The dominance of a reductionist approach in studies of managerial science has confined attention of researchers to the coarse aspects of the organization and its regularity. The method of analysis and solution of the problem has been to cancel interference generating unpredictability. The manager has been considered a major player in decision-making models based on the relationship between computational ‘facts’. The separation between the complexity of events and management skills has become increasingly wide. It is urgent to rethink theories and managerial skills that may consider human actions as carriers of meanings, the organizations as emergent relationships based on ‘values’ and organizational change as a permanent process of development and evolution of personal know-how. Our contribution to the role of redundancy is part of the mainstream studies of organizational change best practices. Our view is that change creativity is a property of ‘relational activity’ and that it is necessary that management is able to acquire those ‘subtle skills’, both in studies and in practice, to be a ‘co-generator of organizational values and well-being’.

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REDUNDANCY: BOUNDED OR GENERATIVE ORDER ? CO-EVOLUTIONARY CHANGE MANAGER SKILLS AND ORGANIZATIONAL WELL-BEING
(*to be published in World Scientific, 2011)
DARIO SIMONCINI
Faculty of Managerial Science – G. D’Annunzio University Pescara – Italy – dariosimoncini@gmail.com
MARINELLA DE SIMONE
Complexity Institute – Chiavari (GE) – Italy –
marinelladesimone@gmail.com
The dominance of a reductionist approach in studies of managerial science has confined attention of researchers to the coarse aspects of the organization and its regularity. The method of analysis and solution of the problem has been to cancel interference generating unpredictability. The manager has been considered a major player in decision-making models based on the relationship between computational ‘facts’. The separation between the complexity of events and management skills has become increasingly wide. It is urgent to rethink theories and managerial skills that may consider human actions as carriers of meanings, the organizations as emergent relationships based on ‘values’ and organizational change as a permanent process of development and evolution of personal know- how. Our contribution to the role of redundancy is part of the mainstream studies of organizational change best practices. Our view is that change creativity is a property of ‘relational activity’ and that it is necessary that management is able to acquire those ‘subtle skills’, both in studies and in practice, to be a ‘co-generator of organizational values and well-being’.
Redundancy = fat in the meat of description (Heinz von Foerster)
Wisdom only exists in abundance (Raimon Panikkar)
1 Introduction Managerial sciences still do not offer recipes for organizational change to meet the need to make the best decision in complex environments, especially when referring to the well- being in human relations. We need creativity and novelty in uncertain environments with short-term goals. It is not sufficient to reduce complexity by simplifying reality or eliminating interferences, nor to make the organizations capable of producing artificial novelty. The first aim of this paper is to supply a proposal for ‘change managers’: to acquire ‘subtle skills’ to co-evolve by exploring the possibilities offered by the generative principle of ‘order of redundancy’. The second aim is to contribute to the debate on the assumptions of values of ‘change management’ and their consistency, according to the

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needs arising from the community: living in less competitive contexts oriented to improve the well-being of organizational relations.
There is a need for harmony which requires response without hesitation, changing the level of attention in science. How? By shifting the focus of research from individuals- actors that fit their context to persons-agents that co-create their landscapes [8]. Our proposal is to acquire and adopt subtle management practices to co-evolve through organizational change to relational well-being. It is in this frame that we will provide two perspectives on the role of the principle of order of redundancy: that proposed in ‘reductionist thinking’ by Shannon, Simon and Gell-Mann, and that offered by the ‘generative thinking’ of Gould, Kauffman and Varela.
2 Redundancy is unnecessary Generally with the term ‘redundancy’ we mean the superfluous, a replication of the existing, of the already done [55]. Redundancy should be avoided to conserve energy, to avoid confusion and misunderstanding. The premise of the argument seems to be that communication happens between two or more machines and not between two or more people; what is relevant is the transmission efficiency of the 'informational object’. The transmission is done with maximum effect (influence of the transmitter on the receiver) with minimal effort (choosing an object to be provided in a space devoid of rules) and without any interference. It is a widespread idea that the Master with his wisdom has the task to transfer with a funnel the informational object into the head of the condescending student. Knowledge is reified. The reductionist analysis of the concept of redundancy is inside this frame, as the constraint on the free and efficient use of available resources. These beliefs have become dominant not only in the interpretation of the dynamics of artificial systems, transformed in ‘facts’ by man through commands and settings, but also in the forms of redundancy in systems organization [45]. There existed a managerial paradox: the incompatibility between the curiosity of the manager-player, driven to occupy new territories, and his need to impose a regularity that defines the creative horizons. A dichotomy between innovation and order, between redundancy and imperfection, between facts and values, that can not be overcome without transforming the interpretative model of change.
3 Shannon: irrelevant semantic and factual domain According to Shannon, the purpose of communication is to identify all the processes through which a thought can affect another. Research focuses on the most effective techniques to ensure that a message - a set of symbols or signals - sent from a source reaches the recipient with as much precision as possible. The technical problems of communication theory are separated from semantic problems [39]. The founding premise of the Mathematical Theory of Communication is that information is immune from the object of meaning, existing as such. Information is a measure of the ability to communicate novelty and a measure of freedom to choose the more appropriate

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message via the formation of a sequence of symbols. The freer to choose my message, the higher the probability that the message is ‘innovative’, with unexpected additional information for the recipient. Only in this case the message becomes information, otherwise it is redundancy. Information is an inverse function of the probability of forming a message already known by the recipient: the more unlikely the message, the more informative it is. The probability has an essential role in shaping the message: the symbols are the result of probable choices, dependent on previous choices. The system tends to order, renouncing the uncertainty of the unexpected and the exploration of novelty. Two point attractors in a linear mathematical configuration are compared on a scale of possible information that can measure a redundancy level from zero to one. To ensure that the transmission of information takes place, an appropriate share of redundancy is required. A necessary measure to ensure that the system is not characterized by maximum uncertainty, in which case the novelty does not receive meaning at its destination, and which together ensures the technical resilience of the system in case of interference in its path. Shannon’s information is based on decreased entropy by Clausius and on the second cibernertics observer who becomes the player, one that for our properties has become the ‘manager’. Shannon’s entropy is the measure of uncertainty of information; the lower the entropy level of the system the more uncertain the information [14]. Therefore, shifting the reductionist thinking of Shannon to change skills, we can say that managers must focus on increasing redundancy, implementing rules, together with increasing the entropy, implementing stress. The manager does not want crisis because it makes the future unpredictable but must lead the organization into confusion and randomness if he wants novelty.
4 Simon: hierarchy and nearly-decomposable systems Conversely, as for the linear relationship between innovation and order, between entropy and redundancy, between creativity and stability, there is a duality between intuition and logic. Logical reasoning is conducted in a step by step progression, with relations between simple and not repeatable objects. For consistency, language tends to order and is understood without explanation. Logical thinking is rational, free from redundancy and justifies the state of things without giving any sense. However, if redundancy is ‘near- meaning’ [1], the task of science is to give meaning to the states of things to help man understand their existence [54]. Science offers the possibility of forming a context where man works with his autobiographical story through the learning process by generating a sense to incomplete information and also to redundant messages. To overcome the dichotomy between intuition and logic without exiting from the reductionist scheme, Simon uses the mechanics of creativity, revealing the contrast between two ways of thinking as a false problem. What is seemingly ‘ineffable’ is merely the result of the processing of information previously acquired by the decision maker, unless it is simple improvisation that is bound to fail [42,43].

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The computational approach of Simon is based on a reductionist premise for which it is possible without loss of information to cancel interference caused by weak links between things, between people, between events; these bonds are not critical to explain the process that produced the decision. The solution is obtained using regularities applied in a heuristic manner. Combining and re-combining simple elements allows to test and validate the use of regularities. Simon describes a complex system as a hierarchy of simple systems that can be decomposed. The functioning of the system depends on the operating rules of the simple systems that determine it. For each decision-making process, there will be input and output information mediated by an elaborate process. In this way it is possible to eliminate interferences, and to compute the operating of the complex system by its decomposition into multiple operational blocks [40]. The evolution of systems is represented by a hierarchical form of the classic ‘top-down’ direction. The decomposition implemented with the division into blocks eliminates organizational redundancy, and on the basis of their recombination can compensate for environmental interference. To distinguish creative thinking, Simon suggests some practices: the tolerance of the slow and gradual generation of thinking, the constancy of commitment and the wise use of the experience accumulated over time. Simon's creativity is a heuristic mechanical skill: it all depends on our ability to pattern recognition that we have made, a strategy of problem solving that reworks choices already made successfully in other conditions. The more patterns we know, and the more we are able to plan them, the better we recognize what pushes us to think one thing rather than another, to recognize a more advantageous position with respect to another [41].
5 Gell-Mann: the de-coherence of the interference Based on the application of probability in physics as an explanatory principle and not only as an approximation of a phenomenon, Boltzmann defines his ‘principle of order’: in the dynamics of events that affect the life of a system, the state that has more probability of occurrence is one in which these events tend to offset their specific effects. When the dynamics of the system leads to achieve this state, the system maintains its achieved status basically stable, through non-significant fluctuations in the neighborhood of a point of attraction. The role of ‘resilience’ of redundancy increases the probability that at the macroscopic level the interference effects that arise from the interweaving of microscopic elements are cancelled. Redundancy, an inverse function of entropy decrease, is the compensation tool that ensures at the same time the possibility of moving towards a state of order and of avoiding uncertainty spreads. Combinations become more useful to converge in a domain of attraction, valid for floating measures. For molecular dynamics, the macroscopic state is a sort of ‘space attractor’ which is the maximum probability achieved by the dynamics of microscopic states. This state is realized in a situation that generates the most molecular confusion, simultaneously with a perfect symmetry between the elements of

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the system. Symmetry is the arrangement among the components of a system in a way that its properties tend to be invariant, without being very sensitive to changes in the conditions achieved at the level of macroscopic state. The physicist Gell-Mann defines the effective complexity as an explanatory model based on the hierarchy of systems that learn to adapt to novelty [15]. What distinguishes these systems from earlier ones is their ability to learn, based on the recognition of what happens at random, and what happens with regularity dictated by recursion. The relationship between systems is adaptive and represents the actual complexity, whose measure is defined in relation to the number of regularities that characterize the system as a gradual process of adaptation. The identification of the regularities permits to absorb in the system accidental events that are ‘frozen’ because they are essential. However, the physical presence of ‘alternative histories’ [16] forces the studies on quantum physics to use the principle of order of Botzman, and to seek essential regularities through the ‘condensation’ of possible schemes. The condensation is on the search for the shortest message describing the system, and its de-coherence; this is important to eliminate the interference in the determination of the ‘facts’. Quantum physics is thus confined to ‘facts’ and their quest for a ‘coarse description’ useful to assign probabilities to identify an event among other possible events. Otherwise, a ‘subtle description’ would lead physicists to accept the idea that not everything is measurable and therefore not everything is probabilistically determined. To explain the real world it is necessary to compare different operational schemes in a kind of ‘Darwinian selection’. The uncertainty principle states that the real is certain only if one makes a choice; to observe means choosing a path over another and to interpret it as existing in a range of possibilities. To resolve this uncertainty principle of quantum mechanics, we co-create one of the possible realities. In this way, it is impossible to say that there is a possibility to predict what will happen, and to define the fundamental laws except those concerning the elementary particles which determine the course of all events.
6 Coarse skills and reductionist change management According to the reductionist principles of computational theories, managerial sciences have established their own developments on the binomial "planning, coordination and control" [21]. The dominance of the hierarchical and institutional approach that has studied the organizations as construction and deconstruction of operational and management sub-systems, led to a theory of planned change [7.44], even in the presence of politics of contingency absorption [21]. The idea/practice of change management as a process of ‘problem solving’ remains the most common: define the problem, identify the change needed and find the techniques and tools to achieve the change as quickly and as cheaply as possible. The change is intentional, deliberate and controlled by management to adapt the organization to environmental constraints or opportunities.

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But, paradoxically, change [3.33] has in itself elements of uncertainty, so that it is different from a process whose phases can be planned and monitored, especially if decided in turbulent environments and evolutionary scenarios of crisis. Part of the theory has devoted extensive studies in the social management of change, but without placing under observation the assumptions of the dominant interpretative model [4]. The dominance of a reductionist approach in studies of managerial science has confined the attention of researchers to the coarse aspects of planning and change management [31]. The fundamental characteristic of the method of analysis and solution of organizational change has been to cancel the interferences which originate unpredictability; the manager was considered an organizational actor in decision-making models based on the computational relationship between facts. The separation between complexity and management skills has become increasingly wide [12]. The power of management has focused on the domain of information data and their analysis and preparation towards the pursuit of economic performance, and financial assets. In the mechanistic organization, the individual manager has become increasingly part of a mechanism that went beyond his meanings and his values. The manager is not relevant as a person, but only for performing operational functions within the organizational schemata [22,10].
The ability of the manager is ‘coarse’ because it concerns the ability to handle relational schemes as linear and with regular retroactivity. Managerial understanding is limited to the formalities and the measurements of what is known in order to strengthen the stability of the organizational system. It is an ‘incomplete’ skill [2] because most of the attention and management skills remain only ‘latent’, generating a behavioral duality. Management overcomes this duality by focusing its attention to the coarse phenomena: formal relations and hierarchical power [ 49]. Management skills focus on analysis and forecasting of the facts, regardless of the meanings that individuals attribute to them, acquired from their own personal experience. The manager fears that value judgments require the expression of an intention of doing, and along with it, to submit his own choices to the scrutiny of the community. The choice of an organizational culture of complexity and co-evolution is considered inefficient by management [32,34,35]. Reductionist change management must develop ‘organizational actions’ in a context where redundancy is needed to enable the development of systems, and is used exclusively with the objective of cancelling interference and regularizing formal relations. The management choice to propose for redundancy a coarse and reductive vision, creates a situation of immobility and a relational crisis of the organization. This approach does not allow morphogenetic mutation of the system [13] and raises at the same time the instability resulting from the separation of variables needed to implement effective managerial control.

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7 Redundancy is necessary The complexity of imperfection and incompleteness [6], rejected by coarse change management, tells us that we are at all times in history and that history is composed of human relationships that take place in subtle ways in nature and with nature [17 ]. Gould, Kauffman and Varela contributed to the formation of generative thinking, and taught us that it is precisely uncertainty, imperfection and disorder that make it difficult but fascinating to cope with reality. Each of us contributes to reality with his own interpretation [51]. Nevertheless, reality is made of order, stability, and consistency. In fact, many studies have shown that redundancy is a necessary condition for the operation of complex systems [36,38,52] and that it is the source of radical emergence of innovations. This interpretive framework has already authoritatively refuted the belief that communication can be a linear system [53] and that there can be a meaningless information, which exists uniquely in itself. We jointly refute the belief that redundancy inherently contains the idea of waste and damage. The idea is to place the concept of redundancy in a complex paradigm that considers communication systems not ‘immune’ from meanings and values, nor from an embodied ethics [9], and redundancy not a constraint but a plenty of variety and diversity of existence. The manager recognizes the platforms that give life to the context and explores what are the variables to be handled with skill to encourage the emergence of novelty. The process of reducing entropy and increasing order can harbour novelty. The system can be transformed if redundancy is abundant and there are skills that foster the emergence of new forms of relationships that increase the organizational well-being. Systems change constantly, are transformed seamlessly into a space of possibilities thanks to the dynamics of the systemic variables that are positioned in the ‘middle space’ [23.30]. The middle space concerns the levels belonging to the mesoscopic domain. Here, the contamination among the variables of the system can not be explained through the general laws of the microscopic level and the effects of which, sometimes radically unpredictable, can not be cancelled with the law of probabilistic composition. It is in this ‘middle space’ that change management can check the completeness that generates the unexpected and the interference which operates with order. Hence order is evident because of the invariants, while a domain of attraction emerges which is different and capable of relational coherence. To acquire complex skills means to acquire subtle skills, a new way of thinking and seeing the world and the community organization that emerge from collective behaviors and human relationships. The practice of complex managerial skills can allow the emergence of new forms of work and organization.
8 Gould: exaptation and up/downward hierarchy Intuitive thinking can proceed through leaps, discontinuities, punctuation; even though the specific steps of thought can be represented by balance, its development is not

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necessarily revealed as progressive and rigorous. The thinker allows thought to evolve freely but senses that steps take place, discoveries are made, adjustments are performed. It is the body that develops knowledge, skills, embodied abilities. Like an imperfect selection, competition and collaboration do not appear to be dichotomous motions any more, but dynamics that alternately or jointly cooperate in an evolutionary model, extracting the abundance of possibilities offered by redundancy to generate the unexpected [19]. The redundancy of varieties can be expressed through a proliferation of similar mutations and whose evolutionary role may be very different because of their possible use in new and varied functions tacitly held but not acted out. The novelty may manifest itself as a diversity from the original project or as a difference in the patterns [18]. Order of selection and disorder of imperfection act simultaneously to ensure the invariants of life, even to support the process of natural selection there is a hand of chance. The diversity generated through the exploitation of the existing remains available to the evolutionary leap of the system; the abundance of diversity, its redundancy, is the wealth of punctuated and gradual transformation. Randomness helps us to describe all those changes, that are made without matching any specific orientation. When we talk about random phenomena, we are not discussing chaotic or incomprehensible events, but unpredictable events, not necessarily impossible or anomalous. Randomness may be held as a real agent of change, and transformation of evolutionary scenarios. From the connection between the historical origin of incompleteness and current actions emerges the novelty as tacit knowledge made accessible to improve the fitness landscape. Gould suggests to reserve the concept of adaptation to functions shaped by selection, the concept of pre-adaptation to availability that have not produced effects, and, finally, calls ‘exaptation’ those characters that have evolved for other purposes but have then been co- opted and ‘discovered’ as generators of effects [20]. Gould proposed the idea of 'differential success’ as a model of multiple creativity that does not identify with natural selection; selection is only one possibility, although perhaps the most significant. Differential success is manifested by that novelty which describes a new plan, a new evolution project which has emerged through the combination of regularity and randomness, redundancy and imperfection. There is no scale of redundancy but a space of possibilities where varieties mix to explore the possibility of new differences. Chance and necessity blend favored by the work of the player, and the emergence of new systemic properties triggers a morphogenetic transformation of systems.
9 Kauffman: the creativity of nature Kauffman calls ‘adaptiveness’ the perennial search for the regularity that characterizes human beings to satisfy the desire to give causes and meanings to everything [26]. Paradoxically, best practices do not consider either chance or value.

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By denying the scientific validity of experiential phenomenology of the person [50], knowledge has been interpreted as a sum of informations on the object of knowledge, the significance of which increases in proportion with its thoroughness and detail regarding the object itself. This approach to knowledge means that reality exists outside us, that is observable, that it can be analyzed in its relations between objects of knowledge, the ‘givenness’ of objects reinforces the isolation of parts for which the observer has defined and described functions. In this way, tacit knowledge of man [37] and nature cannot be creative, capable of promoting relational well-being [26]; there is a higher authority governing life. Science claims that the functional role of the parts can explain the givenness of units of epistemological higher order. Supporting the agency [27] for each item that has consciousness, Kauffman affirms the generative power of nature, reassembling the profound tear between human and natural sciences. Science itself is limited in its creativity more than it ever admitted; classical science is not the only path that leads to knowledge and understanding. The mere facts of reductionism rob us of meaning and leave us empty of values. Today it is necessary to think of a science of life that is based on radical emergence. This implies the existence of sites suitable for the generation of actions characterized by values and exploration. Creation is innovation: no more a mechanical novelty of Simon, nor the interference-free quantum field assumed in Gell-Mann. The landscape is a co- construction based on a relational model where every action changes the neighbor’s landscape in close relation to the degree of connectivity and quality of choices made earlier [24]. Kauffman proposes to turn our gaze upward, to change the direction of the arrow, to give meaning to the vision of man, to fill action with meaning and thus with value. Actions are ‘intentions’ and ‘acts’ and they represent ‘values in motion’ [25]. Values give meaning to language. They represent the science and its effects on reality transforming the landscape. The landscape is therefore filled with ideas, novelty and purposes.
10 Varela: the creative circle of co-definition of reality By identifying as physiological its own border with the environment, the living organism can perceive what puts it ‘in connection with’ whatever determines the cognitive act: a change in the structure of its body. Perception is the means that puts us in relation, simulating the other within ourselves [28,29]. According to Varela, the body gives rise to sensory-motor patterns, capable of recursive self-organization and self-generation. These recursive circles appear paradoxical as long as one tries to separate the single parts to define them individually. In these circles creativity is generated by the co-definition of meaning, in a reciprocal relationship without beginning or end [51]. This generates new cognitive domains by defining self-contained units, called identities, which are the foundation of the whole living system. These independent units are interwoven with each other, generating domains gradually vaster, called multi-level hierarchical systems. ‘Subtle competences’ regard the understanding of the dynamics of multi-level systems.

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Each level is irreducible over the other, resulting in a new stand-alone unit, organizationally closed; each emerging level has its own specific properties and becomes part of the unit it has co-generated. The system produces its own coherent world, according to a recursive process that wraps around itself, never passing through the same points, just like a fractal or a strange attractor [48]. The cognitive process involves continuous transformations of the system in perception, emotion, and behavior without being able ever to return to previous states. In terms of knowledge, the novelty emerges from diversities that already exist in the plan; a new meaning for the person is generated only when a diversity encounters another diversity [8]. Order and imperfection are at the same time a necessity for the existence of knowledge and an opportunity for the generation of new knowledge [48]. To understand how the creativity of knowledge emerges and persists over time we need to change the level of observation: from the personal, subjective, to the network of relations in which the person is inserted and which determines the environment [29]. To talk about generating new knowledge, both aspects are needed: the subject, with the help of its identity and responsibilities for action, and the network of relationships, which allows interaction between multiple identities. The two sub-modes of observation can not exist one without the other, since they are in a relationship of mutual interrelation. The use of redundancy creates consistency through a change in the scale of observation of phenomena; what is considered rule and order for one level of observation, may represent imperfection and disorder on another level of observation. Generative skill is linked to the ability of subtle action in a space domain made of multiple interacting hierarchical levels.
11 Subtle skills and co-evolutionary change management Management can learn to give a general sense to the variety and abundance of redundancy. Redundancy and imperfection can share the same space in the domain of attraction of the system defined by its invariants. It is not a learning organization, as this would reify human relations [8]. People have the power to change beliefs and behaviours, so that the organization can change and co-evolve with the environment. Creativity is a property of embodied action in ‘relationship with’; it is necessary for the change manager to acquire the skills that transform him from coarse manager to subtle explorer of the wide possibilities offered by redundancy and incompleteness, in order to co- generate values to evolve the organizational system. The skills are subtle ethical responsibilities because they work on diversity, to improve the welfare of the community [9]. This process of ‘generative cooptation’ of the diversity widens the space of novelty. It is not a combination or recombination of elements but the mixing, the contamination and the synergy between multiple behaviors to signal management new paths to follow without departing from the selected viability [47].

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Generative learning competence is embodied in a continuous search for meaning through a circuit that acts both inside and outside the body together with the context. In this encounter emerges and is expressed the sense of the context in which each participant embeds his action. The subtle skills of the manager concern both introspection and extrospection abilities. Subtle introspection enables him to understand and describe his embodied actions and identifying the meaning that emerges in a given context. He enhances his wisdom, his charismatic skills in team leadership, but also gives strength and power to the coherence of his acting. The subtle extrospection allows him to understand and describe the intentions that are developing in the context and thus enables him to preside over the dynamics of events emerging from the community. In order to catalyze emergence and novelty, change management can facilitate the transformation of the environment through a ‘trigger’: it is a management ability to engage new relationships form between the formal and informal organizational levels, catalyzing emergencies and making them become the focus of the organization. Co- evolutionary change management is a management of patterns that contaminates the organizational areas, propagates ways and ideas, stimulates the exploration of diversity and imperfection, facilitates freedom of interpretation: it is a ‘value change management’ [11].
12 Concluding remarks The beauty and power of redundancy represent the permanent challenge of complexity to the creative abilities of the change manager; redundancy constitutes the space of possibilities that we are not able to perceive in a subtle way. It is urgent to rethink the theories and managerial skills, considering human action as rich in meanings, organizations as an emergence from relationships and change as a permanent process of development of personal knowledge. Our contribution on the role of redundancy as a ‘resource of order and coherence’ and on the need to give meaning to management action is part of the mainstream studies on best practices of organizational change.
Inspired by the classical view based on the mathematical theory of information, we developed a new point of view on redundancy, no longer as a constraint on order and efficiency, but as a resource for order and coherence, rich n opportunities for emerging variety and novelty, diversity and difference. In our opinion this change of view is possible if change management assumes subtle skills and abilities to facilitate co- evolutionary organizational well-being.
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