precipitation and the fact that annual runoff can vary from
year to year allows the state to move water when and where it is needed (California's Water:
California Water Systems). ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The state loses 65% of this precipitation by way of evaporation and transpiration by trees and plant.
The 35% remaining stays in the state's system as runoff. 30% of that which is runoff flows into the
Pacific Ocean or other salty bodies of water. The rest of the runoff is utilized for agricultural
purposes, for urban and environmental purposes (California's Water: California Water Systems).
Around 3/4ths or 75% of California's annual precipitation falls north of the city Sacramento, while
more than 75% of the demand for this water lies south of the capital city. The majority of the rainfall
and snowfall occurs between October and April. These months, when precipitation is at its highest,
are considered Fall and Winter but demand for water is highest during the hottest driest months of
the year which are in the summertime, when precipitation is at its lowest (California's Water:
California Water

Lab Report: Predicting Precipitation
Predicting Precipitations Lab Report: explanation data of lab along hypothesis, and identifying
possible errors of lab for further investigations.
The reactions from 1A through 1D all have a precipitation formed because physical changes
appeared. AgNo3 is a clear solution; when it is mixed with a yellow FeCl3, a precipitate is formed in
a different color than the original colors. After a while, the precipitate became slightly solid. For 1B
and 1C, the solid was formed in similar ways, it might be because both reactants contains a similar
element. Similar data have also found in 2B and 2C. These two groups of reaction both contain a
similar element in the solution, so it might be the reason to cause the solid form in similar colors.
The reaction of 1D also become a precipitate, but appeared in a different color. For 3C, the result
was not clear enough to make sure if a precipitate was formed or not, but after a while, the solution
turned slightly foggy. Solution 2D, 3D, and 4D had no color change, therefore no precipitation was
formed. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
According to the predictions, solutions 1A through 1D all have a precipitation formed; referring
back to the data table, solutions 1A through 1D did have a solid formed during the lab. Another
example of why parts of the hypothesis is correct is because the 2B and 2C were predicted as the
same solid would form. This matched the data results because in the lab, 2B and 2C were identical
after the reactants were mixed together. However, one part of the hypothesis was wrong because the
prediction for 3C did not match the data for 3C. Solution 3C was predicted no precipitate will form,
but according to the data, a white foggy colored solid was

Air Masses In North America
Air masses are an important part of the common weather phenomenons that we experience every
day. They can dictate almost every aspect of Meteorology and Climatology. They are responsible for
such occurrences as: amount of precipitation and type of precipitation, temperature in a given area,
and what types of storms are most likely to take place in a given area. Air masses are also formed all
across the globe and, depending on where and when it is formed, can be one of several different
types. I believe the most important determining factor when forming an air mass is the amount of
atmospheric pressure that certain region of the Earth has at the time of the formation of the air mass.
One of largest variables that determine how an air mass forms ... Show more content on
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These air masses also have massive differences depending on their region in North America. For
reference, the northernmost part of North America is known as the arctic region because it has year–
round low temperature and pressure, and has fairly low precipitation other than snow, and this is
referred to as an Arctic air mass. When you decrease in latitude towards the equator the next type of
air mass you would encounter is not quite as cold as an Arctic air mass but it does have higher
precipitation, and it is known as a Polar air mass. These air masses typically form over Canada and
the Northern United States. The warmest of the main three air masses is the Tropical air mass which
form in the southernmost parts of North America and typically over the ocean, these types of air
masses that form over water are known as maritime air masses are typically the most wet and
contain much more precipitation than air masses that form over the land. Air masses that form over a
body of land are known as continental air masses and are usually dry with little moisture but, can be
transformed into a maritime air mass if it happens to travel over an ocean or large body of water
long enough because it will collect moisture from said water source. Maritime air masses are also
affected by the temperature of the water that they formed over, because of the rate of evaporation
that occurs at 14 degrees centigrade is much different than the amount of evaporation that takes
place at 25 degrees centigrade. Therefore during the warmer months like June, July, and August,
moist maritime air masses form more frequently because the water is obviously warmer. For
comparison the average sea surface temperature during the winter months of December, January,
and February is about 10 degrees centigrade whereas the average sea surface temperature during the
summer month that were previously

The Effect Of Temperature Increases Due On Anthropogenic...
Abstract The purpose of this article by Diffenbaugh et.al. is to determine how temperature increases
due to anthropogenic warming change the probability of precipitation deficits that cause severe
drought conditions, and determine what the conditions will look like in the future. They used
historical precipitation and temperature data with Palmer Drought Metrics and global climate
models to attempt to answer this question. It was found that in the past twenty years, the frequency
of drought years has doubled, without any significant change in the trends of precipitation
variability. This was attributed to significant increases in positive temperature anomalies causing an
increased frequency of precipitation deficits leading to more occurrences of drought years. Global
climate modeling suggested that by 2030, the region will transition to a regime where there is a
100% risk that all future dry years will coincide with warmer conditions, increasing the risk of
extended drought conditions. This is not the first time this region has experienced prolonged drought
conditions. However, it is the first time the drought has been this severe. Since 1977, the per capita
water usage has decreased such that in 2013 the water demand is similar to that of 1977, meaning
that it will be very difficult to come up with new short–term water conservation ideas.
Introduction This is a review of the article "Anthropogenic warming has increased drought risk in
California" by Diffenbaugh

Great Plains Precipitation
The northwest region is located along the Pacific coastline and is known for its rainy weather. It is
also home to the Cascade Mountain Range. Idaho, Oregon, and Washington are the only states in
this region. There are a large amount of climatic differences between the western and eastern
mountain sides that runs north to south through Washington and Oregon. The east side of the
mountains are sunnier and drier with colder winters and hotter summers. The west side of the
mountains wet winters and dry summers. The average annually temperature has risen by nearly
1.3°F and is expected to increase to 3°F to 10°F by the end of the century. The precipitation has
declined in snowfall amount totals. Precipitation in the summer time is anticipated ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
It covers Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Texas, and
Wyoming. Since it covers such an expansive area there is a wide range of average temperatures. The
northern have such as Wyoming and Montana have an average temperature of less than 40°F while
Texas is around 70°F. Precipitation in areas such as eastern Texas and Oklahoma have an average of
50 inches per year, while Wyoming, some of Montana, and western Texas only get an average of 15
inches per year. In the northern portions of the Great Plains will experience a greater amount of
winter and spring precipitation and amount of heavy downpours and snowfalls. In the center of the
Plains the summers will most likely be drier due to less summer rainfall. The Great Plains livestock
production is a major component of the Great Plains economy. Texas has the largest cattle produce
in the United States. The temperatures increase cause the animals extreme heat stress and will
decline meat, milk, and egg production. It also makes it easier for the spreading of diseases.
Livestock could become contaminated and affect the other livestock in that area. (EPA: Climate
Change, Great

Drought Is A Natural Hazard
Abstract:
Drought is a natural hazard due to adverse climatic changes which affects various sectors like
environment, society and economy. It occurs not only because of the scarcity of rainfall but also due
to the inefficient water resource management. Studies indicate that over 30% of the entire land
surface of earth is affected by drought. As a developing country, majority of Indian population
depends directly or indirectly on agriculture. So the abnormal monsoon precipitation, causing loss of
agricultural production, can highly influence the human life. In this paper, Karur district in Tamil
Nadu which often has a very low annual rainfall is taken as the study area for drought monitoring.
The technological evolution in remote sensing over the past few decades has opened a new era in
the field of drought monitoring. Thus, use of remote sensing and GIS helps in developing early
warnings about drought conditions which will be useful for planning the strategies for relief work.
Drought analysis can be performed by calculating different drought indices like Standard
Precipitation Index (SPI), Standardized Water Level Index (SWI) and Normalized Differences
Vegetation Index (NDVI).Rainfall data from 2000–2009 is used to compute the Standardized
Precipitation Index (SPI) in different time scales which is used in meteorological drought
monitoring. Standardized Water Level Index (SWI) obtained from ground water level data is used
for the hydrological drought analysis.

Downfall : Precipitation Or Extinction?
Downfall: Precipitation or Extinction? Water stress, an insufficient water supply on a worldwide
scale, is "considered by many scientists as one of the biggest challenges facing humanity and
struggling ecosystems in a world increasingly affected by climate change." Even though water
conveys the impression of being an interminable provision, only 3% of the Earth's water is fresh.
The preponderance of areas currently suffer from inutile freshwater. For instance, 68% of fresh
water is frozen in the form of of icecaps and glaciers. Roughly 30% is groundwater, and the
remainder of freshwater is .3%, located on surfaces of lakes, rivers, and swamps. Moreover,
avaricious humans are not the only organisms that depend upon freshwater for survival. This leaves
less than 1% of water to share with over millions of species. On the Principle of Population, by
Thomas Malthus, mentions that the sustainable resource correlation to exponential population
growth implies "a strong and constantly operating check on population from the difficulty of
subsistence." The Renewable Groundwater Stress ratio can be measured by the water consumption
amount to the volume of available water. Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE),
partnering with NASA, estimates the remaining freshwater, duration of depletion, and efficiency of
preventive means to impede further water drainage. There are four categories used to determine the
water levels: Overstressed, Variable Stressed, Human–Dominated Stress,

Lake Effect Letter
Dear Mr. Byrnes, Our names are Robin Johnson and Maddy Gaddis. We are writing this letter to
explain to you why Buffalo, New York gets so much snow. We did some research to find out why
Buffalo gets so much snow, and one of the reasons is lake effect snow. Lake effect snow is snow
falling on the lee side of a lake, and it is produced by cold, dry air passing over warmer water. Lake
effect snow is very similar to the rainshadow effect. The rainshadow effect is when an area has little
precipitation due to topographic barrier. The rainshadow effect causes prevailing winds to lose their
moisture, making one side of the mountain have less or no precipitation and no or very little
vegetation. The rainshadow effect and lake effect snow are similar because the rain shadow effect
and lake effect snow both give areas a large amount of precipitation, which ... Show more content on
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Depending on the size and temperature of the lake, the area will receive large amounts of snow, and
other types of precipitation, such as rain, sleet, and hail. Lake effect snow occurs when cold air
moves over a nearby large lake. As this cold air passes the lake, it picks up moisture through
evaporation, and forms enormous amounts of snow in a very short amount of time. Lake effect snow
affects mostly coastal areas, due to them being very close to nearby bodies of water, mostly
including oceans. Mountains can affect something called the rain shadow effect. The rain shadow
effect starts on the westward side of a mountain, and the air on the mountain is forced to rise which
makes the air cooler. As the air cools it loses the ability to hold water, the precipitation occurs on the
westward side. As the air travels to the other side, the leeward side it no longer contains moisture.
Lake effect and rainshadow are similar to each other because of the fact that they both have a huge
impact on precipitation and

Precipitation Reaction Lab Report
Investigating the Effect of Concentration of Reactants in a Precipitation Reaction When solutions of
two soluble salts are mixed, a solid may form. This solid is called a precipitate, and the reaction is
called a precipitation reaction. Precipitation reactions are used to make insoluble salts. In this
experiment you will be exploring how concentration of reactant effect the amount of product
(precipitate) being produced (RSC, 2015). Magnesium sulphate is known as Epsom salts. This is
because the water found at the spa at Epsom in Surrey contains this salt in quite high concentration.
Epsom salts are rarely used nowadays, but were used in medicine as a purgative (RSC, 2015).
Sodium carbonate is found naturally in high concentrations in the ... Show more content on
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This was effectively completed by obtaining a number of data sets, calculating the average, then
producing a graph to visually illustrate the results. In regards to the hypothesis, it can be said that the
results are indeed supportive since a distinct positive relation between the variables can be observed.
As shown in the graph above, the (average) weight of the precipitate shares a directly proportionate
link with the volume of the Magnesium sulphate and Sodium carbonate solution. As expected in
almost any scientific investigation, errors of both systematic and random nature may have occurred.
These errors include, but are by no means limited to, inaccurate readings of measurement devices,
significant alterations in environment temperature, and incorrect ratios used to produce the solution.
First of all, the measuring cylinders used to measure the amount of liquid needed were read using
human judgement as a sign of when to stop. If these readings were not taken from a perpendicular
angle to the cylinder, the measurements may have been slightly inaccurate due to the observational
error that could have potentially occurred. Another possible error was temperature alterations. As
mentioned earlier, the temperature of the environment should've been monitored and kept at
standard room temperature (approx. 22°C). If the temperature experienced any significant changes
due to weather et cetera, then the chemical composition of the compounds may have

Precipitation And Precipitation
Our mission for this report is to analyze if there is any correlation between temperature and
precipitation between two locations for KOA (Kampgrounds of America). The purpose is to give
KOA the analysis of this data to help them decide what location will be a better opportunity for the
company, but also one that will be profitable. The two locations include Hot Springs, AR and Big
Sky, MT. In this report we will discuss the methods used to analyze this data and present a solid
discussion about both locations and their potential to become an investment for KOA. The
difference in precipitation between both locations has a p–value of (p = 7.4467E–20) which is
significant to the 99th percentile. There is a significant difference between ... Show more content on
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A significant difference between the two locations is the incomplete data from Big Sky, MT from
2001 to 2005. This data may not impact the overall decision significantly, but it does hurt the case of
Big Sky being a location that KOA decides to invest money into. The temperature graph between
both locations shows a significant difference of 10 degrees Fahrenheit in the summer months, and
12 degrees in the winter months. This information provides a strong case for the Hot Springs, AR
location because of the consistency of data. Analyzing the precipitation graph we see that there are
very minimal similarities on the temperature graph. There is an obvious difference in the volume of
precipitation, the trend seen in this graph is specific to the Hot Springs, AR location, over a 15 year
period there is a large amount of precipitation in the area. Big Sky, MT has a trend of very little
precipitation except in 2005 where there was an unforeseen amount of precipitation. Big Sky shows
a very consistent and even graph, while Hot Springs is much more unstable. This graph provides a
strong case for Big Sky, MT as there is very little precipitation compared to Hot Springs, AR. Based
on the information in this report both locations have pros and

Victim Precipitation Theory
Carla had a routine of jogging to her boyfriend's Casey's apartment that was two miles away. She
would spend the night and jog back in the morning. Carla's neighborhood was kind of safe but
where her boyfriend Casey resided was not. This day she set off to his apartment and never made it.
He was planning to smoke pot with Carla and her friends around midnight that day. Carla's body
was found covered by trees ten minutes from where her boyfriend lived. Victim precipitation theory
is when an individual provokes a situation to happen. Now Carla didn't have to jog to Casey's
apartment. She could have had him jog with her or ask him to meet her at her apartment since it was
only two miles away. It only took he fifteen minutes to get to his apartment, just like she jogged to
his apartment he could ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The boyfriend is in a harmful environment, so Carla should have never jogged to his apartment. He
chose to live in a complex that was hidden off the road. He didn't have to do that but that's what he
wanted to do. Her living conditions caused his girlfriend to be in harms way. Deviant place theory is
when something happens because it is a crime area. This was bound to happen to Carla cause she
was in harm's way by going to his apartment. By her knowing where his apartment was she
shouldn't have jogged to his apartment at all. She should have had him come and get her or asked a
friend to walk her to his apartment. The most relevant victimization theory to me that fits his case is
the routine activity theory. The reason I picked that one is cause it states that she always leaves her
apartment around the same time and goes to her

Victim Precipitation Theory In Criminology
Overview
The victim precipitation theory, also referred to as the victim precipitation approach, hypothesizes
that victims of violent crimes and sexual assault put themselves in harm's way through their own
actions. Criminal assailants and their victims are often referred to as penal couples. This concept
views the victim as a participant in the crime because her presence provides the offender with the
opportunity to commit the offense. (https://www.reference.com)
The Components
Like all theories in criminology, victim precipitation ties in to how and why crime happens. While a
majority of theories seem to concentrate mainly on the mannerisms and objectives of the offender,
victim precipitation works toward understanding the interaction and/or relationship between the
victim and the offender. According to this theory, the victim is looked at as a participant in the
crime. This happens in one of two ways: first, the victim is the contributor in the crime who makes
the first move; and second, the victim encourages or aggravates the offender into committing the
crime. These are the main workings of the theory.
The Situations
While a lot of violent crimes occur every day, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
One thing that I believe is faulty is victim blaming in cases of sexual assault. Now, I understand that
everyone looks at things a different way but to me sexual assault is never the victims fault in any
way. I say this because yes, a person may be wearing "provocative" clothes or talking in a way that
may be perceived as flirtatious, but when it comes down to it, if the victim tells the assailant to stop
and they don't, the assailant is at fault. This can also be applied to assault victims that are in a
situation they cannot control. An example of such situation could be, if the victim is driving at night
and their car breaks down in a bad part of town and they get robbed, it's not really their fault that
they ended up where they

Descriptive Essay: Cloudy Day In Florida
Fort Lauderdale, FL, U.S.
Saturday February 18th to Sunday February 19th
This weekend will kick off to a considerably cloudy start with a high of 81°F, low of 69°F. There is
a 20% chance of precipitation and 68% relative humidity. The following day is very much similar
with an expectation of PM showers, a high of 85°F, low of 68°F, and 40% chance of precipitation.
There are not any severe weather for this week, compared to California's warning of flash flooding.
In general, even though Florida is the "Sunshine State", it has the tendency to be partly cloudy,
especially between . This is the result of warm waters surrounding Florida which evaporates,
becomes water vapor, and creates clouds.
Monday February 20th to Saturday February 25th ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The windspeed is highest of the week on Monday coming for North–West at 16 mph. Tuesday is
expected to be mostly sunny with a high of 41°F, low of 29°F and the windspeed is greatly
decreased to 3 mph coming for the South. Although mostly sunny and party cloud similar enough to
be the same, it is not. In a forecast "Partly cloudy" is used to describe when less than half of a day
will be cloudy versus "partly sunny" which signifies that more than half of the day will be cloudy.
("partly cloudy" can also be used to describe the sky at night since "partly moony" does not sound
correct). Cloud coverage is determine by using okta or usually 1/8 of the sky. Conditions such as
"mostly cloudy" are equal to 6/8–7/8 opaque clouds while "party sunny" is equal to 3/8–5/8 opaque
clouds. Expect a wintry mix on Wednesday which essentially means in this case there will be a rain
and snow mix in the afternoon and evening. The likelihood of precipitation is 80% which is a big
leap compared to Tuesday's 0%. Thursday is expected to be partly cloudy with a high of 40°F, low
of 21°F, and a 10% chance of precipitation. Friday and Saturday are both expected to be sunny with
a high of 36°F, low of 22°F, and high of 41°F, low of 24°F respectively. both days have a 0% chance
of precipitation and Friday's windspeed in 12 mph from North–West compared to Saturday's 11mph
wind speed coming from West,

Average Precipitation Lab Report
The total precipitation in millimeters for the month of June 2011 is 70.618 mm. For the month of
December 2011, the total precipitation in millimeters is 89.408 mm. The precipitation data values
collected by the UTM campus metrological station demonstrate that the month of December 2011
had received more precipitation, about 18.79 mm more that the month of June 2011. The
precipitation data show that December 2011 was wetter in comparison to June 2011. The city of
Mississauga average expected precipitation is for the month of December is normally at 61 mm.
December 2011 received more than the average precipitation this made that month a particularly a
wet one, with more rain and snowfall received that month then on average. On the other hand, in
Mississauga the month of June's normal average precipitation is 70mm. This amount was close to ...
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The areas in the forest which contained fewer trees had higher light levels as well as drier soil
moisture levels. The areas that were shaded by the trees had lower light levels and wetter soils. This
concept demonstrated by the lab can be similarly be applied to the summer months (June) which has
higher light levels and winter months (December) which has lower light intensity.
Another second possible potential explanation for differences in the average values observed
between June and December 2011 can linked back to the average precipitation values for June and
December 2011. As mentioned earlier December 2011 had higher average precipitation and higher
soil moisture levels than June. The amount of soil moisture that is present in the ground is a strong
indicator of precipitation. Therefore, the month of June 2011 has lower levels of precipitation in
comparison to December 2011, because of the lower levels of soil moisture present during June
2011.
 Low soil moisture = Low

Precipitation Of Crystallisation
What precipitated the crystallisation of the Sunni and Shi'a sects?
Although the Sunni and Shi'a sects are both Islamic and share a basic understanding of the Prophet,
theological differences developed and precipitated the crystallisation of them as separate sects.
Undeniably the death of the Prophet Muhammad in 636 triggered the crystallisation, as from this
tragic event contrasting ideologies about Islamic empire rule developed. In understanding this
question to mean, what caused two very distinct entities to form out of a larger group through
increasing political polarisation, religion plays a central role. However, as daily life proved there
was great overlap between religion and politics in society. The sects crystallised by legitimising ...
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The Buyids did not claim to be Imams or descendants of the 'Alids, nonetheless they promoted the
importance of memory and 'Ali as successor. To ensure they didn't alienate the population, rather
than acting against the government, the Buyids allied with the caliph and cleverly manipulated him
into a figurehead. Around this time Shi'ites believed that the twelfth Imam disappeared, according to
Shi'ites authority resided with the Imam alone as a source of guidance for matters regarding religion
so this was an issue. Regarding the twelfth Imam as 'absent' or 'hidden' they lived with a messianic
belief that the Imam would appear as the Mahdi, the messiah, and redeem the ummah. The Imam
unified the people and empowered them to defend religious beliefs, thus whilst awaiting the Mahdi's
arrival a serious void existed. As a solution in the meantime, the Shi'ites accounted for this
disappearance and gulf of authority by formulating a unique role titled 'aim al–umara'. This was how
the Buyids acted in alliance with the caliph rather than instead of the caliph, continuing to impose
Shi'a authority and crystallise, without alienating the

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Co-Precipitation
Co–precipitation Co–precipitation is an important technique widely used for separation and pre–
concentration of analytes from various samples [examples]. It is adopted when direct precipitation
cannot separate the desired metal ions due to their low concentrations in the sample (Bulut VN et al.
2008). Various mechanisms including surface adsorption, ion exchange, surface precipitation and
occlusion are involved in co–precipitation technique [ ]. Metals, at trace levels, react with an organic
or inorganic compound forming a solid phase. The major precipitate then reacts with other metals to
form chelates. Finally, solid particles are separated from the aqueous media and re–dissolved in acid
or in an organic solvent (Komjarova I 2 et al. 2006; ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
By use of partitioning between an organic and an aqueous phase, an analyte can be separated from
an interfering matrix. Liquid–liquid extraction involves two steps; complex formation with the
dissolved extractant in the aqueous phase and the transfer o f the complex from the aqueous into the
organic phase. LLE has some advantages such as simplicity and ease of operation. However, this
approach presents several drawbacks and limitations like consumption of large amounts of
hazardous organic solvents and sample volumes, limited enrichment factors, time consumption and
the formation of stable emulsion at the interface of the two phases. In addition, the generation of
large amounts of pollutants makes this procedure tedious, expensive and environmentally
unfriendly. Therefore, alternative unconventional LLE methodologies such as: dispersive liquid–
liquid microextraction (DLLME), dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction based on solidification of
a floating organic drop (DLLME–SFO), homogeneous liquid–liquid extraction (HLLE) single drop
microextraction (SDME) and cloud point extraction (CPE) have been introduced and developed to
address the limitations in the LLE .( Recent development and applications of dispersive liquid–
liquid microextraction, Recent developments in homogeneous and dispersive liquid–liquid
extraction for inorganic elements determination. A

Methods Of Observation A Surface Measurements
II. Methods of observation
A. Surface Measurements
Rain gauge observations dating back to 1986 have been used to estimate precipitation rates. Figure 1
shows the distribution of rain gauges around the globe. Precipitation is measured in terms of the
total depth of a flat surface area, assuming no water vapor is lost by melting or evaporation.
Precipitation depth is measured in inches in the United States and in millimeters for research
purposes and most other countries. Frozen precipitation is melted and added to the total amount of
rainfall (i.e. liquid water equivalent). Precipitation measurements may utilize either touched
(mechanical gauges) instruments, such as standard rain gauges and tipping buckets, or untouched
instruments (remote sensing gauges). Untouched measurements may use disdrometer or remote
sensing by radar.
A standard rain gauge consists of four components: a large outer container, a measuring tube, a
collector funnel, and a measuring stick. Disdrometers measure the drop size distribution and the
resulting velocity of falling hydrometeors, which in combination can be used to estimate the
precipitation rate. The size distribution can be used to measure radar reflectivity.
Surface measurements may contain several errors due to potential losses of evaporation/runoff and
the melting of frozen precipitation. Surface contamination may occur as wind, soil, and vegetation
must be accounted for. Other factors may include the diameter or height of the gauge

Essay On Surface Hydrological Cycle
Lesson: Surface hydrological cycle Product feature Feature information Subject* Geography Grade*
10 Section (post–subject category)* Water in the world Topic (product name)* Surface Hydrological
Cycle Number of words Number of visuals constructed by teacher Date submitted by teacher* Date
checked Date recorded Date activated Responsible animator** Content provider CAPS page
numbers Textbook name ; reference page numbers Time taken to create Lesson breakdown Order of
clip Name of clip Medium of clip 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Quiz Quiz Number of questions Yes 10
Product summary/description After this lesson, you should be able to: ... Details of animation
needed  Details of pictured needed to be drawn  01 objectives 02 Hydrological Cycle 97% of
surface water is found in the oceans and 2% found in surface ice. Only about1 % of water is found
on land in rivers and natural hollows. A very small percentage of less than 1% of water is found as
water vapour in the atmosphere. From now on we will refer to the different forms of water as: liquid
water as "water" solid water as "ice" gaseous water as "water vapour" Figure 1 shows clearly how
little water exists on land. Since there is a land based ecosystem on the planet, it is essential that
there is a mechanism to introduce water to the land areas. Note that land areas have only 1% of the
earth's available water

Impacts of Global Climate Change on Temperature and...
Impacts of Global Climate Change on Temperature and Precipitation Patterns in the Midwest and
the Consequences for Soils
Introduction
During the last century, human activities in agriculture, industry and technology have brought about
a change in the chemical composition of the atmosphere. This change so far has not had a noticeable
or discernible effect on world climate, but if these same activities continue, global climate change
will become irreversible. The major contributing factor is the increase in the amount of carbon
dioxide and other gasses in the atmosphere. These gasses are being cited as the cause for a
"greenhouse effect" where they trap the heat of the sun and cause global climate change, specifically
a warming trend ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
One of particular concern is the possible changes in soils. With a changing climate and atmosphere,
the soils, as well as the vegetation, of the Midwest would have to adapt to the new conditions.
Continuous Warming
The most direct effect of the atmospheric changes will most likely be a worldwide increase in
average annual temperature. The magnitude of the changes will vary within regions. For the
Midwestern area of North America, the consensus for temperature increase is one degree Celsius
within the next twenty years and then approximately one degree every twenty five years after that,
or an average of 0.3 degrees warmer per decade (Anderson, 1992). This is a considerable increase
from the average temperature increase in the last 1000 years, which has been 0.005 degrees Celsius
per decade (Ritchie, 1986). The implications for the soils, therefore, are considerable. Soils are
constantly changing and developing and in the past, slow climate change has been taken into
account in this development. However, the rapid temperature increases that are predicted will be
much more extreme than the soils are accustomed to. Therefore, soil development will not be able to
keep pace with the changes , and the soils will be forced into disequilibrium with the surrounding
climate (Rozanov and Samoilova 1990).
Shifting Precipitation Patterns
The predictions for changes in precipitation vary more widely than those

Remote Sensing Of Aerosols, Clouds And Precipitation

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