Radiation Protection in Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, MDIRT Nchanj...Nchanji Nkeh Keneth
Radiation Protection; an overview of ionising radiations. Radiation measuring instruments. Radiation Protection in Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, credit to IAEA
Radiation emergencies and preparedness in radiotherapyDeepjyoti saha
In a Radiotherapy Department where cancer patients are being treated with high energy photons,gamma rays,electrons; all the radiation workers should be alert regarding radiation accidents & how to face the situation.
Radiation Protection in Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, MDIRT Nchanj...Nchanji Nkeh Keneth
Radiation Protection; an overview of ionising radiations. Radiation measuring instruments. Radiation Protection in Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, credit to IAEA
Radiation emergencies and preparedness in radiotherapyDeepjyoti saha
In a Radiotherapy Department where cancer patients are being treated with high energy photons,gamma rays,electrons; all the radiation workers should be alert regarding radiation accidents & how to face the situation.
Ultrasound Guided Procedures
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MSKUS Hands-on Scanning,
MSK US Training is a corporation specializing in Musculoskeletal Ultrasonography (MSK US) Imaging Contracted Clinical MSK US & Training, providing workshops at participants location. This is a unique modality that can enhance your patient care needs. It is technically demanding and is completely operator dependent. Extensive experience and proper training are essential to performing consistent, high-quality examinations. Focused MSK US hands-on scanning applications are important to the development of proficient MSK US diagnosis. Our highly organized & systematic hands-on scanning format of instruction, in conjunction with protocol scanning images, ensures the participants develop skills
Guidelines on Radiation Safety in DentistryChow Peng Yue
Radiation is an integral part of many diagnostic and therapeutic procedures in healthcare, and dentistry is no exception. In the field of dentistry, X-rays play a crucial role in aiding dentists in the diagnosis and treatment of various oral health conditions. While these diagnostic tools offer valuable insights, it is essential to prioritize the safety of both patients and dental healthcare professionals when utilizing ionizing radiation.
Radiation safety in dentistry encompasses a set of practices, guidelines, and precautions designed to minimize the potential risks associated with exposure to ionizing radiation. Dental professionals must strike a delicate balance between obtaining necessary diagnostic information and ensuring the well-being of patients by minimizing radiation exposure.
The primary goal of radiation safety in dentistry is to achieve optimal diagnostic results while keeping radiation exposure as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA). This principle emphasizes the importance of utilizing the lowest possible radiation dose without compromising diagnostic efficacy. Dental practitioners must be well-versed in radiation safety protocols, equipment calibration, and proper shielding techniques to achieve this delicate balance.
Radio pharmacuticals are the compounds and substances that emits radiation and which are used in the pharmacy are called as radiopharmaceuticals.
The process of emitting radiation by the radioactive isotopes is called as RADIOACTIVITY.
Egs:uranium-238 isotope
cobalit-60
gallium etc.
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
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TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
Radiation Protection Course For Orthopedic Specialists: Lecture 4 of 4: Recommendations in Radiation Protection
1. Radiation Protection Course For
Orthopedic Specialists
Lecture 4 of 4
Recommendations in Radiation Protection
Prof Amin E AAmin
Dean of the Higher Institute of Optics Technology
&
Prof of Medical Physics
Radiation Oncology Department
Faculty of Medicine, Ain Shams University
2. General Recommendations
1. Only One Investigation
• An x-ray room must not be used for more than one
radiological investigation simultaneously.
3. General Recommendations
2. Only Essential Persons
• Except for those persons whose presence is
essential, no person must be in the x-ray room
when the exposure is carried out.
4. General Recommendations
3. Be Away from the useful beam
– Personnel must at all times keep as far away from
the useful beam as is practicable. Exposure of
personnel to the useful beam must never be
allowed unless the beam is adequately attenuated
by the patient and by protective clothing or
screens.
5. General recommendations
4. Use Protective Devices
– All personnel must take full advantage of the
protective devices available.
6. General recommendations
5. Stay Behind Shielding
Operators should remain inside the control booth or
behind protective screens when making an x-ray
exposure. In cases where there are reasons that make
this impractical, protective clothing must be worn.
7. General Recommendations
6. Rules for patient support
– When there is a need to support children or weak
patients, holding devices should be used.
– If parents, escorts or other personnel are called to
assist, they must be provided with protective
aprons and gloves, and be positioned so as to avoid
the useful beam.
– No one person should regularly perform these
duties.
8. General Recommendations
7. Personal Dosimetry
– When a lead equivalent protective apron is worn,
the personnel dosimeter must be worn under the
apron.
– If extremities are likely to be exposed to
significantly higher doses, additional extremity
monitors should be worn.
9. General Recommendations
8. Personal Dosimetry
– All operators of x-ray equipment, together
with personnel (e.g. nurses) who routinely
participate in radiological procedures, and
others likely to receive a radiation dose in
excess of 1/20th of the Dose limit specified
in Appendix I, must wear personnel
dosimeters.
10. General Recommendations
9. Close All Doors
– All entrance doors to an x-ray room, including
patient cubicle and preparation room doors,
should be kept closed while a patient is in the
room.
11. General Recommendations
10.Attend The energized machine
X-ray machines which are energized and ready to
produce radiation must not be left unattended.
12. General Recommendations
11.In the case of high exposure
– Where radiation doses in excess of 5% of the dose
limit specified in Appendix I are being received
regularly by any one person, appropriate remedial
steps must be taken to improve techniques and
protective measures.
15. Recommendations For Operation
Of Radiographic Units
1. Controlling the machines
– The x-ray exposure should, as a general rule, be
controlled from the control panel located inside the
control booth or behind a shielded wall. In the case
of special techniques where the operator is required
to control the exposure while at the side of the
patient, appropriate protective clothing must be
worn.
16. 2. Communication with patient
The operator must have a clear view of the patient
during every exposure and be able to communicate with
the patient and/or attendants without leaving the control
booth.
Recommendations For Operation
Of Radiographic Units
17. 3. Don’t hold the Cassettes
Cassettes must never be held by hand during an
exposure.
Recommendations For Operation
Of Radiographic Units
18. Recommendations For Operation
Of Mobile Units
1. Don’t Use Mobile If You Can Use Stationary
– Mobile units must be used only if the condition of
the patient is such as to make it inadvisable for
the examination to be carried out with a
stationary unit in the main x-ray department.
19. 2. Don’t Irradiate Other Persons
– During operation, the primary beam should be
directed from occupied areas if at all possible,
and every effort must be made to ensure that this
beam does not irradiate any other persons in the
vicinity of the patient.
Recommendations For Operation
Of Mobile Units
20. 3. Keep The Distance
The operator must stand at least 3 metres from the x-ray tube and
out of the direct beam.
Recommendations For Operation
Of Mobile Units
21. 4. Use The Shielding
The operator must be shielded when exposures are made.
Recommendations For Operation
Of Mobile Units
22. 5. Discharge The Capacitor
– In a capacitor discharge unit after an x-ray exposure
has been made there is a residual charge left in the
capacitors. This residual charge can give rise to a
“dark current” and result in x-ray emission even
though the exposure switch is not activated.
Therefore, the residual charge must be fully
discharged before the unit is left unattended.
Recommendations For Operation
Of Mobile Units
24. Guidelines For The Prescription Of Diagnostic X-
ray Examinations
• The medical practitioner is in a unique position to reduce
unnecessary radiation exposure to the patient by ensuring that
all examinations are clinically justified. The practitioner can
achieve this by adhering, as much as possible, to certain basic
recommendations. These are as follows:
25. Guidelines For The Prescription Of
Diagnostic X-ray Examinations
1. The prescription of an x-ray examination of a patient
should only be based on a clinical evaluation of the
patient and should be for the purpose of obtaining
diagnostic information.
2. Routine or screening examinations, such as for
preemployment physical examinations, tuberculosis
screening, mass mammographic screening, etc., in
which there is no prior clinical evaluation of the
patient, should not be prescribed.
26. Guidelines For The Prescription Of
Diagnostic X-ray Examinations
3. It should be determined whether there have been any
previous x-ray examinations which would make further
examination unnecessary, or allow for the ordering of
an abbreviated examination. Relevant previous
radiographs or reports should be examined along with a
clinical evaluation of the patient.
4. When a patient is transferred from one physician or
hospital to another any relevant radiographs or reports
should accompany the patient and should be reviewed
by the consulting physician.
27. Guidelines For The Prescription Of
Diagnostic X-ray Examinations
5. When prescribing a radiological examination, the
physician should specify precisely the clinical
indications and information required.
6. The number of radiographic views, required in an
examination, should be kept to the minimum
practicable, consistent with the clinical objectives of
the examination.
7. In prescribing x-ray examinations of pregnant or
possibly pregnant women, full consideration should be
taken of the consequences of foetal exposure.
28. Guidelines For The Prescription Of
Diagnostic X-ray Examinations
8. If a radiograph contains the required information,
repeat exposures should not be prescribed simply
because the radiograph may not be of the “best”
diagnostic quality.
9. Specialized studies should be undertaken only by, or in
close collaboration with, a qualified radiologist.
Medical practitioners should not operate x-ray
equipment, or be responsible for the use of such
equipment.
29. Guidelines For The Prescription Of
Diagnostic X-ray Examinations
10. A patient’s clinical records should include details of x-
ray examinations carried out.
11. The prescription of an x-ray examination of a patient
should only be based on a clinical evaluation of the
patient and should be for the purpose of obtaining
diagnostic information.
12. Routine or screening examinations, such as for
preemployment physical examinations, tuberculosis
screening, mass mammographic screening, etc., in
which there is no prior clinical evaluation of the
patient, should not be prescribed.
30. Guidelines For The Prescription Of
Diagnostic X-ray Examinations
13. It should be determined whether there have been any
previous x-ray examinations which would make further
examination unnecessary, or allow for the ordering of
an abbreviated examination. Relevant previous
radiographs or reports should be examined along with a
clinical evaluation of the patient.
14. When a patient is transferred from one physician or
hospital to another any relevant radiographs or reports
should accompany the patient and should be reviewed
by the consulting physician.
31. Guidelines For The Prescription Of
Diagnostic X-ray Examinations
15. When prescribing a radiological examination, the
physician should specify precisely the clinical
indications and information required.
16. The number of radiographic views, required in an
examination, should be kept to the minimum
practicable, consistent with the clinical objectives of
the examination.
17. In prescribing x-ray examinations of pregnant or
possibly pregnant women, full consideration should be
taken of the consequences of foetal exposure.
32. Guidelines For The Prescription Of
Diagnostic X-ray Examinations
18. If a radiograph contains the required information,
repeat exposures should not be prescribed simply
because the radiograph may not be of the “best”
diagnostic quality.
19. Specialized studies should be undertaken only by, or in
close collaboration with, a qualified radiologist.
Medical practitioners should not operate x-ray
equipment, or be responsible for the use of such
equipment.
20. A patient’s clinical records should include details of x-
ray examinations carried out.
34. Guidelines For Radiography Of Pregnant
Women
• Every effort should be made to avoid unnecessary irradiation of any
woman known to be, or who might be pregnant. This is particularly
important during the earliest stages of pregnancy when the potential for
radiation damage of the rapidly dividing tissues is the greatest. Clearly,
however, in spite of the possibility of radiation damage, if a radiological
examination is required for the diagnosis or management of an urgent
medical problem it must be done, irrespective of whether the patient may
or may not be pregnant.
35. Guidelines For Radiography Of
Pregnant Women
1. Ten day Role
– Radiography of the pelvic area in women of child-
bearing age should be undertaken in the ten-day period
following the onset of menstruation, since the risk of
pregnancy is very small during this period.
36. Guidelines For Radiography Of
Pregnant Women
2. No Elective Abdominal nor Pelvic X-ray
– Only essential investigations should be taken in the case of
pregnant or suspected pregnant women. Elective radiography of
the abdominal and pelvic area in pregnant women must be
avoided. (“Elective” is taken to mean an examination of the
abdomen and pelvis which does not contribute to the diagnosis or
treatment of a women in relation to her immediate illness.)
37. Guidelines For Radiography Of
Pregnant Women
3. No Photofluorographic
– Pregnant women or women who may be pregnant
must not be accepted for chest photofluorographic
(mass radiographic) examinations.
38. Guidelines For Radiography Of
Pregnant Women
4. Use protective Shields
– When radiography of the pelvic area or
abdomen is required, the exposure must
be kept to the absolute minimum
necessary and full use must be made of
gonadal shielding and other protective
shielding if the clinical objectives of
the exmaination will not be
compromised.
39. Guidelines For Radiography Of
Pregnant Women
5. Foetal dose is lower in prone Position
– If a radiographic examination of the foetus is required the
prone position should be used. This has the effect of
shielding the foetus from the softer x-rays and hence
reducing the foetal dose.
40. Guidelines For Radiography Of
Pregnant Women
6. Radiography should not be used for the determination of
abnormal presentations of the foetus, or for placenta
localizations. Other techniques such as ultrasonography
are better suited for this purpose.
41. Guidelines For Radiography Of
Pregnant Women
7. Use Well-Collimated X-Ray Beam
– Radiography of the chest, extremities, etc., of a pregnant
woman, for valid clinical reasons, should only be carried
out using a well-collimated x-ray beam and with proper
regard for shielding of the abdominal area.
42. Radiological chest screening
1. The use of mass radiological screening should only be considered in
areas of high incidence of tuberculosis or in special population
groups who may be particularly susceptible to lung disease.
Selection of population groups for x-ray screening should be based
upon the probability of discovering a significant number of cases of
cardiopulmonary disease and on the availability of full follow-up
facilities for individuals requiring treatment.
2. Mass x-ray screening of the general population for tuberculosis and
other chest diseases must not be carried out.
43. Radiological Chest Screening
3. Routine hospital admission chest x-rays should only be taken in
identified high risk groups.
4. Chest x-rays should not be required as a routine part of a pre-
employment medical check-up or for admission to educational
institutions. Since photofluorographic x-ray machines require a
higher level of x-ray exposure than do convential radiographic
machines to produce a film and since the yield of significant
information is low, photofluorographic x-ray machines must not be
used for chest examinations in place of conventional machines, and
should not be used for mass screening when conventional machines
are available.
45. General recommendations
1. The operator must not perform any examination which has not been
prescribed by a physician responsible for the patient.
2. The exposure of the patient must be kept to the lowest practicable
value, consistent with clinical objectives and without loss of
essential diagnostic information. To achieve this, techniques
appropriate to the equipment available should be used.
3. Particular care, consistent with the recommendations of Section
13.2, must be taken when radiological examinations of pregnant or
potentially pregnant women are carried out.
46. General Recommendations
4. The x-ray beam must be well-collimated to restrict it as much as
is practicable to the area of diagnostic interest.
5. The x-ray beam size must be limited to the size of the image
receptor or smaller.
6. The x-ray beam should not be directed towards the gonads unless
it is absolutely essential, in which case gonad shielding must be
used whenever the value of the examination is not impaired by
such use. Guidelines on the use of gonad shielding are given in
section 14 of this guideline.
47. General Recommendations
7. Shielding should be used where appropriate and practicable to limit
the exposure of body tissues. It is particularly important that
special effort to be made to protect the blood-forming organs,
gonads and thyroids of children.
8. The target-to-skin distance should be as great as possible,
consistent with good radiographic technique.
9. For very young children, special devices should be employed to
restrict movement.
10. Full details of the radiological procedures carried out should be
noted on the patient’s clinical records.
48. Recommendations For
Radiographic Procedures
1. The edges of the x-ray beam should be seen on all x-ray films to
ensure that no more than the desired area has been irradiated. The
film size used should be as small as possible, consistent with the
diagnostic objectives of the examination.
2. Screen-type film should not be used for non-screen techniques
because it is less sensitive to direct x-radiation than non-screen
film.
49. Recommendations For
Radiographic Procedures
3. The fastest film or intensifying screen-film combination, consistent
with diagnostically-acceptable results, should be used. When highest
definition is not required a high-speed film-screen combination should
be used.
50. Recommendations For
Radiographic Procedures
4. X-ray intensifying screens made from rare earth phosphors should be
used where appropriate. Exposure reductions in excess of 50%,
compared to conventional calcium tungstate systems, are possible
using the rare earth-type intersifying screens and the films developed
for use with such screens. These reductions result from greater x-ray
absorption and increased conversion efficiencies of the new
phosphors — the rare earth systems have a conversion efficiency of
x-rays to light of 15-20%, compared to approximately 5% for
calcium tungstate systems.
51. Recommendations For
Radiographic Procedures
5. To ensure that patient exposure is kept to a minimum,
consistent with image quality, full advantage should be taken
of a combination of techniques, such as:
a. use of an antiscatter grid or air gap between the patient and the
image receptor;
b. use of the optimum focus-to-film distance appropriate to the
examination;
c. use of the highest kilovoltage which produces films of good quality;
d. use of automatic exposure control devices designed to keep all
exposures and repeat exposures to a minimum.
52. Recommendations For
Radiographic Procedures
6. The radiographer should see the films after processing in
order to verify that the techniques being used are
producing diagnostic quality films and that the x-ray
equipment is functioning correctly.
7. To avoid the necessity of retakes, it is particularly
important before taking a long series of films that a single
preliminary film of the series should be taken and
processed to verify correctness of settings.
53. Recommendations For
Radiographic Procedures
8. While dose limits have been defined for radiation workers and the
general population, no specific limits have been recommended, to
date, for patients undergoing diagnostic x-ray procedures. For patients
the risk involved in the exposure must always be weighed against the
medical requirement for accurate diagnosis. However, it is now
feasible to recommend upper limits on patient skin entrance exposure,
for routine, non-specialty, radiographic examinations. For a reference
patient, having the anthropometrical characteristics shown in Table 1,
the skin entrance exposure (without backscatter) should not exceed
the values indicated in Table 2.
55. Recommendations For Reducing Gonad
Dose To The Patient
Radiologists and radiographers must pay special attention to four
factors that are important for reducing gonad dose to the patient:
1. Correct collimation of the x-ray beam. — It is not sufficient
merely to limit the beam to the size of the image receptor. Care
should be taken to further restrict the beam to the region of the
patient’s body that is of diagnostic interest. Irradiation of any part
of the body outside that region contributes nothing to the objective
of the examination and only increases dose both to the body and
the gonads.
56. Recommendations For Reducing
Gonad Dose To The Patient
2. Gonad shielding. — Appropriate use of specific
area gonad shielding is strongly advised when:
(i) the gonads, of necessity, lie within, or are in
close proximity to, the primary x-ray beam;
(ii) the patient has reasonable reproductive
potential; and
(iii) clinical objectives will not be compromised.
57. Recommendations For Reducing
Gonad Dose To The Patient
3. Appropriate selection of technique factors. — An
appropriate selection of tube voltage, current and filtration
is particularly important for diagnostic procedures in
which the gonads lie within or near the primary x-ray
beam. For example, in fluoroscopy, use of higher tube
voltage and filtration and lower tube current will almost
always reduce the gonad dose.
58. Recommendations For Reducing
Gonad Dose To The Patient
4. Sensitivity of imaging systems. — The gonad dose is
inversely proportional to the sensitivity of the imaging
system. Thus, doubling the sensitivity halves the gonad
dose; conversely, halving the sensitivity doubles the gonad
dose. It is, therefore, very important to maintain the
sensitivity of the imaging system at its optimum value and
to be alert for any significant deterioration.
59. Dos and Don’ts in Radiation
Protection Practice
• Do post radiation signs in radiation areas.
• Do wear laboratory coats and gloves when working with
radioactive
• materials.
• Do work in a ventilated fumehood when working with radioactive
gases.
• Do cover the trays and workbench with absorbent paper.
• Do store and transport radioactive material in lead containers.
• Do wear a film badge while working in the radiation laboratory.
• Do identify all radionuclides and dates of assay on the containers.
60. Dos and Don’ts in Radiation
Protection Practice
• Do survey work areas for any contamination as frequently as
possible.
• Do clean up spills promptly, and survey the area after cleaning.
• Do not eat, drink, or smoke in the radiation laboratory.
• Do not pipette any radioactive material by mouth.
• Do monitor hands and feet after the day’s work.
• Do notify the RSO in case of any major spill or other
emergencies related to radiation.