This presentation by METS Consulting Metallurgist will look at cyanide recovery, the environmental impacts and treatment processes that have been successfully used worldwide for cyanide removal. It will also look at assessing the hazards of using cyanide and successful implementation of the processes.
India is the world's largest Sponge Iron producer and mostly uses the Coal based process. The down-side of this industry is that it generates significant amounts of solid waste in the form of ESP Flyash and Bag House Filter Dust. Now as this Flyash contains considerable unburned carbon ( 10% and above), it cannot be utilized in cement manufacturing. Likewise the Bag Filter dust contains upto 25% unburned carbon and above 70% ash which again doesn't allow it to be reused viably as a fuel. Meanwhile, reducing the carbon content by the Carbon-burnout method is too expensive and polluting just to convert the wastes into usable Flyash.
As a result most of these wastes go into landfill, where they again contribute to ground and water pollution.
Surprisingly there are technologies which can not only effectively convert these wastes into usable items like recovered fuel and low carbon Flyash, but at the same time clean up the environment and save the companies great expenses. Its is called Carbon-Ash Separation and there are several ways of doing the same.
Processing of petroleum types of refluxKarnav Rana
PROCESSING OF PETROLEUM :TYPES OF REFLUX
arrangements of distillation towers
Pump back reflux and pump around reflux
Side stripping columns
process refining & petrochemicals
India is the world's largest Sponge Iron producer and mostly uses the Coal based process. The down-side of this industry is that it generates significant amounts of solid waste in the form of ESP Flyash and Bag House Filter Dust. Now as this Flyash contains considerable unburned carbon ( 10% and above), it cannot be utilized in cement manufacturing. Likewise the Bag Filter dust contains upto 25% unburned carbon and above 70% ash which again doesn't allow it to be reused viably as a fuel. Meanwhile, reducing the carbon content by the Carbon-burnout method is too expensive and polluting just to convert the wastes into usable Flyash.
As a result most of these wastes go into landfill, where they again contribute to ground and water pollution.
Surprisingly there are technologies which can not only effectively convert these wastes into usable items like recovered fuel and low carbon Flyash, but at the same time clean up the environment and save the companies great expenses. Its is called Carbon-Ash Separation and there are several ways of doing the same.
Processing of petroleum types of refluxKarnav Rana
PROCESSING OF PETROLEUM :TYPES OF REFLUX
arrangements of distillation towers
Pump back reflux and pump around reflux
Side stripping columns
process refining & petrochemicals
This presentation was given as part of the CCS Ready workshop which was held in association with the 6th Asia Clean Energy Forum (20 – 24 June, Manila)
The workshop discussed the range of measures and best practices that can be implemented to prompt the design, permitting and construction of CCS projects when designing or building a new fossil fuelled energy or industrial plant.
The workshop hosted participants of the Asian Development Banks’ Regional Technical Assistance Program who updated the group on the outcomes of their individual projects.
This presentation provides an update on the current project being undertaken under the Asian Development Bank’s Regional Technical Assistance Program which aims to conduct an analysis of the potential for CCS, culminating in a road map for a CCS demonstration project in Indonesia.
Menurut data Kementerian ESDM (2012), di Indonesia sudah banyak daerah dengan potensi Coal Bed Methane (CBM) yang cukup tinggi. Dari studi awal diperoleh sekitar 213 TCF CBM gas in place, dan studi ini menjadikan Indonesia sebagai negara ke-7 dengan potensi Coal Bed Methane (CBM) tertinggi di dunia. Studi lainnya mencatat bahwa sekitar 453,3 TCF potensial CBM tersebar di 11 coal basin di Indonesia, yaitu di Ombilin, Sumatera Selatan, Bengkulu, Jatibarang, Barito, Kutai, Taraan, Berau, Pasir, Asam-asam, dan Sulawesi Tenggara, dengan cadangan terbesar di Sumatera Selatan sebesar 183 tcf.
METHANOL PLANT - SHALE GAS FEED PRETREATMENT
CASE STUDY #091406
Case Background
A Methanol plant operator would like to examine the technical feasibility of using Shale Gas as a feedstock to their Methanol plant.
The first step in the Methanol production process is gas pretreatment. The purpose of gas pretreatment is to make the gas suitable for the downstream processes. There are two groups of compounds that are usually present in natural gas and that should be removed during pretreatment—the associate NGL and the sulfur-containing compounds. Some natural gas reservoirs may also have other trace components that must be removed, but these are not discussed here.
This case study examines the impact of CO2 (Carbon Dioxide) on the pre-treatment section design, performance and efficiency of ACME Methanol Plant’ feed gas pre-treatment section.
Case 1: Normal Shale Gas
Case 2: “Bad Gas”
Case 3: Low CO2
Case 4: High CO2
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) Production Process ; Production of LNG; LNG industry and Technology (or LNG Value Chain); Liquefaction :Train Size; Compressor Drive Efficiency; Transportation; Pipe; Shipping; Tanker; Major Natural Gas Trade Movements ; Regasification; Storage ; How much does LNG cost?
This presentation was given at the Philadelphia AiChE continuing education meeting of 23 April 2018. HiGee (high gravity) technology for gas-liquid mass transfer is discussed, as one means of process intensification. The history of its development is treated, along explanation of the technology and the evolution of the equipment designs. Literature examples of applications are listed, with some data for a few of these, comparing to conventional distillation and mass-transfer technologies. An evaluation of the technology is given. While fouling services may be a challenge, this technology would have a place in certain applications in US industry.
Covering a concise overview of the shifting landscape of the nickel processing industry, presented by METS Processing Engineer. This presentation explores the current options for treating sulphide and laterite ore bodies, James explained the limitations of current technology in today's climate. It also demonstrates how new technology is attempting to respond to these limitations.
The Iron Ore Conference presents Damian Connelly as he discusses the future for magnetite projects in Australia and the challenges of new projects. Some case studies are covered including Savage River, Project Magnetite, Sino Iron and Karara project
This presentation was given as part of the CCS Ready workshop which was held in association with the 6th Asia Clean Energy Forum (20 – 24 June, Manila)
The workshop discussed the range of measures and best practices that can be implemented to prompt the design, permitting and construction of CCS projects when designing or building a new fossil fuelled energy or industrial plant.
The workshop hosted participants of the Asian Development Banks’ Regional Technical Assistance Program who updated the group on the outcomes of their individual projects.
This presentation provides an update on the current project being undertaken under the Asian Development Bank’s Regional Technical Assistance Program which aims to conduct an analysis of the potential for CCS, culminating in a road map for a CCS demonstration project in Indonesia.
Menurut data Kementerian ESDM (2012), di Indonesia sudah banyak daerah dengan potensi Coal Bed Methane (CBM) yang cukup tinggi. Dari studi awal diperoleh sekitar 213 TCF CBM gas in place, dan studi ini menjadikan Indonesia sebagai negara ke-7 dengan potensi Coal Bed Methane (CBM) tertinggi di dunia. Studi lainnya mencatat bahwa sekitar 453,3 TCF potensial CBM tersebar di 11 coal basin di Indonesia, yaitu di Ombilin, Sumatera Selatan, Bengkulu, Jatibarang, Barito, Kutai, Taraan, Berau, Pasir, Asam-asam, dan Sulawesi Tenggara, dengan cadangan terbesar di Sumatera Selatan sebesar 183 tcf.
METHANOL PLANT - SHALE GAS FEED PRETREATMENT
CASE STUDY #091406
Case Background
A Methanol plant operator would like to examine the technical feasibility of using Shale Gas as a feedstock to their Methanol plant.
The first step in the Methanol production process is gas pretreatment. The purpose of gas pretreatment is to make the gas suitable for the downstream processes. There are two groups of compounds that are usually present in natural gas and that should be removed during pretreatment—the associate NGL and the sulfur-containing compounds. Some natural gas reservoirs may also have other trace components that must be removed, but these are not discussed here.
This case study examines the impact of CO2 (Carbon Dioxide) on the pre-treatment section design, performance and efficiency of ACME Methanol Plant’ feed gas pre-treatment section.
Case 1: Normal Shale Gas
Case 2: “Bad Gas”
Case 3: Low CO2
Case 4: High CO2
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) Production Process ; Production of LNG; LNG industry and Technology (or LNG Value Chain); Liquefaction :Train Size; Compressor Drive Efficiency; Transportation; Pipe; Shipping; Tanker; Major Natural Gas Trade Movements ; Regasification; Storage ; How much does LNG cost?
This presentation was given at the Philadelphia AiChE continuing education meeting of 23 April 2018. HiGee (high gravity) technology for gas-liquid mass transfer is discussed, as one means of process intensification. The history of its development is treated, along explanation of the technology and the evolution of the equipment designs. Literature examples of applications are listed, with some data for a few of these, comparing to conventional distillation and mass-transfer technologies. An evaluation of the technology is given. While fouling services may be a challenge, this technology would have a place in certain applications in US industry.
Covering a concise overview of the shifting landscape of the nickel processing industry, presented by METS Processing Engineer. This presentation explores the current options for treating sulphide and laterite ore bodies, James explained the limitations of current technology in today's climate. It also demonstrates how new technology is attempting to respond to these limitations.
The Iron Ore Conference presents Damian Connelly as he discusses the future for magnetite projects in Australia and the challenges of new projects. Some case studies are covered including Savage River, Project Magnetite, Sino Iron and Karara project
Director/Principal Consulting Engineer, Damian Connelly presented at the 2014 ALTA Annual Conference in Perth. This presentation discusses the growing demand for zircon and the removal of uranium and thorium. This presentation also covers the uses of zircon, historical work, process and procedures and the global production of zircon
Do not include any personal information as all posted material on this site is considered to be part of a public record as defined by section 27 of the Municipal Freedom of Information and Protection of Privacy Act.
We reserve the right to remove inappropriate comments. Please see Terms of Use for City of Toronto Social Media Sites at http://www.toronto.ca/e-updates/termsofuse.htm.
In this presentation, Director/Principal Consulting Engineer, Damian Connelly elaborates on issues surrounding water management in Australia, especially in terms of availability, conservation and the high cost of water. He also covers three different solutions by looking closely at key magnetite projects including Citic Pacific Magnetite Project, Karara Magnetite Project, and Southdown Magnetite Project.
Presentation given by Michael Priestnall of Cambridge Carbon Capture Ltd on "Mg(OH)2 (& high-value by-products) from Serpentines & Olivines for scalable low-energy wet-scrubbing of CO2 from ambient air & flue-gas" at the Alternative CCS Pathways Workshop, Oxford Martin School, 26 June 2014
SCIMEE is a rare-earth magnet-based wastewater treatment company equipped wit...dun yang
SCIMEE (http://www.scimee.com or https://www.facebook.com/recomag) is a full service solution provider of environmental pollution control. We are equipped with a wide range of market-proven product brands and cutting-edge technologies to combat pollution of water, air and soil. Notably, SCIMEE leads the industry for both permanent magnetic separator systems (ReMagDisc and ReCoMag) and ferromagnetic microparticle vector technologies (MagCarrier) in the treatment of water and wastewater. SCIMEE has served industrial and municipal clients for more than 12 years with its proprietary magnetic force-based water treatment systems, in-house fabricated equipment and an elite team of researchers and engineers. SCIMEE has designed, built and delivered more than 300 projects for iron and steel industry, oil and gas industry, resource mining industry, land developers, army bases and municipal water treatment facilities. These delivered projects actively process more than 130 million cubic meters wastewater per day, the largest daily volume of wastewater processed by magnet force-based equipment in the world.
Ti02 ENM for wastewater odour control networksDuncan Reynolds
This is a presentation from the Water Industry Operators Association (WIOA) Conference in April 2018. It is based on a feasability study into sustainable odour control
The global demand for achieving the net zero emission target by 2050 has pushed governments all over to adapt and adopt advanced carbon removal technologies to go carbon negative.
It is, indeed, an important topic of discussion, because a carbon free environment is the need of the hour to save our planet. And, therefore, BIS Research is glad to announce its upcoming webinar on this particular subject.
Agenda:
The main agenda of this webinar is to understand and explore the following:
• Primary sources of carbon emissions and associated environmental issues
• Carbon dioxide removal – key technology and adoption scenario
• Carbon dioxide removal (CDR): trends and key market developments
• Carbon dioxide removal as a credible solution
• Conclusion and future outlook
Using low cost nanotechnology, CCT has developed passive water purification technology that can purify a contaminated river into certifiable clean drinking water affordable to the majority of the world's population.
This presentation was presented at a CDMS Insights Session in Perth head office by our Senior Mechanical Design Engineer, which covers the process for the design and design verification of heat exchangers used in the processing industries. He also shows some examples of air cooled heat exchanger design.
This presentation was presented at the Australasian Oil & Gas Conference 2014 in Perth by our Group Engineering Manager. It covers how local engineering service providers add value to their clients including flow-on benefits of utilising local engineering consultants, new perspectives on local versus overseas engineering design and drafting costs and the importance of nurturing local expertise and reusing it throughout the project lifecycle.
At a METS Insights Session in Perth presented by our Consulting Metallurgist, covers what solvent extraction is as well as its origins, and discusses the different equipment types and types of extractants, among others.
In this presentation, Director/Principal Consulting Engineer, Damian Connelly provided a concise overview of the health and safety hazards associated with working in a process plant. The legal responsibilities of design and duties of care were explored, alongside the guidelines for safe products and systems, with a view to demonstrate the importance of safety and risk analysis in design
METS Processing Engineer covers several reasons why high pressure grinding rolls (HPGR) are used such as cost and micro-cracking, which is a technique used on various iron ores including hematite and magnetite operations both in Australia and around the world
Presented by METS Consulting Metallurgist, this presentation covers flotation history, reagents, equipment and circuit configuration. The requirements of metallurgical testwork programs will be discussed, for ores requiring flotation processing techniques for extraction of minerals
Director/Principal Consulting Engineer, Damian Connelly presented at the Society for Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration (SME) in Salt Lake City, Utah. This presentation covers the importance of water for ore processing, the management of water quality, improvements on recycling and discusses different magnetite projects
Final project report on grocery store management system..pdfKamal Acharya
In today’s fast-changing business environment, it’s extremely important to be able to respond to client needs in the most effective and timely manner. If your customers wish to see your business online and have instant access to your products or services.
Online Grocery Store is an e-commerce website, which retails various grocery products. This project allows viewing various products available enables registered users to purchase desired products instantly using Paytm, UPI payment processor (Instant Pay) and also can place order by using Cash on Delivery (Pay Later) option. This project provides an easy access to Administrators and Managers to view orders placed using Pay Later and Instant Pay options.
In order to develop an e-commerce website, a number of Technologies must be studied and understood. These include multi-tiered architecture, server and client-side scripting techniques, implementation technologies, programming language (such as PHP, HTML, CSS, JavaScript) and MySQL relational databases. This is a project with the objective to develop a basic website where a consumer is provided with a shopping cart website and also to know about the technologies used to develop such a website.
This document will discuss each of the underlying technologies to create and implement an e- commerce website.
Hierarchical Digital Twin of a Naval Power SystemKerry Sado
A hierarchical digital twin of a Naval DC power system has been developed and experimentally verified. Similar to other state-of-the-art digital twins, this technology creates a digital replica of the physical system executed in real-time or faster, which can modify hardware controls. However, its advantage stems from distributing computational efforts by utilizing a hierarchical structure composed of lower-level digital twin blocks and a higher-level system digital twin. Each digital twin block is associated with a physical subsystem of the hardware and communicates with a singular system digital twin, which creates a system-level response. By extracting information from each level of the hierarchy, power system controls of the hardware were reconfigured autonomously. This hierarchical digital twin development offers several advantages over other digital twins, particularly in the field of naval power systems. The hierarchical structure allows for greater computational efficiency and scalability while the ability to autonomously reconfigure hardware controls offers increased flexibility and responsiveness. The hierarchical decomposition and models utilized were well aligned with the physical twin, as indicated by the maximum deviations between the developed digital twin hierarchy and the hardware.
CFD Simulation of By-pass Flow in a HRSG module by R&R Consult.pptxR&R Consult
CFD analysis is incredibly effective at solving mysteries and improving the performance of complex systems!
Here's a great example: At a large natural gas-fired power plant, where they use waste heat to generate steam and energy, they were puzzled that their boiler wasn't producing as much steam as expected.
R&R and Tetra Engineering Group Inc. were asked to solve the issue with reduced steam production.
An inspection had shown that a significant amount of hot flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes, where the heat was supposed to be transferred.
R&R Consult conducted a CFD analysis, which revealed that 6.3% of the flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes without transferring heat. The analysis also showed that the flue gas was instead being directed along the sides of the boiler and between the modules that were supposed to capture the heat. This was the cause of the reduced performance.
Based on our results, Tetra Engineering installed covering plates to reduce the bypass flow. This improved the boiler's performance and increased electricity production.
It is always satisfying when we can help solve complex challenges like this. Do your systems also need a check-up or optimization? Give us a call!
Work done in cooperation with James Malloy and David Moelling from Tetra Engineering.
More examples of our work https://www.r-r-consult.dk/en/cases-en/
Explore the innovative world of trenchless pipe repair with our comprehensive guide, "The Benefits and Techniques of Trenchless Pipe Repair." This document delves into the modern methods of repairing underground pipes without the need for extensive excavation, highlighting the numerous advantages and the latest techniques used in the industry.
Learn about the cost savings, reduced environmental impact, and minimal disruption associated with trenchless technology. Discover detailed explanations of popular techniques such as pipe bursting, cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) lining, and directional drilling. Understand how these methods can be applied to various types of infrastructure, from residential plumbing to large-scale municipal systems.
Ideal for homeowners, contractors, engineers, and anyone interested in modern plumbing solutions, this guide provides valuable insights into why trenchless pipe repair is becoming the preferred choice for pipe rehabilitation. Stay informed about the latest advancements and best practices in the field.
About
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Technical Specifications
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
Key Features
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system
• Copatiable with IDM8000 CCR
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
Application
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Welcome to WIPAC Monthly the magazine brought to you by the LinkedIn Group Water Industry Process Automation & Control.
In this month's edition, along with this month's industry news to celebrate the 13 years since the group was created we have articles including
A case study of the used of Advanced Process Control at the Wastewater Treatment works at Lleida in Spain
A look back on an article on smart wastewater networks in order to see how the industry has measured up in the interim around the adoption of Digital Transformation in the Water Industry.
Water Industry Process Automation and Control Monthly - May 2024.pdf
Recovery of Cyanide From Tailings Using Resins
1. > M i n e r a l P r o c e s s i n g > E n g i n e e r i n g D e s i g n > T r a i n i n g > S p e c i a l i s t S e r v i c e s
Mineral Engineering Technical Services
PO Box 5778
St Georges Tce WA 6831
P: (+61 8) 9421 9000
F: (+61 8) 9325 8311
ABN 66 009 357 171
W: www.metsengineering.com
E: info@metsengineering.com
A division of Midas Engineering Group
Cyanide Destruction & Recovery From Tailings
Including Possible Resin Technology
Insights Session
Presented by:
Peter Steckis,
Metallurgical Manager
5. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
Key Attributes
• Working globally since 1988
• Dynamic and innovative niche consultancy
• Dedicated team providing customised service
• Specialist in Mineral Processing & Engineering Projects
• Unique solution finder
Pragmatic, efficient, complete engineering through
quality, personalised & exceptional service delivery
6. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
Introduction
• More projects required by law to destroy cyanide in tailings
• Minimise exposure to wild life
• Cyanide forbidden in some states in the USA
• OH&S issues
• Environmental issues
• Cyanide DETOX
• Cyanide recovery
• Case studies
7. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
Introduction
• Remediation Methods
― Destruction (oxidation)
― Separation (physical, adsorption and complexation)
> Non-destructive: use to concentrate and recover cyanide for recycling purpose
> Toxicity of cyanide remained disposal problem
• Recovery Methods
Complexation Method Physical Methods
Acidification/volatilisation, metal addition, flotation and solvent
extraction
Dilution, membranes, electrowinning and hydrolysis/distillation
Oxidation Methods Adsorption Methods
Biological, catalytic, electrolytic, chemical and photolytic
methods
Minerals, activated carbons and resins adsorb cyanide from the
solution. Various contact vessels can be used, ie: elutriation
columns, agitated cells, packed-bed, columns and loops, etc…
Afterwards it is screened by flotation or gravity separation
8. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
Toxicity of Cyanide
Table 1: The toxicity of poisons derived from plants and animals compared with sodium cyanide
(adapted from Mann, 1992)
Poison Lethal dose (µg/kg bodyweight for the mouse)
Botulinus toxin 0.03
Tetanus 0.07
Cobra neurotoxin 0.30
Strychnine 500
Sodium cyanide 10 000
Table 2: The toxicity of industrial poisonous gases compared with hydrogen cyanide (adapted from
Richardson, 1992)
Poisonous Gas Threshold Limit Value (ppm) Short-term Limit (ppm)
Carbon monoxide 25 300
Chlorine 0.5 1
Hydrogen cyanide 5 10
Hydrogen sulphide 10 10
Nitrogen dioxide 3 5
Sulphur dioxide 2 5
9. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
Historical Spill Incident Since 1995
Aug 95 Guyana 3.2 billion litres of tailings into a river system
Dec 00 Guyana Further spill into same river
Jan 00 Romania 130,000m3 of tailings into river systems
Jun 01 PNG Cyanide spill into ocean
Oct 01 Ghana 2 spills, 1 mine wastewater, 1 cyanide
Nov 01 China Liquid NaCN spill into a river
May/Jun 02 USA 24,000/40,000 gallon spills of cyanide solution
Jan 03 Western Honduras Massive spill into river
Jan 03 Nicaragua Cyanide solution spill into river
Mar 04 Romania Contaminated water spill into river ~10 tonnes
Jun 04 China 7 lethal releases of chemicals
Oct 04 Australia Report of mine tailings leaking into groundwater at Kalgoorlie
Jun 05 Laos Cyanide spill into river
Oct 05 Philippines 2 spills of process treatment water
Jun 06 Ghana Spill into river
Dec 06 Alaska Cyanide found leaking into ground from tailings
10. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
Cyanide Form
Free cyanide
Simple cyanide
Complex cyanide
WAD cyanide
SAD cyanide
Includes the cyanide ion and hydrogen cyanide
A salt which dissociated to form a cyanide ion
Dissociates to form another cyanide compound
Weak acid dissociable, cyanide that is readily
released from cyanide containing compounds
when the pH is lowered
Strong acid dissociable, cyanide that is
released from cyanide containing compounds
under highly acidic conditions
CN- + HCN
NaCN
Au(CN)2
Cd(CN)2
Co(CN)6
4-
11. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
Process Selection Criteria
• Recovery is favoured over destruction with high cyanide consuming ores
• Each project is unique with respect to species in the tailings
• Environmental regulations vary with respect to allowable concentration limits in
the treated tailings
• There is a large choice of different cyanide destruction methods
• The cost and efficiency of each method varies
• Legislation varies from country to country
12. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
Cost Effectiveness
• The cost of destroying cyanide can be a significant percentage of total operating
costs, and unlike other costs it generates no income. It is therefore important, for
both regulatory and economic reasons, to select the correct process
― The cost for cyanide destruction, particularly for sodium metabisulfsulfite. E.g. in the INCO
process, it can be a large cost, as high as $A0.50 to $2.00/tonne of tailings treated plus the
new cyanide cost of approximately $1.50/tonne
― On the other hand the cost of recovering cyanide can be as low as $0.50/tonne of tailings
when copper credits are added back
• The CAPEX cost is a serious consideration when cyanide recovery is involved
compared to cyanide destruction. The AVR or SART processes treat solution tailings
rather than pulp and therefore the CAPEX cost of solid liquid separation has to be
added
• Recycled cyanide is much cheaper than new cyanide and also has the
advantage of less environmental risk. Less new cyanide is required so there are less
transport, storage and handling issues
14. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
Natural Attenduation/Degradation
• Mainly related to the volatilisation of HCN from TSFs
• No reagents required, the final product is usually HCN
Table showing the efficiency of cyanide removal in tailing impoundments by natural degradation
Mine CN entering the tailings system
(mg.L-1)
CN discharging from the tailings
system (mg.L-1)
Lupin, NWT, Canada 184 0.17
Holt McDermott, Ontario, Canada 74.8 0.02
Cannon, Washington, USA 284 <0.05
Ridgeway, Couth Carolina, USA 480 0.09
Golden Cross, New Zealand 6.8 (WAD CN) 0.33 (WAD CN)
Kurara 120 0.5
Gabanintha 250 120
15. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
Advantages and Disadvantages of
Alkaline Chlorination
• Advantages
― Well established process
― Produce low residual effluent of free cyanide and WAD cyanide
― Process can be adapted to continuous or batch operation
― Process can be employed for treating pulp
― Cyanate and ammonia can be removed through breakpoint chlorination
• Disadvantages
― Not suitable for treating high levels of cyanide
• Increase in reagent costs
― Close control of pH to avoid release of cyanogen chloride gas (CNCl) (harmful if inhaled)
― Inefficient for removal of iron complexed cyanides in particular under ambient conditions
― Requires further treatment for removal of free chlorine and chloramines prior to discharge
― May produce high concentration of cyanate that can potentially increase the ammonia
concentration
16. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
Oxidation Method – INCO/SO2 Process
• Involves the mixing of sulphur dioxide and air with free cyanide, metal-
complexed cyanide, thiocyanate to produce cyanate (can also use SMBS)
• Reaction can be catalysed with cupric or nickel cations (Copper Sulphate)
• Ineffective for reactive sulphide ores
• Can potentially lead to the production of by-products such as sludge and
gypsum
• Been incorporated in mining operations in Canada and U.S. since 1983
17. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
Advantages and Disadvantages of INCO
Process
• Advantages
― Yields low effluent cyanide and metal concentration
― Effective in treating slurries and solutions
― Suitable for batch or continuous operations
― Capital and operating costs are comparable to other chemical treatments
• Disadvantages
― Not suitable for treating high levels of cyanide
• increase in reagent costs and high power consumption due to air requirements
― May generate high levels of sulfate in the treated solution
― Additional treatment may be required to remove iron cyanide, thiocyanate, cyanate,
ammonia, nitrate and/or metal before discharged to the environment
18. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
Detoxification of cyanide by hydrogen peroxide in gold mines
Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2)
Process
Before treatment (mg/L) After treatment (mg/L)
Total
cyanide
WAD
cyanide
Cu Fe Total
cyanide
WAD cyanide Cu Fe
Case study #1
Pond Overflow (1)
19 19 20 <0.1 0.7 0.7 0.4 <0.1
Case study #2
Barren Bleed (2)
1,350 850 478 178 <5 <1 <5 <2
Case study #3
Heap Leach Solution (3)
353 322 102 11 0.36 0.36 0.4 (4) <0.1
(Source: Griffiths, 1989)
Notes:
1) Preliminary plant results from pre-operational test runs
2) Typical results during first six months of operation
3) Average of 25 measurements made over ten days of plant operation
4) Value dropped from 1.0 to 0.4 over four days due to coagulation and settling
19. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
Advantages and Disadvantages of
Hydrogen Peroxide Process
• Advantages
― Process is simple in design and operation
― By combining oxidation and precipitation, it is efficient for removal of all forms of cyanide
― Adaptable to batch or continuous operations
― Does not require close pH control
― Produces low quantities of waste sludge
― Effective during bench, pilot and full-scale operation
• Disadvantages
― High reagents costs
― May produce high concentration of cyanate that can potentially increase the ammonia
concentration
― Does not remove ammonia or thiocyanate
― Not suitable for treating tailings slurries
― May require addition treatment processes
20. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
Metal Sulphates
• Common metals used iron, zinc, aluminium, copper
• Commercial application Prussian blue precipitation (precipitation of
Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3 on the addition of FeSO4) – unstable in alkaline solutions
• Applicable to SAD cyanide complexes, thiocyanate has a limited response
• Not a stand-alone process
Prussian blue precipitate
(Source: Technische Universitat Kaiserslautern website, 2013)
21. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
Caro’s Acid
• Peroxymonosulfuric acid (H2SO5), also known as Caro’s acid, is a reagent
used in a recently developed cyanide treatment process that has found
application at some sites
H2SO5 + CN- → OCN- + SO4
2- + 2H+
• Caro’s acid used in the process must be produced on-site using sulfuric
acid and hydrogen peroxide - Caro’s acid decomposes very quickly
• Caro’s acid is used in slurry treatment applications -
• The addition of a copper catalyst is not required
• Typically used in situations where the sulfur dioxide and air process is not
suited.
• The retro fitting of cyanide destruction into older operations where
tankage is not in place
• In solution applications, other destruction processes, such as the hydrogen
peroxide process are preferred
22. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
Ozonation
• Treatment of cyanide bearing wastewater has been carried out using ozone
• Advantages of ozone oxidation include:
― Extremely effective against all free and complexed cyanides
― Used alone or in combination with UV light
― Does not form any undesirable by-products such a chlorinated organics or
ammonia
― Does not require the purchase, storage or handling of dangerous chemicals on
site
― Ozone is produced on site from air using an ozone generator
The reaction with ozone does not require high temperatures or pressures
23. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
Electrowinning
• Applicable to SAD and WAD cyanides but not thiocyanate
• Low efficiency, however progress is continuing to make it economically viable
• Has been applied at CELEC regeneration system or high surface area (HAS)
reactor
IonnetTM heavy metal separating
system - electrowinning
(Source: Allied Plating Supplies website, 2013)
(Source: Precious Metals Processing Consultants website,
2013)
24. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
Oxidation Method – Bio-Oxidation
• Converting cyanide into cyanate (a less toxic species) by means of bacteria,
fungi, algae, yeasts and plants, enzymes and amino acid followed by hydrolysis
to ammonium and bicarbonate ion
• Final products depends on biomass used, cyanide species, initial cyanide
concentration, pH and temperature
Rotating biological contactor plant for the
removal of cyanide and thiocyanate at the
Homestake Mine
26. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
Water Recovery
• Cyanide can effectively be recovered and re-used by recycling
cyanide-containing solutions within a metallurgical circuit
• This is commonly conducted using tailings thickeners or tailings filters
to separate solution from tailings solids, with the solution being recycled in
the grinding and leaching circuits
• Can be determined by a simple mass balance calculation including the
improved economics.
• In the dry Australian climate water recovery is favoured because water is
often scarce
27. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
Acidification/Volatilisation/Recovery
• Reaction is favoured at low pH, typically the process is operated at pH between 1.5 and 2
• Also known as Mills-Crowe process
• New development CyanisorbTM process
• Disadvantage consumes high amounts of acid and alkaline
• Advantage low energy consumption and increased volatilisation rate compared to
hydrolysis/distillation process
• Effective for WADs and to a lesser extent for thiocyanate and SADs
CyanisorbTM process
(Source: Around of Mining and Metallurgy Blog, 2008)
28. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
CYANISORB®
• The CYANISORB® process consists of four operations:
― Converting cyanide and metal-cyanide complexes to HCN
― Stripping HCN from tailings in a packed tower
― Recovering HCN gas into an alkaline solution
― Adjusting the pH of the detoxified tailings
29. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
CYANISORB® Plant Design
The Golden Cross plant is currently operating with an average recovery of tailings WAD cyanide of 80–90%
Tailings Slurry
Acidification Stage
Stripping Stage
Recycle
Scrubbed air
Absorption Stage
10% H2SO4
Tailings Re-neutralisation
Stage
Lime
Disposal
Circulating NaOH
Fresh NaOH NaOH/NaCN
Air/HCN
pH Control
30. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
Benefits
• Metallurgical Benefits
― Reduced sodium cyanide costs
― Less cyanide purchases required and lower transport and handling costs
― Possibility of higher NaCN addition rates when required without NaCN loss with the
tailings
• Tailings Treatment - Economic Benefits
― Reduced exposure to NaCN price increases
― Tailings detoxification costs are reduced
― Cyanide recycling provides an approximately zero nett tailings detoxification cost
31. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
SART (Sulfidisation, Acidification,
Recycle and Thickening) Process
• Alternative recovery route for high grade cyanide soluble copper slurries
― Cu and CN are recoverable
― Comparatively low OPEX and CAPEX costs
― Bench scale testwork, pilot plant trials and feasibility study for the Telfer Gold Mine (WA,
Australia)
― Site personnel verify the route is effective and economical
• Sulfidisation, Acidification
2Na3Cu(CN)4 + 3.5H2SO4 + NaHS Cu2S + 3.5Na2SO4 + 8HCN
• Recycle - Fine Cu2S is recycled as seed to previous step
• Thickening
2HCN + Ca(OH)2 Ca(CN)2 + 2H2O
32. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
Adsorption Method
• Common adsorbents:
– Mineral:
> Cyanide is adsorbed via ion exchange or precipitation
– Activated carbon:
> Packed bed system
> Effective for dilute cyanide - in particular for WADs and SADs
> Non-selective
• Needs to be coupled with screening, gravity separation or flotation
• Cyanide is desorbed into a low volume solution
33. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
Adsorption Method
• Common adsorbents:
– Resins:
> Can be selective and capacity depends on the chelating or ion-exchange
properties
> Predominantly used in packed bed system
> More cost effective compared to activated carbon due to high resistant to fouling
and fast desorption kinetics
> Not effective for thiocyanate
34. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
Advantages and Disadvantages of
Resins
• Advantages
― Not poisoned by organics – no thermal regeneration
― Unaffected by clay ores
― Do not absorb calcium – reduced acid washing requirements
― Improve recovery in the presence of preg-robbing ores
― High selectivity resins offer advantages with Cu/Au ores
― High loading capacity (100,000 g/t) and faster loading kinetics
― Enhanced abrasion resistance over activated carbon
― Reduced capital costs for small to medium operations
• Disadvantages
― Resin particle size – 0.8-1.2 mm – screening more difficult
― Strong base resins less selective for gold over base metals compared to activated
carbon
― Resin is approximately ten times more expensive than carbon ($30,000/t)
― Database of experience is limited
35. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
Resins – Case Study
• Operations in Environmentally sensitive area
− Tailings final product from CCD thickeners
− Filtration of tailings using belt filters
− Inefficient operation of belt filters when clay levels high
• Cyanide increasing as well as some metal losses
− Investigated use of Resin in Pulp for metal scavenging and cyanide reduction
− Testwork carried out in laboratory in Perth
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
0 4 8
Cyanideconcentration(ppm)
Time (h)
Cyanide
Solution
Concentration
36. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
Resins – Case Study
• Testwork (IXR)
− Tailings final product from recovery testwork
− Testwork procedure was developed – Multi contact
− Resin in Pulp scenario
− A100/2412 (Metals) and A500/2788 (Gold silver and cyanide) resins tested
− Bottle roll tests - sequential contact with resin
− 12.5 g/L target concentration of resin – Slightly higher for A500/2788
− Cyanide levels in pulp monitored
− Assumes that cyanide is loaded onto the resin
• Resin stripping
− Acidic conditions and HCN generated
− Requirement to recover HCN gas in caustic solution
• Significant development required
− Resin type and selectivity
− Stripping of the resin
− Recovery of cyanide
37. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
Environmental Issues - Birds & Wildlife
Contaminated ducks
Bird fatalities
Species in danger
38. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
Attempts at Minimizing Bird Fatalities
due to Cyanide in Tailings
Hazing techniques:
− Propane gas gun
− Bird whalers
− Streamers
− Loud music
− Netting
− Flying kites
− Flagging tape
− Wine casks
− Fishing lines
(Source: Magnum Photos website, 2005)
39. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
Minimizing Bird Fatalities Due To
Cyanide In Tailings
(Source: Bird B Gone Blog, 2012)
(Source: Zon Scare Cannons website, 2013)
40. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
International Cyanide Management
Code
The Motivation ?
• No set regulation for management of cyanide
• Numerous spills and other incident involving cyanide solutions
International Cyanide Management Code - Use of
Cyanide logo
Aug 1995 : Omai, Guyana - dam failure
May 1998 : Kyrgyz Republic – truck
Jan 2000 : Baia Mare, Romania
Mar 2000 : Papua New Guinea – helicopter
2002 : Nevada, USA - pipe failures
(Source: International Cyanide Management Code
website, 2013)
41. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
International Cyanide Management
Code
• Established based on the collective efforts from 40 participants:
― Global mining industry
― Cyanide producers
― Non-Governmental Organisations
― Governments
― United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP)
― International Council on Mining and Metals (ICMM)
― Gold Institute
― World Wildlife Fund for Nature (WWF)
― International Finance Corporation (IFC)
― European Commission
(Source: United Nations Environment
Programme website, 2013)
(Source: World Wildlife Fund for Nature website,
2013)
42. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
Case Studies
• Mt Muro
• Rapu Rapu
• Mina Sertao
• Andorinhas
43. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
Na2S2O5
POND SOLUTION STREAM
RAW WATER
M M
M
AIR
AIR
TREATED SOLUTION
SPLITTER
HOIST
MIX TANK SODIUM METABISULPHITE
STORAGE TANK
METERING PUMPS
CYANIDE
DESTRUCTION
REACTOR
TANK 1
CYANIDE
DESTRUCTION
REACTOR
TANK 2
1600 Nm3/h
(1000scfm)
1600 Nm3/h
(1000scfm)
3200 Nm3/h
(2000scfm)
AIR BLOWERAIR FILTER
SILENCE
LIME FEED
LIME
STORAGE
TANK
DESIGN OPERATING CONDITIONS
Mt Muro INCO Process
(Source: METS Image Library 2014)
44. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
Rapu Rapu
• Strong anti mining sentiment in the
Philippines. NGO’s and church vocal
• Super typhoon (one in hundred year event)
resulted in tailings dam overflow
• Overflow direct to ocean
• Fish kill immediate and obvious to local
fishermen
• Company reacts. Government shuts facility
• Project re opened after mitigation steps put
in place to ensure cannot happen again
(Source: METS Image Library 2014)
Mitigation Steps:
• Overflow from tailings dam to ponds
• Ponds have cyanide destruction facilities
• Reed beds after ponds
• Cannot flow direct to ocean
46. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
Conclusions
• The historical spill incidents such as Baia Mare and Guyana have created an environment where
regulators are wary of gold cyanide projects
• Either DETOX or cyanide recovery is seen as being responsible and minimising the potential
environmental risk
• As indicated in the previous discussion, there are over nine cyanide treatment processes that have been
successfully used worldwide for cyanide removal at mining operations
• The key to successful implementation of these processes is by considering site water and cyanide
balances under both average and extreme climatic conditions and the range of cyanide treatment
processes available and their ability to be used individually or in combination to achieve treatment
objectives
• Proper testing, design, construction, maintenance and monitoring of both water management and cyanide
management facilities are required
• Process selection is not straight forward and each project is unique in finding the best solution. With
regards to cost effectiveness the economics have moved to cyanide recovery in preference to destruction
• Assessing the hazards of using cyanide should be based on the Australian Risk Assessment Standard. It
is in the interests of all gold mining companies adopting the International Cyanide Management Code
47. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
What did you get out of this presentation?
Please share your thoughts in an informal discussion
Questions ?
Attendee Outcomes
48. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
References
• METS Image Library 2014
• Allied Plating Supplies. 2013. Electrowinning Metal Recovery System . [ONLINE] Available at:
http://www.alliedplating.com/store.asp?pid=18509.
• A.M King. 2013. INVENTORY# 7J-SL02. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.amking.com/mining-equipment/milling-
equipment/miscellaneous/7j-sl02.
• Around of Mining and Metallurgy Blog. 2008. Green from Gold "The Rehabilitation of Golden Cross" . [ONLINE] Available at:
http://andiky.blogspot.com.au/2008/11/green-from-gold.html.
• Bird B Gone. 2012. Heavy Duty Pond Netting Protects Migrating Birds from Collection Ponds . [ONLINE] Available at:
http://birdcontrolblog.com/tag/pond-netting/.
• International Cyanide Management Code. 2013. Use of Cyanide Code Logo . [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.cyanidecode.org/become-
signatory/use-cyanide-code-logo.
• Magnum Photos. 2005. Scarecrow in Tailings Pond . [ONLINE] Available at:
https://www.magnumphotos.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=SearchDetailPopupPage&VBID=2K1HZOTQHSHSH&PN=1&IID=2K7O3R10EMS
L.
• Precious Metals Processing Consultants. 2013. Ionnet™ . [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.preciousmetals-pmpc.com/precious-metal-
recovery/.
• Technische Universitat Kaiserslautern. 2013. The Micro-Lab Kaiserslautern. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.chemie.uni-
kl.de/fachrichtungen/ac/sitzmann/ML-eng.htm.
• Zon Scare Cannons. 2013. ZON LP GAS SCARE CANNONS and ACCESSORIES . [ONLINE] Available at: http://scarecannon.com/.
• World Wildlife Fund for Nature. 2013. Australia . [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.wwf.org.au/.
49. j ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSING DESIGN & VERIFICATION PRODUCT INNOVATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS TRAINING SKILLSHIRE
THANK YOU
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