This study aims to test whether different types of mediated contact with immigrants can reduce prejudice among the Dutch majority. 250 participants will be randomly assigned to one of five groups: four experimental groups involving different media (interactive video chat, non-interactive video chat, TV show, newspaper article) depicting contact between a Dutch and immigrant actor working together, and a control group. Prejudice will be measured before and after through participants' choice of reward and responses to a questionnaire. It is hypothesized that any mediated contact will reduce prejudice, and that interactive/audiovisual media will have stronger effects than non-interactive/static media. Findings could inform efforts to reduce polarization between immigrant and native groups in Dutch society.
Contents lists available at ScienceDirectComputers in Huma.docxbobbywlane695641
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Computers in Human Behavior
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/comphumbeh
Full length article
Deindividuation effects on normative and informational social influence
within computer-mediated-communication
Serena Coppolino Perfumia,b,∗, Franco Bagnolic, Corrado Caudekd, Andrea Guazzinie
a Department of Sociology, Stockholm University, S-106 91, Stockholm, Sweden
bDepartment of Educational Sciences and Psychology, University of Florence, 50135, Florence, Italy
c Department of Physics and Astronomy and Center for the Study of Complex Dynamics (CSDC), University of Florence, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, also INFN sec, Florence,
Italy
dDepartment of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research and Children's Health (NEUROFARBA) – sect. Psychology, University of Florence, 50135, Florence, Italy
e Department of Educational Sciences and Psychology and Center for the Study of Complex Dynamics (CSDC), University of Florence, 50135, Florence, Italy
A R T I C L E I N F O
Keywords:
Social influence
Conformity
Computer-mediated-communication
Anonymity
Deindividuation
A B S T R A C T
Research on social influence shows that different patterns take place when this phenomenon happens within
computer-mediated-communication (CMC), if compared to face-to-face interaction. Informational social influ-
ence can still easily take place also by means of CMC, however normative influence seems to be more affected by
the environmental characteristics. Different authors have theorized that deindividuation nullifies the effects of
normative influence, but the Social Identity Model of Deindividuation Effects theorizes that users will conform
even when deindividuated, but only if social identity is made salient.
The two typologies of social influence have never been studied in comparison, therefore in our work, we
decided to create an online experiment to observe how the same variables affect them, and in particular how
deindividuation works in both cases. The 181 experimental subjects that took part, performed 3 tasks: one
aiming to elicit normative influence, and two semantic tasks created to test informational influence. Entropy has
been used as a mathematical assessment of information availability.
Our results show that normative influence becomes almost ineffective within CMC (1.4% of conformity) when
subjects are deindividuated.
Informational influence is generally more effective than normative influence within CMC (15–29% of con-
formity), but similarly to normative influence, it is inhibited by deindividuation.
1. Introduction
With the diffusion of social networking platforms, the social and
information seeking-related human behaviors have been affected by the
“new” environment. Information seeking increasingly takes place on
social media platforms, relying on what a users' contacts and followed
pages share (Zubiaga, Liakata, Procter, Hoi, & Tolmie, 2016).
Because of this filtering and selection, the users' knowl.
Demographics, Psychographics and the Uses and Gratifications Theory, Understa...ijtsrd
The issues of how the media affect people and what people do with the media have presented perennial and perplexing questions for communication scholars. Some of the research results in these areas are more controversial than useful. Uses and gratification studies straddle the two domains of media effects and people’s employment of the media. The field of gratification research holds great promise in the continual search for comprehensive knowledge on how and why we use the media. Drawing from a wide range of local and international literature, this paper presents a clear and concise review of the ontological, epistemological and axiological assumptions of the uses and gratifications theory. Paleowei, Zikena Cletus "Demographics, Psychographics and the Uses and Gratifications Theory, Understanding Text and Preferences" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-7 | Issue-3 , June 2023, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com.com/papers/ijtsrd56314.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/56314/demographics-psychographics-and-the-uses-and-gratifications-theory-understanding-text-and-preferences/paleowei-zikena-cletus
Contents lists available at ScienceDirectComputers in Huma.docxbobbywlane695641
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Computers in Human Behavior
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/comphumbeh
Full length article
Deindividuation effects on normative and informational social influence
within computer-mediated-communication
Serena Coppolino Perfumia,b,∗, Franco Bagnolic, Corrado Caudekd, Andrea Guazzinie
a Department of Sociology, Stockholm University, S-106 91, Stockholm, Sweden
bDepartment of Educational Sciences and Psychology, University of Florence, 50135, Florence, Italy
c Department of Physics and Astronomy and Center for the Study of Complex Dynamics (CSDC), University of Florence, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, also INFN sec, Florence,
Italy
dDepartment of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research and Children's Health (NEUROFARBA) – sect. Psychology, University of Florence, 50135, Florence, Italy
e Department of Educational Sciences and Psychology and Center for the Study of Complex Dynamics (CSDC), University of Florence, 50135, Florence, Italy
A R T I C L E I N F O
Keywords:
Social influence
Conformity
Computer-mediated-communication
Anonymity
Deindividuation
A B S T R A C T
Research on social influence shows that different patterns take place when this phenomenon happens within
computer-mediated-communication (CMC), if compared to face-to-face interaction. Informational social influ-
ence can still easily take place also by means of CMC, however normative influence seems to be more affected by
the environmental characteristics. Different authors have theorized that deindividuation nullifies the effects of
normative influence, but the Social Identity Model of Deindividuation Effects theorizes that users will conform
even when deindividuated, but only if social identity is made salient.
The two typologies of social influence have never been studied in comparison, therefore in our work, we
decided to create an online experiment to observe how the same variables affect them, and in particular how
deindividuation works in both cases. The 181 experimental subjects that took part, performed 3 tasks: one
aiming to elicit normative influence, and two semantic tasks created to test informational influence. Entropy has
been used as a mathematical assessment of information availability.
Our results show that normative influence becomes almost ineffective within CMC (1.4% of conformity) when
subjects are deindividuated.
Informational influence is generally more effective than normative influence within CMC (15–29% of con-
formity), but similarly to normative influence, it is inhibited by deindividuation.
1. Introduction
With the diffusion of social networking platforms, the social and
information seeking-related human behaviors have been affected by the
“new” environment. Information seeking increasingly takes place on
social media platforms, relying on what a users' contacts and followed
pages share (Zubiaga, Liakata, Procter, Hoi, & Tolmie, 2016).
Because of this filtering and selection, the users' knowl.
Demographics, Psychographics and the Uses and Gratifications Theory, Understa...ijtsrd
The issues of how the media affect people and what people do with the media have presented perennial and perplexing questions for communication scholars. Some of the research results in these areas are more controversial than useful. Uses and gratification studies straddle the two domains of media effects and people’s employment of the media. The field of gratification research holds great promise in the continual search for comprehensive knowledge on how and why we use the media. Drawing from a wide range of local and international literature, this paper presents a clear and concise review of the ontological, epistemological and axiological assumptions of the uses and gratifications theory. Paleowei, Zikena Cletus "Demographics, Psychographics and the Uses and Gratifications Theory, Understanding Text and Preferences" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-7 | Issue-3 , June 2023, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com.com/papers/ijtsrd56314.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/56314/demographics-psychographics-and-the-uses-and-gratifications-theory-understanding-text-and-preferences/paleowei-zikena-cletus
Final Project – OutlineBelow is an outline template that y.docxtjane3
Final Project – Outline
Below is an outline template that you will use to organize your final paper. Anything listed in RED should be changed to reflect your specific topic and information. Keep in mind – outlines are to be brief bullet points as you will expand on these points for the paper. This is worth 7 points of your overall final project. The outline is due on Friday, November 16th, 2018 by 11:55 PM, submitted to Blackboard.
Outline Rubric:
Outline contains the topic name, relationship to sociology, topic sentence 1 point
Outline contains 2 points of background information regarding the topic 1 point
Outline contains 3 areas of exploration of the topic for the written paper 1 point
Outline contains 3 sociological theories to be related to the topic 1 points
Outline contains 2 points on why the topic is important 1 point
Outline contains reason why the topic should be studied 1 point
Outline contains 3 scholarly academic journal references 1 point
Total 7 points
Outline:
I. Introduction
a. What is the topic?
· Media influence on society.
· How can the media impacts society.
b. Topic’s relationship to sociology.
Since sociology is the study of social behavior and human group. Media influence society behavior and this topic can reveal how that can be done.
c. Your topic sentence
In this advanced technological age, media has become part of society’s daily routine. This routine can impact people’s thoughts and behaviors in many ways.
d. List of theories being applied.
· Media influences society.
· Media create stereotypes or certain images on certain group of people.
· Media is important in affecting society in creating good or bad habits.
II. Body of Analysis
a. Definition of topic.
“Media influence on Society” This topic explains what might the effects that can media influence towards society be.
b. Provide at least 2 brief points of background information regarding your topic
i. Background information point 1
· Media such as TV or Radio news are structured to keep people informed of local and worldwide important news and events.
ii. Background information point 2
· Other types of media like TV shows and movies have influence on society which will be explained in the final project.
c. Provide at least 3 components of the topic you will be discussing, below
i. Component 1 / The effects of media effects.
ii. Component 2 / Media creating stereotype for certain groups of people.
iii. Component 3 / How media can develop new habits.
d. Theoretical Background (at least 3 theories should be used)
i. Theory 1: Interactionist.
ii. Theory 2: Socialization.
iii. Theory 3: Conflict.
III. Conclusion
a. At least 2 brief points of why this topic is important
i. Point 1. To make the most positive outcome from this advanced age and the use of media, there should be actions taken and lessons taught.
ii. Point 2. society should be educated on what are the pros, cons and impacts from using today’s technology such as media.
b. At least one brief poi.
For Dr. Biocca's class, I wanted to post this literature review I did for Professor Chock last semester. It could be relevant to the child-rearing gaming study.
Supporting social presence through asynchronous awareness systemsOnno Romijn
This chapter discusses research conducted to understand the requirements of elderly for informal social telecommunication media that may be addressed through awareness technologies. It discusses the relation between the concept of social presence and the notion of awareness that the class of systems studied supports. Finally, we draw attention to the research method used which we feel is the most appropriate for gauging the social effects of technologies introduced to support social activities through ICT
Running head RESEARCH PAPER TEMPLATE1RESEARCH PAPER TEMPLATE.docxcharisellington63520
Running head: RESEARCH PAPER TEMPLATE 1
RESEARCH PAPER TEMPLATE 2
Research Paper Template
Firstname Lastname
Argosy University Online
Research Paper Template
Introduction
Methods
Participants
Instruments
Procedure
Ethical Issues
References
Early Methods Section 2
Early Methods Section
Research Methods | PSY302 A01
Dr. Yvonne Bustamante
Argosy University
Tony Williams
27 May 2015
Good work Tony, Please find your feedback attached. Please open this attachment for very detailed feedback on how you can revise and improve subsequent assignments. Kind regards, Yvonne B.
Assignment 2 Grading Criteria
Maximum Points
1) Explanation and justification of research question.
12/12
2) Presentation of hypothesis and null hypothesis.
11/16
3) Analysis of participants exclusion/inclusion factors.
16/16
4) Explanation of sampling technique and characterization of population that sample generalized.
12/12
5) Identification of study's variables.
7/12
6) Operational definitions for each variable are defined.
6/16
7) Development of methods to measure each variable, and the reliability and validity of these measures are evaluated.
11/16
8) Description of technique(s) used for data collection.
12/12
9) Description of the research design being used.
12/12
10) Identification of the research procedure.
12/12
11) Prediction of POTENTIAL ethical issues; POTENTIAL ethical issues are evaluated in terms of how they would be addressed.
20/20
Organization:
· Introduction
· Thesis
· Transitions
· Conclusion
12/12
Usage and Mechanics:
· Grammar
· Spelling
· Sentence Structure
12/12
APA Elements:
· Attribution
· Paraphrasing
· Quotations
16/16
Style:
· Audience
· Word Choice
4/4
Total:
175/200
Introduction
Aggression among the children and the adult is the primary cause of wrong and unethical activity. Children are getting violent and the peers are victimized by the aggressive behaviour among the peer group. Most of the ill will causes are somehow linked with or related with the level of aggression and therefore it becomes important that the factors impacting the aggression in adult and children are studied and examined, so as to address the related issues. Aggressiveness can be classified in short term or long term run. Short behaviour can also be referred as mimicry and the long term aggressiveness is linked with the problem of the brain and can be dangerous for both short and long term (Nauert, 2008).
Explanation and justification of research question
The topic of research is media’s inf.
Final Project – OutlineBelow is an outline template that y.docxtjane3
Final Project – Outline
Below is an outline template that you will use to organize your final paper. Anything listed in RED should be changed to reflect your specific topic and information. Keep in mind – outlines are to be brief bullet points as you will expand on these points for the paper. This is worth 7 points of your overall final project. The outline is due on Friday, November 16th, 2018 by 11:55 PM, submitted to Blackboard.
Outline Rubric:
Outline contains the topic name, relationship to sociology, topic sentence 1 point
Outline contains 2 points of background information regarding the topic 1 point
Outline contains 3 areas of exploration of the topic for the written paper 1 point
Outline contains 3 sociological theories to be related to the topic 1 points
Outline contains 2 points on why the topic is important 1 point
Outline contains reason why the topic should be studied 1 point
Outline contains 3 scholarly academic journal references 1 point
Total 7 points
Outline:
I. Introduction
a. What is the topic?
· Media influence on society.
· How can the media impacts society.
b. Topic’s relationship to sociology.
Since sociology is the study of social behavior and human group. Media influence society behavior and this topic can reveal how that can be done.
c. Your topic sentence
In this advanced technological age, media has become part of society’s daily routine. This routine can impact people’s thoughts and behaviors in many ways.
d. List of theories being applied.
· Media influences society.
· Media create stereotypes or certain images on certain group of people.
· Media is important in affecting society in creating good or bad habits.
II. Body of Analysis
a. Definition of topic.
“Media influence on Society” This topic explains what might the effects that can media influence towards society be.
b. Provide at least 2 brief points of background information regarding your topic
i. Background information point 1
· Media such as TV or Radio news are structured to keep people informed of local and worldwide important news and events.
ii. Background information point 2
· Other types of media like TV shows and movies have influence on society which will be explained in the final project.
c. Provide at least 3 components of the topic you will be discussing, below
i. Component 1 / The effects of media effects.
ii. Component 2 / Media creating stereotype for certain groups of people.
iii. Component 3 / How media can develop new habits.
d. Theoretical Background (at least 3 theories should be used)
i. Theory 1: Interactionist.
ii. Theory 2: Socialization.
iii. Theory 3: Conflict.
III. Conclusion
a. At least 2 brief points of why this topic is important
i. Point 1. To make the most positive outcome from this advanced age and the use of media, there should be actions taken and lessons taught.
ii. Point 2. society should be educated on what are the pros, cons and impacts from using today’s technology such as media.
b. At least one brief poi.
For Dr. Biocca's class, I wanted to post this literature review I did for Professor Chock last semester. It could be relevant to the child-rearing gaming study.
Supporting social presence through asynchronous awareness systemsOnno Romijn
This chapter discusses research conducted to understand the requirements of elderly for informal social telecommunication media that may be addressed through awareness technologies. It discusses the relation between the concept of social presence and the notion of awareness that the class of systems studied supports. Finally, we draw attention to the research method used which we feel is the most appropriate for gauging the social effects of technologies introduced to support social activities through ICT
Running head RESEARCH PAPER TEMPLATE1RESEARCH PAPER TEMPLATE.docxcharisellington63520
Running head: RESEARCH PAPER TEMPLATE 1
RESEARCH PAPER TEMPLATE 2
Research Paper Template
Firstname Lastname
Argosy University Online
Research Paper Template
Introduction
Methods
Participants
Instruments
Procedure
Ethical Issues
References
Early Methods Section 2
Early Methods Section
Research Methods | PSY302 A01
Dr. Yvonne Bustamante
Argosy University
Tony Williams
27 May 2015
Good work Tony, Please find your feedback attached. Please open this attachment for very detailed feedback on how you can revise and improve subsequent assignments. Kind regards, Yvonne B.
Assignment 2 Grading Criteria
Maximum Points
1) Explanation and justification of research question.
12/12
2) Presentation of hypothesis and null hypothesis.
11/16
3) Analysis of participants exclusion/inclusion factors.
16/16
4) Explanation of sampling technique and characterization of population that sample generalized.
12/12
5) Identification of study's variables.
7/12
6) Operational definitions for each variable are defined.
6/16
7) Development of methods to measure each variable, and the reliability and validity of these measures are evaluated.
11/16
8) Description of technique(s) used for data collection.
12/12
9) Description of the research design being used.
12/12
10) Identification of the research procedure.
12/12
11) Prediction of POTENTIAL ethical issues; POTENTIAL ethical issues are evaluated in terms of how they would be addressed.
20/20
Organization:
· Introduction
· Thesis
· Transitions
· Conclusion
12/12
Usage and Mechanics:
· Grammar
· Spelling
· Sentence Structure
12/12
APA Elements:
· Attribution
· Paraphrasing
· Quotations
16/16
Style:
· Audience
· Word Choice
4/4
Total:
175/200
Introduction
Aggression among the children and the adult is the primary cause of wrong and unethical activity. Children are getting violent and the peers are victimized by the aggressive behaviour among the peer group. Most of the ill will causes are somehow linked with or related with the level of aggression and therefore it becomes important that the factors impacting the aggression in adult and children are studied and examined, so as to address the related issues. Aggressiveness can be classified in short term or long term run. Short behaviour can also be referred as mimicry and the long term aggressiveness is linked with the problem of the brain and can be dangerous for both short and long term (Nauert, 2008).
Explanation and justification of research question
The topic of research is media’s inf.
Sustainable Development in Popular Newspapers: How is coverage in De Telegraaf influenced by other newspapers’ attention to sustainable development?
ARIMA modelling with (G)ARCH and Fractional Integration
Asymmetric media responses in the Dutch context: Does newspapers coverage respond to economic information?
Autoregressive Distributed Lags and Error Correction Models
Sustainable development in three newspapers: How does coverage in a particular newspaper influence other newspapers’ attention to sustainable development?
Vector autoregression
Why do journalists from the United States and Europe report in a different way about Climate change?
Differences in focus between US and NL
Influencing factors
Ideology and culture
Journalistic role conceptions
Sources and lobbying
Contributions of professionals
Het onderwerp is de agendasetting functie van zowel media als politiek. Uitgelegd in theoretische zin, hoe dit in de praktijk momenteel is terug te zien en wat er voor de toekomst wordt verwacht.
Presentatie van Masterstudenten Communicatiewetenschap aan de UvA:
Stephanie Macinski
Esther Vlieger
Mark Boukes
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Normal Labour/ Stages of Labour/ Mechanism of LabourWasim Ak
Normal labor is also termed spontaneous labor, defined as the natural physiological process through which the fetus, placenta, and membranes are expelled from the uterus through the birth canal at term (37 to 42 weeks
Reducing prejudice via mediated contact with immigrants - Proposal for an experimental study
1. Proposal for an experimental study:
Reducing prejudice via mediated contact with immigrants
Mark Boukes
5616298
2nd semester 2009/2010
Experimentation in the Social Sciences
Lecturer: Dr. Sandra Zwier
March 4, 2010
Communication Science (Research MSc)
Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences
University of Amsterdam
3. Introduction
Looking at the political agenda of many parties, talking with the man in the street and reading
the newspapers, make it clear that problems with immigrants are amongst the biggest issues in
contemporary Dutch society, but also in many other countries. Conflicts between various
ethnic groups, poor integration and troubles caused by second or third generation immigrant
youngsters are examples. In political campaigns, these issues are spearheads about which
parties vary widely and no ready solution seems obvious. As a consequence, communities
seem to lose cohesion er and irritations increase. A necessary condition to solve this problem
seems to be, next to the willingness of immigrants to integrate, that the autochthonous
majority will be tolerant for other cultures and need therefore to reduce their prejudices. The
different groups can then adjust to each other and overcome the problems that stem from a
lack of understanding the other.
However, it is of course difficult to achieve this, especially when people already have
bad experiences or negative attitudes with regard to immigrants. The goal of this research is to
find one or several ways that make people from the majority group, less prejudiced and more
open to this group of foreigners in Dutch society. Earlier research already showed that contact
between different groups improved intergroup relations and attitudes (Pettigrew, 1998;
Pettigrew & Trop, 2000). In a region where many foreigners live, people seem to be on
average less prejudiced toward this minority group, than in regions with few immigrants
(Wagner, Van Dick, Pettigrew & Christ, 2003). Besides contact with the other group, it seems
recommendable to have a common goal when one wants to reduce prejudice (Aronson,
Wilson & Akert, 2005; Sherif, Harvey, White, Hood & Sherif, 1961).
These studies were all done with real-life contacts as manipulation; however, it can be
imagined that there are many other ways by which people can encounter the other nowadays.
Various kinds of mediated contact will be studied, and therefore used as an experimental
condition, because it is in some situations difficult or even impossible to have contact via real-
life situations. People might for example live in highly segregated neighbourhoods, go to
schools where they only meet people of their own ethnicity and the same is the case for sport
clubs. In addition, it might be that due to parental authority or religious matters contact with
the other group is avoided. Via mediated contacts, it might be much easier to enter the life of
someone else and this can perhaps, just as real-life contact, also help to take away borders
between groups.
Traditional media bring us in contact with all kinds of images and stories, while the
1
4. new media make it possible to interact with others you may not even know and without being
in the same physical setting. How this affects the ideas people have of another group is
unknown. The purpose of this research is to see if contacts via such media can reduce the
prejudices people have, just as real-life contacts appeared to do and how strong these effects
possibly are. The research question is therefore the following: To what extent do various
kinds of mediated contact with immigrants reduce prejudice of people from the
autochthonous majority?
Every medium has certain characteristics that have boosting or limiting consequences
for effects of a message (Bronner, 2006). Audiovisual media, like television or
communicating via a webcam, for example have the strength that they catch attention and can
arouse feelings more easily than static media with texts only, like print media. Those however
have the strength that they communicate complex information better, because people can take
the time that is necessary to understand a message, while in audiovisual media the tempo of
the message is paced by the medium (Bronner & Neijens, 2006). To reduce prejudice it seems
especially important to arouse certain positive feelings.
Another characteristic that media can have or not is if they allow interactivity. It is
expected that the effects of interactive media are stronger than effects of media that do not
allow people to participate in some activity (De Boer & Brennecke, 2003). The reason for this
is that interactivity also has a positive influence on attention and more important, it will make
people feel more involved. Following the literature, the hypotheses that will be tested in this
study are:
H1: Any kind of mediated contact with a group of immigrants will reduce prejudiced
behaviour and attitudes toward immigrants.
H2: Contact with the group of immigrants via interactive media will reduce prejudiced
behaviour and attitudes stronger, than contacts via non-interactive media.
H3: Contacts with the group of immigrants via audiovisual media will reduce prejudiced
behaviour and attitudes stronger, than contacts via media that are static (without
sounds and moving images).
This study will improve knowledge about the extent to which different media can change both
prejudiced attitudes and behaviour and how these media can be compared to each other. For
commercial purposes, these effects have been studied several times already, but not for a
public purpose such as reducing prejudice; it could be that media characteristics are impacting
commercial decision processes in a different manner than they are impacting attitudes and
behaviour toward immigrants. Having this knowledge could ultimately lead to new plans for
2
5. reducing polarisation in nowadays society between autochthonous Dutch people and
immigrants.
Method
This study makes use of a between-subjects design with repeated-measures. Four
experimental conditions are planned and one control group is present. All groups will finally
be tested on two concepts that both cover an aspect of prejudice. A between-subjects design is
chosen, because the main interest of the study is to learn what the effect of the various media
is, not how this works out in combination with other media. This between-subjects design
permits to make comparisons between the different groups, so an ANOVA can show what the
effects of the different manipulations are. Because a control group is part of the experiment
and participants are assigned randomly to the groups, a comparison can also be made with
conditions in which no manipulation at all occurred (no contact with an immigrant) and if this
differs significantly from the various treatment groups.
Repeated measures are chosen for the reason that the effects on attitude and behaviour
are very interesting; both could have some important consequences in reality. Furthermore, in
experiments it is often difficult to find significant differences in behaviour caused by a
manipulation. Attitudes and behaviour do not always have a straightforward relation, for
example when deliberative behaviour is expected and people have enough time to think
(Aronson et al., 2005). This can for instance be the case in choosing a fountain pen and a
change in behaviour might not be observed, while attitudes did change. When this is the case
here, these effects can be revealed by possible significant results in changes of attitude. On
the other hand is it also possible that, differences in attitudes are not found, because people
give social desirable answers on questions, while their behaviour might still show prejudice,
because people do not see or expect this to be a measurement.
Participants
Everyone could possibly have prejudices, no one excluded, although the extent can differ per
person. This study therefore does not seem to require a specific group of participants, which
makes it possible to recruit a broad range of people from the Dutch society, preferably a
sample that is representative for the Dutch population. However the choice is to recruit only
people of sixteen years and older, because they seem to have more developed ideas of the
world and other people (including immigrants) than younger ones, and from about this age
onwards problems of conflict between autochthonous and allochthonous groups might start.
Because the experiment involves four manipulated groups and one control group, and
3
6. the target is to have at least 50 participants in one group, it will be necessary to recruit 250
people. Those will be selected by a random sample of telephone numbers. People are
randomly called and asked if the member in their household who has the soonest birthday,
wants to participate in the research project. By asking for the person with the soonest
birthday, no misrepresentation in the sample comes about, because otherwise only people who
pick up the phone in a household are recruited. The person furthermore needs to have a
computer with internet connection at his disposal and to be at least sixteen years old. If people
agree to participate, they are asked for their e-mail address and will be told that they will
receive an invitation soon.
Procedure
When participants indicate that they want to participate, they will receive an e-mail at their
private e-mail address, in which they are invited again to participate in the research project
and will be explained once more what they will receive in exchange for participating; a
fountain pen, worth 20 Euro. A link will be added, which leads them to the research website.
On this website, all other things will take place that are of importance for the study.
Participants can thus stay at home, which means that not much effort is required of them and
this will make it more likely that the group of people described above, want to participate.
Only those that do not have an internet connection or computer will be excluded on practical
grounds. The others can participate, but if they do, depends on their own motivation.
A computer randomly assigns participants to an experimental condition or control
condition in which the participants end up; the different groups can therefore be assumed to
be equal, except for the experimental treatment. The participants will first be confronted with
a manipulation; do a puzzle together with an immigrant, see a video or read an article. Then
the measures of the dependent variables are done. Participants are led to the section where
they can choose a fountain pen, first. Then they are asked to fill in a questionnaire. This order
is used, because any possible (priming) effects of the questionnaire cannot influence the
choice of a pen. Finally, participants are thanked and told that the fountain pen will be sent to
them as soon as possible.
Experimental design and conditions
Participants can be assigned to one out of four different experimental conditions or to none
when they are assigned to the control group; in total there are five groups. All manipulations
belonging to a certain experimental condition have one characteristic in common: the
participant or an autochthonous actor and an allochthonous person (an actor) have a common
4
7. goal. Nevertheless, all groups are just using one specific medium, with particular
characteristics. The four different media can be divided in either making interaction possible
or not, and if they transmit audiovisual or static information. Briefly, there are two factors
specific for a group: if a medium is interactive or not; and if it is audiovisual or static.
Because for those groups two measures of prejudice are employed this design can be said to
be a 2 (audiovisual aids: audiovisual vs. static) x 2 between-subjects (medium interactivity:
interactive vs. non-interactive) x 2 repeated-measures (attitudes and behaviour) design with a
control group.
Attitudes toward immigrants (Measure 1)
Audiovisual aids
Audiovisual Static
Medium interactivity:
Chat with webcam Chat without webcam
Interactive
(Group 1) (Group 2)
Television Newspaper
Non-interactive
(Group 3) (Group 4)
Behaviour toward immigrants (Measure 2)
Audiovisual aids
Audiovisual Static
Medium interactivity:
Chat with webcam Chat without webcam
Interactive
(Group 1) (Group 2)
Television Newspaper
Non-interactive
(Group 3) (Group 4)
Figure 1: The 2 x 2 between subjects design with two measures that will be used for this study. The control
group (Group 5) is not depicted in this model.
The people in the first group are asked to solve a problem, together with someone who is also
online, ‘coincidentally’. They are brought in contact with each other by a messaging service,
like MSN. The other person will be shown in a messenger window and his webcam will be
activated, so the participant can see and hear him via a live video and audio stream. The
participant can communicate with and respond to him by writing sentences, as in a normal
chat. The other person, an actor that will be hired, always responds via his webcam. The actor
will be a person, who can clearly be identified as someone from a North-African origin, and
5
8. his name, that is part of the messenger window, also clearly refers to this. A North-African
origin is chosen, because Moroccans (with a North-African origin) are a group in Dutch
society that people have prejudiced beliefs about. The problem they have to solve, a common
goal, is a crossword puzzle, without any questions related to ethnicity or political issues. The
participants are told that the couple that solves this puzzle correctly the quickest, will win a
cash prize. The actor, who already knows the answers, will be helpful in generating the
answers for the puzzle and on his webcam it will be visible that he is really concentrating on it
(for example by checking a dictionary or an encyclopaedia). When the puzzle is solved, the
actor thanks the participant for his cooperation and the messenger window will be closed.
The second condition is almost the same, however this time no audiovisual content is
used, because the webcam is turned off. Again, participants are asked to solve the same
puzzle with a person that is ‘coincidentally’ online, the actor. They have to communicate now
via written chat messages only, because the webcam is turned off. The participant therefore
only received written texts. In the messenger window, only the (same) name and a photo of
the same actor are shown. His behaviour will be just as helpful in solving the same crossword
puzzle as in the first group. The only difference is thus the lack of audiovisual content that is
replaced by written messages. Instead of chatting, also e-mails or forum replies could be
chosen, because those media have the same characteristics. However, it is expected that
people do not use these media to interact with each other in a quick way and having some
longer period between sending of messages is more regular.
In the third condition, the interactive aspect of the communication disappears, but the
audiovisual element returns. Now a one-to-many medium will be used instead of the
interactive one-to-one medium of chatting. A video will be shown of a television program at
the full screen of the computer. This television program is a scene of the quiz ‘Tien voor Taal’
(translated: A for Language). For this research, a scene will be shot with the original hostess
in the original setting, so participants will not become suspicious. The competitive team in the
quiz that will be shown, consists of the same actor with a North-African origin and the same
(mentioned) name as the one that will be used in the chats, and of an autochthonous Dutch
man, who will be easily identified as such because of his appearance and name. Both actors
will work together effectively and friendly and come up with the right answers on the same
questions as those that are posed in the crossword puzzle of the previous described
experimental treatments.
In the final experimental condition, people have to read a newspaper article about the
scene of the program described above, so besides the interactive aspects also the audiovisual
6
9. elements are missing and static information remains. The article is written in the same style as
can be found in the part of newspapers where programs broadcasted that day are described
and where reviews of programs are usual. However, the article is written rather factually and
without a clear opinion; it describes the successful cooperation of the two actors (with
different origins, made clear by their names). A photo is added to the article, which shows the
two actors cheer together after answering a question correctly. Both their names are
mentioned and it will be clear they worked together successfully toward a common goal.
Finally, the control group will not be exposed to an experimental condition, so that the
groups which are exposed to a manipulation can be compared to this group. The web browser
leads them directly to the part where the dependent variables are measured.
If the manipulations in the different experimental conditions work will be checked at
the end of the questionnaire that is used to measure the dependent variables. Participants will
be asked if they worked together with an allochthonous person, or saw or read about an
allochthonous person working together with an autochthonous person; and if they had a
common goal.
Dependent variables
The first dependent variable that will be measured is how prejudiced participants behave after
being in contact with an immigrant via the different media, or not having a contact for those
in the control group. Behaviour will be measured by the choice of the reward people receive
for participating. As written before, people will be rewarded with a fountain pen; however
they have to choose one themselves. People are told that they can order their pen at
Marktplaats.nl; and that two sellers are selected for them. Also it is made clear that these
sellers only have new pens, not second-hand, because some people may think that on such
websites only second-hand stuff can be bought, which is not true. Both sites are shown and
then the participant has to make a choice which pen he wants to order. The two different
fountain pens differ very slightly on their looks and their described features. However, it is
also shown who the seller of the pen is, because the website has a clear spot for the name of
the seller. One of the sellers has a typical Moroccan name, while the other has a typical Dutch
name. It is randomly chosen which name is placed at which pen, and the order in which the
websites are shown. In a normal situation, both sellers will sell 50% of the pens, because
differences in the websites are randomly changed. When the sale ratio is not 50-50 between
the sellers, this must have something to do with the names of the persons and therefore likely
with prejudice, because besides the names all other differences are randomized. It is
7
10. interesting to see what changes in the sale ratio, when a foreign and Dutch name are used and
how participants are affected by their treatments, compared with the control group that did not
receive any treatment.
The other dependent variable ‘attitude’ will be measured with a questionnaire. A lot of
questions and statements are asked about all kinds of political issues, so it is not clear for
participants what the goal of the study is. However, some questions are used to measure the
prejudices of participants. Therefore, the same statements as Wagner, Christ, Pettigrew,
Stellmacher and Wolf (2006) used, will be included in the questionnaire. The reason for this
is that it allows that results can be compared with this study. Furthermore, this article is
written by some big names in this field of study, what makes it plausible that the questions are
a good measure for the concept of prejudice and results can be compared with many more
other studies probably. The questions are however changed slightly so they fit for the Dutch
situation. The statements that participants will answer on a 4-point scale (disagree – agree) are
the following:
• There are too many foreigners living in The Netherlands.
• When jobs get scarce, the foreigners living in The Netherlands should be sent home.
• Foreigners enrich the Dutch culture. (Reverse coded)
• Foreigners occupy jobs that Dutch people should have.
• The foreigners who live in The Netherlands are a burden on the social welfare system.
• I like it or would like it to have foreigners as neighbours. (Reverse coded)
• Foreigners living in The Netherlands should choose to marry people of their own
nationality.
Two statements are added that also seem to be necessary to measure prejudiced attitudes:
• Immigrants form a threat for the prosperity in The Netherlands:
• Immigrants form a threat for the safety in The Netherlands.
The choice of the fountain pen and those statements are done only after participants are
exposed to the experimental treatments, not before, so this experiment involves a post-test
only. No pre-test will be used in this study, because that might give participants already a clue
what the research is about; reactance could probably occur. A pre-test is also not necessary in
the study, because the randomly assigned control group would generate similar results, as a
pre-test would give.
Control variables
In the questionnaire, some other variables are measured also. This is important so that they
8
11. can be controlled for during analysis, to prevent them from being confounding (Frank, 2000).
The control variables are: age; sex; people’s own origin (race); level of education; political
preference; if people lived in an area with many immigrants (on basis of their postcode); if
people work in a company with foreigners; if and how many foreign friends or members of
family they have; and if, how often and what kind of inconveniences they had, caused by
foreigners.
The internal validity of this research seems to be high. The manipulations only seem to differ
on the kind of message they receive and what medium was used to transmit this message.
These are the differences that the study wants to focus on, so that forms no problem. Besides,
the experiment makes it possible to control for many factors. As a result it will be very likely
that differences in results are the consequence of the treatment to which a participant is
exposed.
However it is not very easy to generalize the results to social reality; the study is not
very ecologically valid, just as many experiments are not. It is not very comparable to real-life
situations, because people are forced into some manipulated action and television programs
and newspaper articles are shown on a computer screen. However, the results will give clear
indications of the effects that various media may have on prejudice. Yet, in real-life situations
it is not very likely that a mediated contact happens only once. With this design, it is not
possible to analyze what happens, when people are confronted multiple times with some sort
of contact. It will also remain unclear how long possible effects endure. The external validity
of the group participants however will be rather good, because the target was to get a
representative sample of the Dutch population of sixteen years and older and there do not
seem to be large problems in realizing this.
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Frank, K (2000). Impact of a confounding variable on the inference of a regression
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