Abstract This paper presents the design and implementation of a quadcopter capable of payload delivery. A quadcopter is a unique unmanned aerial vehicle which has the capability of vertical take-off and landing. In this design, the quadcopter was controlled wirelessly from a ground control station using radio frequency. It was modeled mathematically considering its attitude and altitude, and a simulation carried out in MATLAB by designing a proportional Integral Derivative (PID) controller was applied to a mathematical model. The PID controller parameters were then applied to the real system. Finally, the output of the simulation and the prototype were compared both in the presence and absence of disturbances. The results showed that the quadcopter was stable and able to compensate for the external disturbances.
Dynamic modelling and optimal controlscheme of wheel inverted pendulum for mo...ijctcm
Unstable wheel inverted pendulum is modelled and controlled deploying Kane’s method and optimal
partial-state PID control scheme. A correct derivation of nonlinear mathematical model of a wheel inverted
pendulum is obtained using a proper definition of the geometric context of active and inertia forces. Then
the model is decoupled to two linear subsystems namely balancing and heading subsystems. Afterward
partial-state PID controller is proposed and formulated to quadratic optimal regulation tuning method. It
enables partial-state PID to be optimally tuned and guarantees a satisfactory level of states error and a
realistic utilization of torque energy. Simulation and numerical analyses are carried out to analyse
system’s stability and to determine the performance of the proposed controller for mobile wheel inverted
pendulum application.
Dynamic modelling and optimal controlscheme of wheel inverted pendulum for mo...ijctcm
Unstable wheel inverted pendulum is modelled and controlled deploying Kane’s method and optimal
partial-state PID control scheme. A correct derivation of nonlinear mathematical model of a wheel inverted
pendulum is obtained using a proper definition of the geometric context of active and inertia forces. Then
the model is decoupled to two linear subsystems namely balancing and heading subsystems. Afterward
partial-state PID controller is proposed and formulated to quadratic optimal regulation tuning method. It
enables partial-state PID to be optimally tuned and guarantees a satisfactory level of states error and a
realistic utilization of torque energy. Simulation and numerical analyses are carried out to analyse
system’s stability and to determine the performance of the proposed controller for mobile wheel inverted
pendulum application.
This article considers different approaches for autopilot controller gain values adjustment. The correct autopilot
performance is tested using modeling methods. A variant of land-based autopilot is considered. Examined are
scenarios of UAV airplanes in level flight. The latter are applicable to tasks such as remote sensing, controlled
area surveillance, etc.
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Science is published by the group of young academic and industrial researchers with 12 Issues per year. It is an online as well as print version open access journal that provides rapid publication (monthly) of articles in all areas of the subject such as: civil, mechanical, chemical, electronic and computer engineering as well as production and information technology. The Journal welcomes the submission of manuscripts that meet the general criteria of significance and scientific excellence. Papers will be published by rapid process within 20 days after acceptance and peer review process takes only 7 days. All articles published in Research Inventy will be peer-reviewed.
Research paper on indoor drone application with acoustic localization. Paper was accepted to the ISEEE 2019 conference (International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering).
Advances in Satellite Conjunction Analysis with OR.A.SIAntonios Arkas
As the number of the manmade objects increases in space, so does the interest and the research effort on the critical and interesting issues of collision probability assessment and decision making for cases of close approach events.
New interesting theoretical analysis has been recently published by Michael Scott Balch, Ryan Martin and Scott Ferson, on the mathematical subtleties connecting the phenomenon of probability dilution with the fundamental difference between frequentist and Bayesian approaches in statistical inference, and inspirational work has been presented from CNES by F.Laporte through his papers which describe JAC software and his approach to covariance realism.
OR.A.SI, the Flight Dynamics software for GEO and LEO that I’ve been developing for the last 17 years in C++, has been endowed since 2012 with early close approach detection based on the TLE files released from JSpOC, calculation of collision probability (S.Alfano method) based on the secondary object details found in CDM (Conjunction Data Message), Middle Man features (processing and analysis of CDM batches released for the same event) and evasive manoeuvre computation.
This new presentation exposes the latest enhancements, of the already powerful OR.A.SI routines, with all these new exiting advances. In brief the contents of the attached presentation are the following:
1. CASI (Close Approach Simulator) – Development of an analytic simulator which produces close approach events for whatever regime (LEO, MEO and GEO), and renders the probabilistic study and analysis of such events independent from the need of a CDM.
2. Computation and visualization of the probability dilution area in the two dimensional space of Kp and Ks scale factors used for the computation of the scaled probability of collision.
3. Computation of the scale factor interval in order to increase covariance realism, based on hypothesis testing with the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (F.Laporte - CNES).
4. Computation of the effect of evasive manoeuvres, parametrized in time and velocity increment, on the scaled probability of collision.
I welcome you to the subtle but beautiful world of probabilities and inferential statistics or else how we managed to harness our ignorance to precise science!
The cubic root unscented kalman filter to estimate the position and orientat...IJECEIAES
In this paper we introduce a cubic root unscented kalman filter (CRUKF) compared to the unscented kalman filter (UKF) for calculating the covariance cubic matrix and covariance matrix within a sensor fusion algorithm to estimate the measurements of an omnidirectional mobile robot trajectory. We study the fusion of the data obtained by the position and orientation with a good precision to localize the robot in an external medium; we apply the techniques of kalman filter (KF) to the estimation of the trajectory. We suppose a movement of mobile robot on a plan in two dimensions. The sensor approach is based on the CRUKF and too on the standard UKF which are modified to handle measurements from the position and orientation. A real-time implementation is done on a three-wheeled omnidirectional mobile robot, using a dynamic model with trajectories. The algorithm is analyzed and validated with simulations.
PID vs LQR controller for tilt rotor airplane IJECEIAES
The main thematic of this paper is controlling the main manoeuvers of a tilt rotor UAV airplane in several modes such as vertical takeoff and landing, longitudinal translation and the most important phase which deal with the transition from the helicopter mode to the airplane mode and visversa based on a new actuators combination technique for specially the yaw motion with not referring to rotor speed control strategy which is used in controlling the attitude of a huge number of vehicles nowadays. This new actuator combination is inspired from that the transient response of a trirotor using tilting motion dynamics provides a faster response than using rotor speed dynamics. In the literature, a lot of control technics are used for stabilizing and guarantee the necessary manoeuvers for executing such task, a multiple Attitude and Altitude PID controllers were chosen for a simple linear model of our tilt rotor airplane in order to fulfill the desired trajectory, for reasons of complexity of our model the multiple PID controller doesnt take into consideration all the coupling that exists between the degrees of freedom in our model, so an LQR controller is adopted for more feasible solution of complex manoeuvering, the both controllers need linearization of the model for an easy implementation.
Neural Network Control Based on Adaptive Observer for Quadrotor HelicopterIJITCA Journal
A neural network control scheme with an adaptive observer is proposed in this paper to Quadrotor helicopter stabilization. The unknown part in Quadrotor dynamical model was estimated on line by a Single Hidden Layer network. To solve the non measurable states problem a new adaptive observer was proposed. The main purpose here is to reduce the measurement noise amplification caused by conventional high gain observer by introducing some changes in observer’s original structure that can minimize the variance and the amplitude of the noisy signal without increasing tracking error. The stability analysis of the overall closed-loop system/ observer is performed using the Lyapunov direct method. Simulation results are given to highlight the performances of the proposed scheme
Design and Simulation of Different Controllers for Stabilizing Inverted Pendu...IJERA Editor
The Inverted Pendulum system has been identified for implementing controllers as it is an inherently unstable system having nonlinear dynamics. The system has fewer control inputs than degrees of freedom which makes it fall under the class of under-actuated systems. It makes the control task more challenging making the inverted pendulum system a classical benchmark for the design, testing, evaluating and comparing. The inverted pendulum to be discussed in this paper is an inverted pendulum mounted on a motor driven cart. The aim is to stabilize the system such that the position of the cart on the track is controlled quickly and accurately so that the pendulum is always erected in its vertical position. In this paper the linearized model was obtained by Jacobian matrix method. The Matlab-Simulink models have been developed for simulation for optimal control design of nonlinear inverted pendulum-cart dynamic system using different control methods. The methods discussed in this paper are a double Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) control method, a modern Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR) control method and a combination of PID and Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR) control methods. The dynamic and steady state performance are investigated and compared for the above controllers.
Neural Network Control Based on Adaptive Observer for Quadrotor HelicopterIJITCA Journal
A neural network control scheme with an adaptive observer is proposed in this paper to Quadrotor helicopter stabilization. The unknown part in Quadrotor dynamical model was estimated on line by a
Single Hidden Layer network. To solve the non measurable states problem a new adaptive observer was proposed. The main purpose here is to reduce the measurement noise amplification caused by conventional
high gain observer by introducing some changes in observer’s original structure that can minimize the variance and the amplitude of the noisy signal without increasing tracking error. The stability analysis of the overall closed-loop system/ observer is performed using the Lyapunov direct method. Simulation results are given to highlight the performances of the proposed scheme.
This article considers different approaches for autopilot controller gain values adjustment. The correct autopilot
performance is tested using modeling methods. A variant of land-based autopilot is considered. Examined are
scenarios of UAV airplanes in level flight. The latter are applicable to tasks such as remote sensing, controlled
area surveillance, etc.
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Science is published by the group of young academic and industrial researchers with 12 Issues per year. It is an online as well as print version open access journal that provides rapid publication (monthly) of articles in all areas of the subject such as: civil, mechanical, chemical, electronic and computer engineering as well as production and information technology. The Journal welcomes the submission of manuscripts that meet the general criteria of significance and scientific excellence. Papers will be published by rapid process within 20 days after acceptance and peer review process takes only 7 days. All articles published in Research Inventy will be peer-reviewed.
Research paper on indoor drone application with acoustic localization. Paper was accepted to the ISEEE 2019 conference (International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering).
Advances in Satellite Conjunction Analysis with OR.A.SIAntonios Arkas
As the number of the manmade objects increases in space, so does the interest and the research effort on the critical and interesting issues of collision probability assessment and decision making for cases of close approach events.
New interesting theoretical analysis has been recently published by Michael Scott Balch, Ryan Martin and Scott Ferson, on the mathematical subtleties connecting the phenomenon of probability dilution with the fundamental difference between frequentist and Bayesian approaches in statistical inference, and inspirational work has been presented from CNES by F.Laporte through his papers which describe JAC software and his approach to covariance realism.
OR.A.SI, the Flight Dynamics software for GEO and LEO that I’ve been developing for the last 17 years in C++, has been endowed since 2012 with early close approach detection based on the TLE files released from JSpOC, calculation of collision probability (S.Alfano method) based on the secondary object details found in CDM (Conjunction Data Message), Middle Man features (processing and analysis of CDM batches released for the same event) and evasive manoeuvre computation.
This new presentation exposes the latest enhancements, of the already powerful OR.A.SI routines, with all these new exiting advances. In brief the contents of the attached presentation are the following:
1. CASI (Close Approach Simulator) – Development of an analytic simulator which produces close approach events for whatever regime (LEO, MEO and GEO), and renders the probabilistic study and analysis of such events independent from the need of a CDM.
2. Computation and visualization of the probability dilution area in the two dimensional space of Kp and Ks scale factors used for the computation of the scaled probability of collision.
3. Computation of the scale factor interval in order to increase covariance realism, based on hypothesis testing with the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (F.Laporte - CNES).
4. Computation of the effect of evasive manoeuvres, parametrized in time and velocity increment, on the scaled probability of collision.
I welcome you to the subtle but beautiful world of probabilities and inferential statistics or else how we managed to harness our ignorance to precise science!
The cubic root unscented kalman filter to estimate the position and orientat...IJECEIAES
In this paper we introduce a cubic root unscented kalman filter (CRUKF) compared to the unscented kalman filter (UKF) for calculating the covariance cubic matrix and covariance matrix within a sensor fusion algorithm to estimate the measurements of an omnidirectional mobile robot trajectory. We study the fusion of the data obtained by the position and orientation with a good precision to localize the robot in an external medium; we apply the techniques of kalman filter (KF) to the estimation of the trajectory. We suppose a movement of mobile robot on a plan in two dimensions. The sensor approach is based on the CRUKF and too on the standard UKF which are modified to handle measurements from the position and orientation. A real-time implementation is done on a three-wheeled omnidirectional mobile robot, using a dynamic model with trajectories. The algorithm is analyzed and validated with simulations.
PID vs LQR controller for tilt rotor airplane IJECEIAES
The main thematic of this paper is controlling the main manoeuvers of a tilt rotor UAV airplane in several modes such as vertical takeoff and landing, longitudinal translation and the most important phase which deal with the transition from the helicopter mode to the airplane mode and visversa based on a new actuators combination technique for specially the yaw motion with not referring to rotor speed control strategy which is used in controlling the attitude of a huge number of vehicles nowadays. This new actuator combination is inspired from that the transient response of a trirotor using tilting motion dynamics provides a faster response than using rotor speed dynamics. In the literature, a lot of control technics are used for stabilizing and guarantee the necessary manoeuvers for executing such task, a multiple Attitude and Altitude PID controllers were chosen for a simple linear model of our tilt rotor airplane in order to fulfill the desired trajectory, for reasons of complexity of our model the multiple PID controller doesnt take into consideration all the coupling that exists between the degrees of freedom in our model, so an LQR controller is adopted for more feasible solution of complex manoeuvering, the both controllers need linearization of the model for an easy implementation.
Neural Network Control Based on Adaptive Observer for Quadrotor HelicopterIJITCA Journal
A neural network control scheme with an adaptive observer is proposed in this paper to Quadrotor helicopter stabilization. The unknown part in Quadrotor dynamical model was estimated on line by a Single Hidden Layer network. To solve the non measurable states problem a new adaptive observer was proposed. The main purpose here is to reduce the measurement noise amplification caused by conventional high gain observer by introducing some changes in observer’s original structure that can minimize the variance and the amplitude of the noisy signal without increasing tracking error. The stability analysis of the overall closed-loop system/ observer is performed using the Lyapunov direct method. Simulation results are given to highlight the performances of the proposed scheme
Design and Simulation of Different Controllers for Stabilizing Inverted Pendu...IJERA Editor
The Inverted Pendulum system has been identified for implementing controllers as it is an inherently unstable system having nonlinear dynamics. The system has fewer control inputs than degrees of freedom which makes it fall under the class of under-actuated systems. It makes the control task more challenging making the inverted pendulum system a classical benchmark for the design, testing, evaluating and comparing. The inverted pendulum to be discussed in this paper is an inverted pendulum mounted on a motor driven cart. The aim is to stabilize the system such that the position of the cart on the track is controlled quickly and accurately so that the pendulum is always erected in its vertical position. In this paper the linearized model was obtained by Jacobian matrix method. The Matlab-Simulink models have been developed for simulation for optimal control design of nonlinear inverted pendulum-cart dynamic system using different control methods. The methods discussed in this paper are a double Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) control method, a modern Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR) control method and a combination of PID and Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR) control methods. The dynamic and steady state performance are investigated and compared for the above controllers.
Neural Network Control Based on Adaptive Observer for Quadrotor HelicopterIJITCA Journal
A neural network control scheme with an adaptive observer is proposed in this paper to Quadrotor helicopter stabilization. The unknown part in Quadrotor dynamical model was estimated on line by a
Single Hidden Layer network. To solve the non measurable states problem a new adaptive observer was proposed. The main purpose here is to reduce the measurement noise amplification caused by conventional
high gain observer by introducing some changes in observer’s original structure that can minimize the variance and the amplitude of the noisy signal without increasing tracking error. The stability analysis of the overall closed-loop system/ observer is performed using the Lyapunov direct method. Simulation results are given to highlight the performances of the proposed scheme.
DUAL NEURAL NETWORK FOR ADAPTIVE SLIDING MODE CONTROL OF QUADROTOR HELICOPTER...ijistjournal
An adaptive sliding mode control based on two neural networks is proposed in this paper for Quadrotor stabilization. This approach presents solutions to conventional control drawbacks as chattering phenomenon and dynamical model imprecision. For that reason two ANN for each quadrotor helicopter subsystem are implemented in the control loop, the first one is a Single Hidden Layer network used to approximate on line the equivalent control and the second feed-forward Network is used to estimate the ideal corrective term. The main purpose behind the use of ANN in the second part of SMC is to minimize the chattering phenomena and response time by finding optimal sliding gain and sliding surface slope. The learning algorithms of the two ANNs (equivalent and corrective controller) are obtained using the direct Lyapunov stability method. The simulation results are given to highlight the performances of the proposed control scheme.
DUAL NEURAL NETWORK FOR ADAPTIVE SLIDING MODE CONTROL OF QUADROTOR HELICOPTER...ijistjournal
An adaptive sliding mode control based on two neural networks is proposed in this paper for Quadrotor stabilization. This approach presents solutions to conventional control drawbacks as chattering phenomenon and dynamical model imprecision. For that reason two ANN for each quadrotor helicopter subsystem are implemented in the control loop, the first one is a Single Hidden Layer network used to approximate on line the equivalent control and the second feed-forward Network is used to estimate the ideal corrective term. The main purpose behind the use of ANN in the second part of SMC is to minimize the chattering phenomena and response time by finding optimal sliding gain and sliding surface slope. The learning algorithms of the two ANNs (equivalent and corrective controller) are obtained using the direct Lyapunov stability method. The simulation results are given to highlight the performances of the proposed control scheme.
—This paper presents a new image based visual servoing (IBVS) control scheme for omnidirectional wheeled mobile robots with four swedish wheels. The contribution is the proposal of a scheme that consider the overall dynamic of the system; this means, we put together mechanical and electrical dynamics. The actuators are direct current (DC) motors, which imply that the system input signals are armature voltage applied to DC motors. In our control scheme the PD control law and eye-to-hand camera configuration are used to compute the armature voltages and to measure system states, respectively. Stability proof is performed via Lypunov direct method and LaSalle's invariance principle. Simulation and experimental results were performed in order to validate the theoretical proposal and to show the good performance of the posture errors. Keywords—IBVS, posture control, omnidirectional wheeled mobile robot, dynamic actuator, Lyapunov direct method.
ENHANCED DATA DRIVEN MODE-FREE ADAPTIVE YAW CONTROL OF UAV HELICOPTERijics
An enhanced data driven model-free adaptive yaw control tracking control scheme is proposed for the yaw
channel of an unmanned-aerial-vehicle (UAV) helicopter which is non-affine in the control input in this paper. Through dynamic linearization and observer techniques, the proposed control algorithm is only based on the pseudo-partial derivative (PPD) parameter estimation derived online from the I/O data of the yaw channel of an UAV helicopter, and Lyapunov-based stability analysis is utilized to prove all signals of
close-loop control system are bounded. Compared with the traditional model free adaptive control
(MFAC), the proposed enhanced MFAC algorithm can make the close-loop control system with stronger robustness and better anti-jamming ability. Finally, simulation results of the UAV yaw channel are offered to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed novel control technique.
ENHANCED DATA DRIVEN MODE-FREE ADAPTIVE YAW CONTROL OF UAV HELICOPTERijcisjournal
An enhanced data driven model-free adaptive yaw control tracking control scheme is proposed for the yaw channel of an unmanned-aerial-vehicle (UAV) helicopter which is non-affine in the control input in this paper. Through dynamic linearization and observer techniques, the proposed control algorithm is only based on the pseudo-partial derivative (PPD) parameter estimation derived online from the I/O data of the yaw channel of an UAV helicopter, and Lyapunov-based stability analysis is utilized to prove all signals of close-loop control system are bounded. Compared with the traditional model free adaptive control (MFAC), the proposed enhanced MFAC algorithm can make the close-loop control system with stronger robustness and better anti-jamming ability. Finally, simulation results of the UAV yaw channel are offered to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed novel control technique.
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Science is published by the group of young academic and industrial researchers with 12 Issues per year. It is an online as well as print version open access journal that provides rapid publication (monthly) of articles in all areas of the subject such as: civil, mechanical, chemical, electronic and computer engineering as well as production and information technology. The Journal welcomes the submission of manuscripts that meet the general criteria of significance and scientific excellence. Papers will be published by rapid process within 20 days after acceptance and peer review process takes only 7 days. All articles published in Research Inventy will be peer-reviewed.
Optimal FOPI-FOPD controller design for rotary inverted pendulum system using...TELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
The rotary inverted pendulum (RIP) has been used in various control application areas. This system can be represented as two degree of freedom (2-DOF), consisting of a rotating arm and rotating pendulum rod. RIP is an excellent example of designing a single-input multi-output (SIMO) system. Due to unstable RIP system dynamics, and its nonlinear model, multiple control techniques have been used to control this system. This paper uses integer and fractional order proportional integral-proportional derivative (PI-PD) controllers to stabilize the pendulum in the vertical direction. Constrained optimization approaches, such as the grey wolf optimization (GWO) methodology, are utilized to estimate the parametric values of the controllers. The simulation results showed that the fractional order PI-PD controller outperforms the integer order PI-PD controller with and without disturbance signal existence. A multiple results comparison has illustrated the superiority of fractional order controller over a previous work.
Stability Control of an Autonomous Quadcopter through PID Control LawIJERA Editor
In the recent years the world has seen a astonishing ascendance of non tripulated vehicles, and among these is the quadrotors aircrafts or quadcopters. These types of aircraft have been of particular interest due to its easy maneuverability in closed and open spaces and somewhat simplified dynamics. In these paper is presented an first attempt in the built model, to control the 4 DOF(Degrees of freedom) of an soon to be autonomous quadcopter through PID law in an controlled environment.
Backstepping linearization controller of the Delta Wing Rock PhenomenaIJERA Editor
This paper deals with the control of the wing rock phenomena of a delta wing aircraft. A control technique is
proposed to stabilize the system. The controller is a BACKSTEPPING controller. It is appeared that the
proposed solution of control guarantee the asymptotic convergence to zero of all the states of the system. To
show the performance of the proposed controller, simulation results are presented and discussed. It is found that
the control scheme work well for the wing rock phenomena of a delta wing aircraft.
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Science is published by the group of young academic and industrial researchers with 12 Issues per year. It is an online as well as print version open access journal that provides rapid publication (monthly) of articles in all areas of the subject such as: civil, mechanical, chemical, electronic and computer engineering as well as production and information technology. The Journal welcomes the submission of manuscripts that meet the general criteria of significance and scientific excellence. Papers will be published by rapid process within 20 days after acceptance and peer review process takes only 7 days. All articles published in Research Inventy will be peer-reviewed.
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Science is published by the group of young academic and industrial researchers with 12 Issues per year. It is an online as well as print version open access journal that provides rapid publication (monthly) of articles in all areas of the subject such as: civil, mechanical, chemical, electronic and computer engineering as well as production and information technology. The Journal welcomes the submission of manuscripts that meet the general criteria of significance and scientific excellence. Papers will be published by rapid process within 20 days after acceptance and peer review process takes only 7 days. All articles published in Research Inventy will be peer-reviewed.
Similar to Quadcopter Design for Payload Delivery (20)
Comparative power flow analysis of 28 and 52 buses for 330 kv power grid netw...Onyebuchi nosiri
Newton-Raphson technique was formulated and used to evaluate the electrical performances of the existing 28-bus and improved 52-bus Nigerian 330kV power networks. The Jacobian matrix for both the existing 28-bus and the improved 52-bus Nigerian power system was derived using Newton-Raphson power flow solution method. The steady-state critical bus voltages, voltage and angle profiles at each bus, active and reactive power flows, transformer tap settings, component or circuit loading, generator exciter regulator voltage set points and system losses of these networks were determined to ascertain their effectiveness and proper network reconfiguration. The results obtained showed a better performance of the 52-Bus system in power quality, voltage and angle profiles over the conventional 28-bus system
Comparative power flow analysis of 28 and 52 buses for 330 kv power grid netw...Onyebuchi nosiri
Newton-Raphson technique was formulated and used to evaluate the electrical performances of the existing 28-bus and improved 52-bus Nigerian 330kV power networks. The Jacobian matrix for both the existing 28-bus and the improved 52-bus Nigerian power system was derived using Newton-Raphson power flow solution method. The steady-state critical bus voltages, voltage and angle profiles at each bus, active and reactive power flows, transformer tap settings, component or circuit loading, generator exciter regulator voltage set points and system losses of these networks were determined to ascertain their effectiveness and proper network reconfiguration. The results obtained showed a better performance of the 52-Bus system in power quality, voltage and angle profiles over the conventional 28-bus system
Implementation of Particle Swarm Optimization Technique for Enhanced Outdoor ...Onyebuchi nosiri
This paper describes the development of optimized model for urban outdoor coverage in Long Term Evolution (LTE) network at 2300 MHz frequency band in Port Harcourt urban region, Nigeria. Signal attenuation and fluctuation remain amongst the major channel impairments for mobile radio communication systems. This arises as a result of model incompatibility with terrain and Line of Sight (LOS) obstruction of the channel signals. Some path loss models such as OkumuraHata, COST 231, Ericsson 999, Egli and ECC-33 models were evaluated for suitability and compared with the modified model for the environments. The models were based on data collected from LTE base stations at three geographical locations in Port Harcourt namely- Rumuokoro, Eneka and Ikwerre roads respectively. The simulation was implemented using MATLAB R2014a software. The modified model was further optimized with some selected parameters such as Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) and Mean Absolute Error (MAE) using Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) technique. The results obtained gave rise to 3.030dB for RMSE and 0.00162dB for MAE respectively. The results obtained from the PSO optimized model demonstrated a better performance which is suitable for cell coverage planning and smooth handoff processes.
Abstract—The article emphasized the importance and the necessity for mobile network operators to visualize infrastructure sharing as an essential phase of development in the life cycle of mobile telecommunication industry in Nigeria. With the unprecedented network infrastructure challenges characterized by unfavourable business environment and the need for quick network deployment, prompted the need for harmonizing, collaboration and consolidation by the key service providers to reduce the OPEX and CAPEX while at the same time provide quality service delivery. The idea of telecom operators to pursue the policy of doing it alone on the ground to be the first network to reach a certain subscribers base should never be entertained in the Nigerian telecom industry. Numerous benefits ranging from network availability, reliability, innovation, expansion, customer satisfaction and economic sustainability are harnessed from telecom infrastructure sharing and therefore should be enforceable by the regulatory agency to ensure collaboration by the Nigerian network providers.
VOLTAGE STABILITY IN NIGERIA 330KV INTEGRATED 52 BUS POWER NETWORK USING PATT...Onyebuchi nosiri
ABSTRACT Detecting the voltage instability in advance enables remedial actions and preventive measures to cushion the effect of the oncoming voltage collapse phenomenon in power systems. This was achieved by implementing Pattern Recognition Techniques (PRTs) in conjunction with Power System Simulator for Engineering (PSSE) program. It was then deployed in Nigeria 330KV Integrated 52 bus power system to actualize Regularized Least Squares Classification (RLSC) and Classification and Regression Trees (CART) heuristic methods. The methods were deployed for separating voltage stability and unstable cases that resulted under system contingencies and fault conditions. Dynamic simulation, system voltage stability and unstable/instability cases results, and the channel outputs of these voltage cases against time were realized.
Voltage Stability Investigation of the Nigeria 330KV Interconnected Grid Syst...Onyebuchi nosiri
ABSTRACT: Voltage stability investigation of the Nigeria 330kV grid Power Network was carried out using Eigenvalues method. The power system Jacobian matrix was derived using Newton-Raphson power flow solution iterative method to determine the eigenvalues for the voltage stability evaluation of both the existing 28-bus and improved 52-bus Nigeria 330kV power networks. Positive and negative eigenvalues quantifying the power system voltage stability were identified. For a steady state power system, positive and negative eigenvalues showed stable and unstable systems respectively. The eigenvalues voltage stability method was developed, formulated and implemented on the existing 28-bus and proposed improved 52-bus Nigeria 330kV power networks. The various eigenvalues, eigenvectors, participation factors and weak buses contributing to system voltage instability were determined using Matlab/SIMULINK Power System Analysis Toolbox (PSAT) for these power networks.
VOLTAGE STABILITY IN NIGERIA 330KV INTEGRATED 52 BUS POWER NETWORK USING PATT...Onyebuchi nosiri
ABSTRACT Detecting the voltage instability in advance enables remedial actions and preventive measures to cushion the effect of the oncoming voltage collapse phenomenon in power systems. This was achieved by implementing Pattern Recognition Techniques (PRTs) in conjunction with Power System Simulator for Engineering (PSSE) program. It was then deployed in Nigeria 330KV Integrated 52 bus power system to actualize Regularized Least Squares Classification (RLSC) and Classification and Regression Trees (CART) heuristic methods. The methods were deployed for separating voltage stability and unstable cases that resulted under system contingencies and fault conditions. Dynamic simulation, system voltage stability and unstable/instability cases results, and the channel outputs of these voltage cases against time were realized.
Investigation of TV White Space for Maximum Spectrum Utilization in a Cellula...Onyebuchi nosiri
Abstract— The shortage of spectrum resource availability in wireless communication network due to the rapid increase in the number of subscribers and multimedia applications has given rise to the need for effective spectrum utilization of the licensed spectrum. Cognitive Radio Technology (CRT) was adopted for the system analysis due to its dynamism in accommodating both licensed and unlicensed users within a particular spectrum band. The study framework comprised television station channels in Owerri and its environs and Mobile Telecommunication Networks (MTN) in Owerri- the capital of Imo State, Nigeria as the license and unlicensed users respectively. An outdoor twenty-four hour spectrum occupancy measurement was carried out in the frequency bands of the licensed networks using 240-960 MHz Radio Frequency Spectrum analyzer to determine the spectral usage of the licensed user. A threshold of -95 dB was used to determine the presence of the licensed users. From the results obtained, it was observed that 60.7% of the spectrum band covered was unoccupied, 31.5% was not fully occupied while 7.9% was fully occupied. Energy Detection spectrum approach was implemented by the unlicensed users for easy determination of the spectrum status and resource management. The research therefore determines the status of Radio Frequency (RF) Spectrum receivable in Owerri and its environs and proffer measures deployable in harnessing the unused RF resources using CRT.
Path Loss Characterization of 3G Wireless Signal for Urban and Suburban Envir...Onyebuchi nosiri
Abstract - The characteristic effects of propagation environment on wireless communication signals are significant on the transmitted and received signal quality. The study focused on investigative analysis of the effects of propagation environment on the wireless communication signals within some geographical domains in Port Harcourt, River State. Field measurements were carried out in some selected areas namely GRA phase II and Aggrey Road categorized as urban and Sub urban areas respectively using Sony Ericsson (W995) Test Phone and GPS receiver (BU353). The analyses were based on linear regression (mean square error) approach. The computed path loss exponents and standard deviation based on the empirical analyses conducted for urban and suburban environments are 3.57dB, 2.98dB and 19.6, 13.2, respectively. The results obtained were used to compare the performance of the various existing path loss prediction models such as Okumura-Hata, Cost 231 and ECC-33. Okumura-Hata model showed better performance in urban environment while Cost 231 performed better in rural environment. They study therefore recommends the deployment of Okumura-Hata model in urban, while Cost 231for suburban study areas.
Signal Strength Evaluation of a 3G Network in Owerri Metropolis Using Path Lo...Onyebuchi nosiri
Abstract: In this work, the path loss and the received signal strength of a 3G network at 2.1GHz was evaluated to determine its performance within the Owerri metropolis. Various measuring equipment such as Transmission Evaluation and Monitoring System (TEMS 11), Global positioning system (BU353 GPS) and laptop were deployed for the drive test within the selected urban and sub-urban regions. From the data collected, Owerri sub-urban region showed poor received signal power level compared to the Owerri urban region. The path loss exponents computed for the Owerri urban and sub-urban regions are 3.24 and 4.34 respectively, the mean square error was evaluated as 1.96 and 1.68. The result obtained showed deviations between the compared existing models (Hata and Cost 231) and the proposed models. However, the slope of the Hata plot was relatively close in comparison to the proposed model than that of Cost 231; hence, the proposed model was best suited for the environment followed by the Hata model.
Investigation of TV White Space for Maximum Spectrum Utilization in a Cellula...Onyebuchi nosiri
Abstract— The shortage of spectrum resource availability in wireless communication network due to the rapid increase in the number of subscribers and multimedia applications has given rise to the need for effective spectrum utilization of the licensed spectrum. Cognitive Radio Technology (CRT) was adopted for the system analysis due to its dynamism in accommodating both licensed and unlicensed users within a particular spectrum band. The study framework comprised television station channels in Owerri and its environs and Mobile Telecommunication Networks (MTN) in Owerri- the capital of Imo State, Nigeria as the license and unlicensed users respectively. An outdoor twenty-four hour spectrum occupancy measurement was carried out in the frequency bands of the licensed networks using 240-960 MHz Radio Frequency Spectrum analyzer to determine the spectral usage of the licensed user. A threshold of -95 dB was used to determine the presence of the licensed users. From the results obtained, it was observed that 60.7% of the spectrum band covered was unoccupied, 31.5% was not fully occupied while 7.9% was fully occupied. Energy Detection spectrum approach was implemented by the unlicensed users for easy determination of the spectrum status and resource management. The research therefore determines the status of Radio Frequency (RF) Spectrum receivable in Owerri and its environs and proffer measures deployable in harnessing the unused RF resources using CRT.
Evaluation of Percentage Capacity Loss on LTE Network Caused by Intermodulati...Onyebuchi nosiri
Abstract- The paper evaluates the effects of third order Intermodulation Distortion (IMD3) on the Long Term Evolution (LTE) receiver due to coexistence between LTE and GSM networks. Amongst the various existing IMD orders which include first order, second order, third order, fifth order and seventh order. Third order is known to have the greatest distortion effects on a receiver due to its strength and its proximity to the frequency band of interest. It occurs as a result of the non-linear behavior of components or circuit at both the transmitter and receiver ends of wireless communication networks. IMD has potential negative effects on a victim receiver which majorly leads to increase in noise floor level and system capacity degradation. Deterministic approach was implemented in the work assuming worst case scenario. MATLAB software simulation was deployed to evaluate the capacity loss at the receiver end relative to a range of distances apart. Results obtained showed severe uplink capacity degradation when VISAFONE LTE network was interfered by INTERCELLULAR LTE downlink and ETISALAT GSM uplink. Various distances ranging from 500m to 3000m were varied between the ETISALAT GSM network and the VISAFONE LTE network. The results obtained showed that at 500 meters, the percentage capacity degradation was as high as 80. The least percentage capacity loss was obtained as 5.97 at 3000 meters.
Modelling, Simulation and Analysis of a Low-Noise Block Converter (LNBC) Used...Onyebuchi nosiri
Abstract— Modelling, Simulation and analysis of Low Noise Block Converter(LNBC) used for Communication Satellite reception using MATLAB is a work that tends to use some aspect of Computer Engineering tools to realise LNBC fundamentals where Channels programming sources provided programming for Broadcasting , the method involves using MATLAB to illustrate how microwave frequencies receives from Satellite are documented to lower block and range of frequencies, analysis of various LNBC was carried out with a view to drawing comparison between various signals, a test of faulty LNBC was carried out with LNBC schematics, simulation result were provided to show various responses with regards Modelling input waveguide signal, corrupted signal, filtered signal, modulated signal and recovered signals.
Design and Implementation of a Simple HMC6352 2-Axis-MR Digital Compass Onyebuchi nosiri
Abstract— This paper deals with the design and implementation of a simple HMC6352 2-axis digital compass. Most compasses have been of the analogue type with magnetic needles as pointers. Replacing the “old” magnetic needle compass or the gyrocompass by an electronic solution offers advantages like having a solid-state component without moving parts and the ease of interfacing with other electronic systems. In this work, the aim is to design and implement a digital compass. To realize this, we made use of HMC6352 which is a 2-axis MR (magneto-resistive) sensor from Honeywell, Arduino Uno board with an onboard ATmega328 microcontroller chip, and a 16x2 character Liquid Crystal Display (LCD).We adopted the magneto-resistive (MR) technology as compared to flux-gate sensors common in most electronic compasses which has the disadvantage of making the device bulky. The trial test carried out with the completed HMC6352 digital compass showed a reading of 232.8 degrees West indicating its effectiveness in direction finding.
An Embedded Voice Activated Automobile Speed Limiter: A Design Approach for C...Onyebuchi nosiri
Abstract : The paper presents an improved design feature for conventional automobile speed limiters installed on cars used in Nigerian. The feature introduces an embedded voice activated prompt command system. The system was primarily designed to alert the Driver through a voice activated command when the speed of the car accelerates from 80km/hr to 95km/hr at an interval of 5km/hr. This became necessary to avoid abrupt jerking of the car at the maximum speed limit of 100km/hr and also functions as informative to the driver when attempts are made on unsafe movements such as inadequate/wrong calculated overtaking. Components such as resistors, diodes, transistors and relays were implemented in the design. Arduino UNO was used as the main controller of the system. Softwares such as Multisim and Proteus 8.5 professional were incorporated in the design with the use of C programming language for codes development. Algorithm was developed to enhance adequate system control. The simulated system demonstrated satisfactory performance based on the design specifications. Keywords
OPTIMIZATION OF COST 231 MODEL FOR 3G WIRELESS COMMUNICATION SIGNAL IN SUBURB...Onyebuchi nosiri
Radio propagation models are important tools adopted for the characterization and optimization of wireless communication signals in a propagation environment. In this paper, the Cost 231 model was optimized for 3G wireless communication signal in Aggrey Road (04˚ 45̀ .06˝N, 07˚ 02̀ .24˝E), a suburban area in Port Harcourt, Nigeria. Phone-Based Drive Test was adopted for field measurement using TEMS 11 network simulator. The optimization process was implemented through the use of Least Square Algorithm taking into account the initial offset parameters and the slope of the model curve in Cost 231 model for the process. The performance of the optimized model using the statistical tools in Minitab-14 software was evaluated for the Mean Absolute Deviation (MAD) and the Mean Squared Deviation (MSD) respectively. The results obtained demonstrated the following parametric values: 1.196, 2.01 and 1.179, 1.94 for Cost 231 and Optimized models respectively. The optimized model is recommended for deployment for a better and accurate path loss prediction on the environment of study
Coverage and Capacity Performance Degradation on a Co-Located Network Involvi...Onyebuchi nosiri
Abstract—Coverage and capacity performance in a cellular network determines the system potentials. If the coverage radius is limited, end users suffer poor service quality, if the system capacity reduces, fewer subscribers will be accommodated. This paper investigated the performance effects of the noise rise caused by the spurious emission from a co-located jammer involving downlink frequency of CDMA2000 and uplink frequency of WCDMA operating at 1.9GHz. Measurements were carried out to evaluate the impact on the coverage radius and the system capacity.
Comparative Study of Path Loss Models for Wireless Communication in Urban and...Onyebuchi nosiri
ABSTRACT: The study was based on the comparative analysis of radio propagation models for Global System for Mobile Communications at 900MHz. Drive test analyses were carried out from two selected terrains in Rivers State namely GRA Phase II and Aggrey Road classified as urban and suburban areas respectively, to evaluate the best propagation model for the study area. The data obtained were used to compare the various prediction models namely; Cost 231, Okumura-Hata and ECC-33. Mean path loss values of 115.16dB for Okumura-Hata and 117.79dB for COST 231 and 280.88dB for ECC-33 respectively were predicted in the urban environment. Mean path loss values of 115.16dB, 114.76dB and 314.84dB were predicted by Okumura-Hata, Cost 231and ECC-33 models respectively in the suburban environment. ECC-33 over estimated path loss and gave the highest prediction in both environments. Okumura-Hata model showed better performance in urban while COST 231 performed better in the suburban environment. Okumura-hata and COST 231 models are recommended for deployment in urban and suburban environments respectively.
Enhancing Wireless Communication using Software-Defined Radio Architecture Onyebuchi nosiri
Abstract – Software-Defined Radio (SDR) is a rapidly evolving technology that is receiving enormous recognition and generating widespread interest in the telecommunication industry. It facilitates implementation of the physical and link layer protocols-in effect entire wireless system,-in software. A side effect of the rapid growth of wireless system technology in the recent past is an excess of wireless system standards. Therefore the SDR concept is emerging as a pragmatic solution. It aims to build flexible radio systems which are multiple-Defined Radio architectures as a prototyping, tool for wireless baseband signal processor implementations is explored. Signal processing implementations is explored. Signal processing architectures and algorithms for the physical layer of IEEE 802.11g- the latest release from the popular IEEE family of wireless standards-is developed and simulated in Matlab and Simulink. The integrity of the developed model is verified by measurement of the constellation versus signal to noise ratio (SNR) and Bit error Rate (BER) versus SNR graph, which are reported. The IEEE 802.11g PHY model is then translated to software (C++) with the aid of Real-Time workshop software tool. The generated codes can then be targeted on a Digital Signal Processor (DSP) or other programmable hardware modules.
About
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Technical Specifications
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
Key Features
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system
• Copatiable with IDM8000 CCR
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
Application
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Courier management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
It is now-a-days very important for the people to send or receive articles like imported furniture, electronic items, gifts, business goods and the like. People depend vastly on different transport systems which mostly use the manual way of receiving and delivering the articles. There is no way to track the articles till they are received and there is no way to let the customer know what happened in transit, once he booked some articles. In such a situation, we need a system which completely computerizes the cargo activities including time to time tracking of the articles sent. This need is fulfilled by Courier Management System software which is online software for the cargo management people that enables them to receive the goods from a source and send them to a required destination and track their status from time to time.
Sachpazis:Terzaghi Bearing Capacity Estimation in simple terms with Calculati...Dr.Costas Sachpazis
Terzaghi's soil bearing capacity theory, developed by Karl Terzaghi, is a fundamental principle in geotechnical engineering used to determine the bearing capacity of shallow foundations. This theory provides a method to calculate the ultimate bearing capacity of soil, which is the maximum load per unit area that the soil can support without undergoing shear failure. The Calculation HTML Code included.
Forklift Classes Overview by Intella PartsIntella Parts
Discover the different forklift classes and their specific applications. Learn how to choose the right forklift for your needs to ensure safety, efficiency, and compliance in your operations.
For more technical information, visit our website https://intellaparts.com
Quality defects in TMT Bars, Possible causes and Potential Solutions.PrashantGoswami42
Maintaining high-quality standards in the production of TMT bars is crucial for ensuring structural integrity in construction. Addressing common defects through careful monitoring, standardized processes, and advanced technology can significantly improve the quality of TMT bars. Continuous training and adherence to quality control measures will also play a pivotal role in minimizing these defects.
Explore the innovative world of trenchless pipe repair with our comprehensive guide, "The Benefits and Techniques of Trenchless Pipe Repair." This document delves into the modern methods of repairing underground pipes without the need for extensive excavation, highlighting the numerous advantages and the latest techniques used in the industry.
Learn about the cost savings, reduced environmental impact, and minimal disruption associated with trenchless technology. Discover detailed explanations of popular techniques such as pipe bursting, cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) lining, and directional drilling. Understand how these methods can be applied to various types of infrastructure, from residential plumbing to large-scale municipal systems.
Ideal for homeowners, contractors, engineers, and anyone interested in modern plumbing solutions, this guide provides valuable insights into why trenchless pipe repair is becoming the preferred choice for pipe rehabilitation. Stay informed about the latest advancements and best practices in the field.
Saudi Arabia stands as a titan in the global energy landscape, renowned for its abundant oil and gas resources. It's the largest exporter of petroleum and holds some of the world's most significant reserves. Let's delve into the top 10 oil and gas projects shaping Saudi Arabia's energy future in 2024.
Overview of the fundamental roles in Hydropower generation and the components involved in wider Electrical Engineering.
This paper presents the design and construction of hydroelectric dams from the hydrologist’s survey of the valley before construction, all aspects and involved disciplines, fluid dynamics, structural engineering, generation and mains frequency regulation to the very transmission of power through the network in the United Kingdom.
Author: Robbie Edward Sayers
Collaborators and co editors: Charlie Sims and Connor Healey.
(C) 2024 Robbie E. Sayers
Hybrid optimization of pumped hydro system and solar- Engr. Abdul-Azeez.pdffxintegritypublishin
Advancements in technology unveil a myriad of electrical and electronic breakthroughs geared towards efficiently harnessing limited resources to meet human energy demands. The optimization of hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems plays a pivotal role in utilizing natural resources effectively. This initiative not only benefits humanity but also fosters environmental sustainability. The study investigated the design optimization of these hybrid systems, focusing on understanding solar radiation patterns, identifying geographical influences on solar radiation, formulating a mathematical model for system optimization, and determining the optimal configuration of PV panels and pumped hydro storage. Through a comparative analysis approach and eight weeks of data collection, the study addressed key research questions related to solar radiation patterns and optimal system design. The findings highlighted regions with heightened solar radiation levels, showcasing substantial potential for power generation and emphasizing the system's efficiency. Optimizing system design significantly boosted power generation, promoted renewable energy utilization, and enhanced energy storage capacity. The study underscored the benefits of optimizing hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems for sustainable energy usage. Optimizing the design of solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems as examined across diverse climatic conditions in a developing country, not only enhances power generation but also improves the integration of renewable energy sources and boosts energy storage capacities, particularly beneficial for less economically prosperous regions. Additionally, the study provides valuable insights for advancing energy research in economically viable areas. Recommendations included conducting site-specific assessments, utilizing advanced modeling tools, implementing regular maintenance protocols, and enhancing communication among system components.
Vaccine management system project report documentation..pdfKamal Acharya
The Division of Vaccine and Immunization is facing increasing difficulty monitoring vaccines and other commodities distribution once they have been distributed from the national stores. With the introduction of new vaccines, more challenges have been anticipated with this additions posing serious threat to the already over strained vaccine supply chain system in Kenya.
TECHNICAL TRAINING MANUAL GENERAL FAMILIARIZATION COURSEDuvanRamosGarzon1
AIRCRAFT GENERAL
The Single Aisle is the most advanced family aircraft in service today, with fly-by-wire flight controls.
The A318, A319, A320 and A321 are twin-engine subsonic medium range aircraft.
The family offers a choice of engines
2. G. Ononiwu et al.
2
The applications for quadcopters have recently grown significantly, and related works are presented here. [3]
presented an altitude controller design for UAVs in real time applications. The author described a controller de-
sign method for the hovering control of UAVs and automatic vertical take-off systems. In 2012, the attitude and
altitude dynamics of an outdoor quadrotor were controlled using two different structures of proportional integral
derivative (PID) controllers [4]. The tests showed that the two structures were successful. [5] presents a Quad-
copter for surveillance monitoring. In [6], the design and control of VertiKUL, a Vertical Take-Off and Landing
(VTOL) transitioning tail-sitter Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) was presented. The UAV is capable of hover
flight and forward flight, and its main application is for parcel delivery.
2. Methodology
In this work, aquadcopter was first modeled mathematically, after which a simulation was carried out in
MATLAB by designing a PID controller, which was applied to the mathematical model. The PID controller pa-
rameters were then applied to the real system. Finally, the output of the simulation and the real system were
compared. In this paper, attitude and altitude dynamics of a quadcopter were considered. Therefore, roll, pitch,
yaw, and altitude dynamics were modeled.
2.1. Mathematical Model of Attitude Dynamics
One of the aims of the work is to stabilize the quadcopter in the hovering condition. The following assumptions
were made [4]-[7]: i) System structure is supposed to be rigid and symmetrical. ii) Earth fixed reference frame is
assumed to be inertial. iii)The rotors are rigid, i.e. no blade flapping occurs.
Attitude of the quadcopter is defined by roll, pitch and yaw angles; namely φ , θ , and ψ , respectively. An-
gular velocity components in body reference frame are p, q, and r, respectively. F1, F2, F3, and F4 are the thrust
forces from the four motors, which are generated by propellers. Axes and states are represented in Figure 1. It is
possible to obtain a rotation matrix with the following equation:
x y zR R R R= (2.1)
where R is the matrix transformation dynamics of the model quadcopter moving from landing position to a
fixed position in space.
Therefore, substituting xR , yR , and zR into Equation (2.1), we get the system matrix:
cos cos cos sin sin sin sin cos sin cos sin sin
sin sin sin sin sin cos cos sin sin cos sin cos
sin sin cos cos cos
xyzR
ψ θ ψ θ ϕ ϕ ψ ψ θ ϕ ψ ϕ
ψ θ ψ θ ϕ ψ ϕ ψ θ ϕ ψ ϕ
θ ϕ θ θ ψ
− +
= + −
−
. (2.2)
The angular velocity of the quadcopter can be written as:
x
y
z
p
q
r
ω
ω ω
ω
= =
. (2.3)
It is possible to write state equations of the Euler angles in terms of angular velocity components, p, q, and r
by using rotation matrices.
tan sin tan cosp q rψ θ ϕ θ ϕ=+ + (2.4)
cos sinq rθ ϕ ϕ= − (2.5)
sec sec cosp q rψ ϕ θ ϕ=+ + . (2.6)
Inertia matrix can be written below as:
xx xy xz
yx yy yz
zx zy zz
I I I
I I I I
I I I
− −
=− −
− −
. (2.7)
3. G. Ononiwu et al.
3
(a)
(b)
Figure 1. Schematic representation of the system.
Inertia matrix, I is assumed to be a diagonal matrix (i.e. the mass products of inertia terms are assumed to be
0). Thrust forces generated by each motor-propeller pair are denoted by F1, F2, F3 and F4. Therefore, resultant
moments about roll, pitch and yaw axes are given below:
( )3 1
2
x
L
M F F= −∑ (2.8)
( )2 4
2
y
L
M F F= −∑ (2.9)
( )1 3 2 4) (zM M M M M= + − +∑ . (2.10)
Therefore,
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )( )
1 3
2 4
2 4 1 3
2
2
y z
x x
y z
y z
x y
z z
qr L
I I F F
I I
p
pr L
q I I F F
I I
r
F F F F dpq
I I
I I b
− − −
= − − −
+ − +
−
. (2.11)
4. G. Ononiwu et al.
4
Hence, state vector and state equations considering the yaw, roll and the pitch dynamics of the platform are
expressed below:
x
p
q
r
ϕ
θ
ψ
=
(2.12)
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )( )
1 3
2 4
2 4 1 3
tan sin tan cos
cos sin
sec sec cos
2
2
y z
x x
y z
y z
x y
z z
p q r
q r
p q r
qr L
I I F F
I I
p
pr L
I I F Fq I I
r
F F F F dpq
I I
I I b
θ ϕ θ ϕ
ϕ
θ
ψ
ϕ
ϕ
ϕ θ ϕ
+ +
−
+ +
− − − =
− − −
+ − +
−
. (2.13)
Also, by applying the force and moment balance laws, we have the following quadcopter motion formulation:
( ) 1
1 cos sin cos sin sin
K x
x u
m
φ θ ψ ι ψ= + −
(2.14)
( ) 2
1 sin sin cos cos sin
K y
y u
m
φ θ ψ φ ψ= + −
(2.15)
( ) 3
1 cos cos
K z
z u f g
m
ψ= − −
(2.16)
where Ki is the drag coefficient (assume zero since drag is negligible at low speed).
The angle movement of Quadcopter is given by
1
tan d
d
d
y y
x x
φ − −
=
−
(2.17)
( ) ( )
1
2 2
tan
d d
d
dz z
x x y y
ψ − −
=
− + −
. (2.18)
2.2. Controller Input
Quadcopter has four controller input U1, U2, U3, and U4.
( )1 1 2 3 4U Th Th Th Th m= + + + (2.19)
( )2 1 2 3 4 1U Th Th Th Th I=− − + + (2.20)
( )3 1 2 3 4 2U l Th Th Th Th I= − + + − (2.21)
( )1 24 3 4 3U l Th Th Th Th I= + + + (2.22)
where,
1 thrust generated by each motorTh =
5. G. Ononiwu et al.
5
force to moment scaling factorl =
moment of inertia with respect to the axesiI = .
The second derivative of Euler angles are:
2 14U lk Iθ θ= − (2.23)
3 5 2U lk Iψ θ= − (2.24)
1 6 3U lk IθΦ= − . (2.25)
2.3. Motor and Propeller Model
Brushless motors are used as the actuators of propellers of the quadcopter. Four brushless motors in the system
are driven via Electronic Speed Controllers (ESC). ESC’s converts PWM signals into a three-phased signal,
which rotates the motor continuously. Motor and propeller unit models are identified experimentally. These
models are algebraic, steady state ones. Thrust force generated due to the rotation of propellers can be calculated
with the equation given below:
2
zF b= Ω (2.26)
where b is thrust factor which is determined experimentally.
2.4. Mathematical Model of Altitude Dynamics
Total thrust force and weights are the acting forces in z direction. Translational acceleration of the quadcopterin
z-axis can be obtained, using the following formula;
4
1
cos cosi iF
z g
m
θ ϕ=
= −
∑ . (2.27)
This equation reveals position in z-axis and velocity in z-axis as two states.
2.5. The PID Controller Design
The PID is a popular way of controlling the quadcopter, and one widely used strategy to control a quadcopter
with a PID is to create an individual closed-loop system for each independent axis of each sensor. That is, we
would have the same structure depicted in Figure 2 for each sensor axis where ( )y t would be the sensor out-
put (angular velocity or acceleration of each axis) and ( )u t the desired value to that axis. This way we would
have three different PID controllers for the gyroscope (one for each axis) and the input to each control loop
would be an angular velocity reference. That is, making all references equal to zero would make the quadcopter
preserve all its rotation angles. Other three distinct PIDs would then be used to control the accelerometer axes.
Therefore, setting zero to x and z axes would make the quadcopter hover (all weight force would be concen-
trated in y axis).
Another widely used strategy is to mix the accelerometer and gyroscope signals to find a single angle value
for each axis. That is, combining the gyroscope information with the accelerometer information, one can find a
unique angle value for each axis that can represent an absolute angle of rotation or a variation with respect to the
previous time step. Therefore, one can use a total of only three closed-loop systems instead of six. Also, there
Figure 2. A typical PID controller internal blocks.
6. G. Ononiwu et al.
6
are three multiple ways of combining those signals, and the control system efficiency will directly depend on
which way is chosen. Since the sensors can have errors (e.g. noise and drift), a method that minimizes the main
problems of each sensor is chosen and the best features of each can be combined.
Therefore, the control signals generated by each closed-loop structure must be combined before sending to the
motors. A commonly adopted way of combining those signals is given below:
1 p ym T u u= + + (2.28)
2 r ym T u u= + − (2.29)
3 p ym T u u= − + (2.30)
4 r ym T u u= − − (2.31)
where, im = signal sent to the th
i motor, T = throttle signal and , ,p r yu u u = control signals (for pitch, roll
and yaw axes respectively)
It can be seen in the equations above that those signals are used in a differential mode due to the plant sym-
metry. Thus, another important detail is that the signals of each term inside each equation depends on each axis
reference (e.g. whether positive pitch rotation is clockwise or counter-clockwise) as well as where each motor is
positioned. So one must know the motor configuration (whether plus + or cross ×) before writing the equations.
Finally, each motor will be individually controlled in an open-loop configuration which can already lead us to a
flyable quadcopter.
3. Simulation
The quadcopter design details were used to produce a model to be constructed in the simulation window. Some
effects (like aerodynamic effects such as blade flapping) were ignored or dramatically simplified, thus, a limita-
tion to the model. The system model contains five major blocks (systems) each containing its own subsystem or
unit blocks that describe the overall system dynamics of our quadcopter. The system blocks include: i) Path
Command block; ii) Position Controller block; iii) Attitude Controller block; iv) Quadcopter Control mixing
block; v) Quadcopter Dynamics block.
3.1. Path Command and Position Controller
The path command block is used to set the desired position of quadcopter in terms of x, y and z coordinates as
well as the yaw (for directioning on the x-y plane). These parameters serve as the set points for the position con-
troller. These variables are loaded as Matlab codes into the simulation through the MATLAB workspace. The
position controller takes inputs from the Path command as its set point, and also receives the current position
(state) of the quadcopter as feedback. It then compares this feedback with the set point to give the error.
The position error in the body frame is computed, and maps the body frame desired velocity. This desired ve-
locity is then mapped to a desired attitude. The essence of this rotation is because the Inertial-frame velocity is
used as the state to be controlled (Path command input).
3.2. The Attitude Controller
The attitude controller, like the position controller, takes feedback from the output of the system as one of its
inputs, but takes its second input from the position controller. This block contains the full proportional integral
derivative (PID) controller which does the final attitude correction. The feedback to this block contains the cur-
rent attitude, and angular velocity of the quadcopter in x, y and z axes. The controller essentially compares the
current state with the set point, and attempts to bring these various parameters to the set point. The integral part
of the PID ensures that the parameters remain at set point once achieved.
Figure 3(a) and Figure 3(b) are the Simulink blocks for Pitch and Yaw, including their corresponding atti-
tude correction outputs.
3.3. Quadcopter Control Mixing
There are two quadcopter configurations available, the quad + configuration and the quad × configuration. The
7. G. Ononiwu et al.
7
(a)
(b)
Figure 3. (a) Simulink block for the pitch (Theta) correction; (b) Simulink block for the yaw (Psi) correction.
quadcopter control mixing block does the control signal mixing depending on the quadcopter configuration used
(plus + or cross ×). It gets the corrected parameters for Pitch (θ ), Roll (ψ ), Yaw (φ ) and Altitude (Z) from the
attitude controller and generates the necessary throttle commands to actuate each motor (m1, m2, m3, m4).
The equations below are used for the control signal mixing of a quad × configuration.
1 c c c cmc z θ φ ψ= − − − (3.1)
2 c c c cmc z θ φ ψ= − + + (3.2)
3 c c c cmc z θ φ ψ= + + − (3.3)
4 c c c cmc z θ φ ψ= + − + . (3.4)
3.4. Quadcopter Dynamics
The quadcopter dynamics block contains two major subsystem blocks: The motor dynamics block, and The
State Equations block. The Primary function of the Motor dynamics block is to convert the percentage throttle
command to the motor RPM.
The motor dynamics block contains the state space model;
x Ax Bu= + (3.5)
y Cx Du= + (3.6)
where, ( )d d velocityx x t= , 1 quadmodel.TA = −
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1B = , 1 quadmodel.TC =
control input.u =
The four RPM values generated are fed into the State equations block which contains a level two S-function
block, where the flight dynamic state equations are loaded. This S-function is written in MATLAB. The
S-function block holds the initial conditions (Table 1) used for the simulation. Its parameters are the quadcopter
model functions and the input initial conditions. The outputs, ( ), , , , , , , , , , ,p q r u v w x y zφ θ ψ describes the
physical behavior of the quadcopter.
The main function of the S-function block is to use various parameters fed into it, to calculate the quadcopter
outputs (Angular velocities, linear velocities, position (along the x, y and z axes) and attitude (yaw, pitch and
roll)) which are then used for the simulation plots and 3D animation. Also, a disturbance block was added as
input to the S-function block to simulate for response to external forces which might act on the quadcopter body
during flight and how it can compensate and recover from these disturbances whilst still trying to maintain flight
stability (set point).
The data used for the quadcopter simulation was based on the design model presented. The individual para-
meters of the components that make up the quadcopter were carefully calculated. Some parameters such as
Torque, Thrust and Time Constants where estimated from already measured data of a similar system. This esti-
mation is due to the unavailability of necessary test bench (and instruments) required to carefully monitor and
measure these parameters. Since our design model is a quadcopter for payload delivery, our simulation focused
on the following: 1) Load test (maximum allowable load on-board); 2) Hover test (with load and without load);
3) Disturbance test (with load and without load).
The PID Control gains were carefully tuned and the appropriate gain value was chosen based on the simula-
tion results obtained. The PID gains used in the Attitude controller are presented in Table 1 while the PD gains
of the position controller are presented in Table 2.
4. Simulation Results and Discussion
The simulation was run for 60 seconds and several graphs were generated. Figure 4 shows the result of the
simulation with no external disturbance added. The Path command was such that the quadcopter will move a
diamond-shaped path. P, Q and R are angular velocities about the X, Y and Z axes respectively; Phi, theta and
Psi are the Roll, Pitch and Yaw angles;
U, V and W are the translational velocities along the X, Y and Z axes respectively; X, Y, and Z define the po-
sition of the quadcopter along the X, Y and Z axes respectively.
Table 1. Attitude controller PID gains.
PARAMETERS VALUE
Gross mass, m 1.5 kg
Time constant 0.076 s
Minimum throttle 5%
Thrust coefficient, t
c 7 2
1.4865 10 N RPM−
×
Torque coefficient, q
c 9 2
2.925 10 N m RPM−
× ⋅
Percentage throttle to RPM conversion coefficient,
r
c 80.584 RPM %
Mass Moment of inertia across the x-axis, x
J 0.0085136 kg⋅m2
Mass Moment of inertia across the y-axis, y
J 0.0085136 kg⋅m2
Mass Moment of inertia across the z-axis, z
J 0.016334 kg⋅m2
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Table 2. The position controller PD gains.
Parameter Proportional gain, kp Differential gain, kd
Pitch ( )θ command 3.5 2.9
Roll ( )φ command 3.5 2.9
Figure 4. Result of the simulation without disturbance.
4.1. Hover Test
The hover simulation of a quadcopter in flight describes its ability to float at/about a fixed point in air. Hover
test was done at 10 feet and the results are given below.
The graphs shown in Figure 4 represent a stable system. At first, there was an overshoot, but with time the
controller sets each of these parameters to set point.
4.2. Disturbance Test
Disturbance was introduced to the quadcopter flight simulation which could represent the action of external
force like wind on the body of the quadcopter while in flight. The graph in Figure 5 represents the system
without any disturbance. However, as can be seen from the graph in Figure 6, when a disturbance was intro-
duced, the quadcopter was able to compensate properly. Therefore, the PID controller logic is functional and it
can be implemented for the actual system.
The effect of a disturbance to the flight path was further tested with regards to linear and angular velocity is
presented in Figure 7. The system acknowledged the disturbance but was able to compensate adequately, and
return to a stable flight.
4.3. Load Test
Since the quadcopter design model is for payload delivery, the simulation shows how an increase in the gross
mass of the quadcopter affects its motor speed. The result is presented in Figure 8 and Figure 9. Again, the
system was able to maintain a stable flight.
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Figure 5. Motor throttle vs motor speed.
Figure 6. Motor throttle vs motor speed (disturbance test).
5. Conclusion and Future Work
A stable 1.26 kg quadcopter for payload delivery was designed, simulated and implemented. The design and
simulation, which utilized a PID controller, was able to yield results that showed good compensation in the
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Figure 7. Simulation result graphs (disturbance test).
Figure 8. Motor throttle vs motor speed (load test).
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Figure 9. Simulation result graphs (load test).
presence of external disturbances. The Quad X structural model was used to enable the Quadcopter to gain more
speed over a short period of operation, as timely delivery of payload is an important factor. Future study would
be to equip the quadcopter with a solar powered system, and to encrypt the communication between the quad-
copter and the ground station.
References
[1] Gupte, S., Mohandas, P.I.T. and Conrad, J.M. (2012) A Survey of Quadrotor Unmanned Aerial Vehicles. 2012 Pro-
ceedings of IEEE, Orlando, FL, 15-18 March 2012, 1-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/secon.2012.6196930
[2] Zeng, Y., Zhang, R. and Lim, T.J. (2016) Wireless Communications with Unmanned Aerial Vehicles: Opportunities
and Challenges.
[3] Mustapa, M.Z. (2015) Altitude Controller Design for Quadcopter UAV. Jurnal Teknologi.
[4] Guclu, A. (2012) Attitude and Altitude Control of an Outdoor Quadrotor. The Graduate School of Natural and Applied
Science, Atilim University, 76.
[5] Ononiwu, G.C., Onojo, O.J., Chukwuchekwa, N. and Isu, G.O. (2015) UAV Design for Security Monitoring. Interna-
tional Journal of Emerging Technology & Research, 2, 16-24.
[6] Hochstenbach, M. and Notteboom, C. (2015) Design and Control of an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle for Autonomous
Parcel Delivery with Transition from Vertical Take-off to Forward Flight. International Journal of Micro Air Vehicles,
7, 395-405. http://dx.doi.org/10.1260/1756-8293.7.4.395
[7] Min, B.-C., Hong, J.-H. and Matson, E.T. (2011) Adaptive Robust Control (ARC) for an Altitude Control of a
Quadrotor Type UAV Carrying an Unknown Payloads. 2011 11th International Conference on Control, Automation
and Systems, Korea, 26-29 October 2011, 1147-1151.
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