The document provides information about acknowledging assistance received for a training report on building construction. It thanks the managing director and staff of KVR Constructions for their guidance and support during the project. It also acknowledges the permission granted to use equipment and materials needed to complete the task of building construction. The document declares that the training report was undertaken as part of the requirements for a BTech in Civil Engineering and that the report is the original work of the author.

4. II
ACKNOLEDGEMENT
I express my deep gratitude to Mr. K.VINAY KUMAR, Managing Director of “KVR
CONSTRUCTIONS AND MANAGING PARTNERS”. For his valuable suggestions and
guidance rendered in giving shape and coherence to this endeavor. I am also thankful to his team
members for their support and guidance throughout the period of project.
Furthermore, I would also like to acknowledge with much appreciation the crucial role of the
staff of KVR CONSTRUCTION AND MANAGING PARTNERS, who gave us the permission
to use all required equipment and the necessary materials to complete the task “BUILDING
CONSTRUTION”. Special thanks to my team mate, who had help me assemble the parts and gave
suggestion about the task “BUILDING CONSTRUTION”.

5. III
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this training report entitled “A Training Report on Building Construction” at
KVR CONSTRUCTIONS has been undertaken by me. This training report has been prepared
with respect to a part of B.Tech Civil Engineering of Swarnandhra College of Engineering and
Technology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the Degree in Third Year.
It is my original work and has not been submitted by any other person.
I also declare that this report is the result of my own effort and that the same has not been
submitted to any other university, institution for the award of any degree or diploma.
K.Purna Chandra Rao.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
S.N. CONTENTS PAGE NO.

6. IV
1. About Site 1
2. Introduction 2
3. Introduction to Building 3
4. Different Types Of Building 4
5. Types Of Loads 6
6. Common Building Component 7
7. Foundation 9
8. Building components 11
9. Elements of Building Construction 15
10. Aspects 17
11. Building by Laws 20
12. Materials Used 24
13. Quality Control Tests 27
14. Conclusion 34
INDEX OF FIGURES

7. V
S.N. PARTICULAR PAGE NO
1 Foundation 9
2 Component of Building 12
3 Beam 14
4 Stair 16
5 Building 19
6 Bricks 26
7 Steel 26
8 Wall 26
9 Cement 26
10 Wood 26
11 Compressive Strength Testing Machine 32
12 Slump Test 33

9. 1
1.1 ABOUT THE SITE
Our proposed site is located at Near Railway station, Round park road, Kovvuru. The road which
is near to site leads to Railways station. A branch road of 10m which is near is existing wbm road
connected very near to the plot. The total area of the site is about 550 sq yards. the residential
building consists of three bed room, one bathroom and a living room.

10. 2
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Building construction is the engineering deals with the construction of building such as residential
houses. In a simple building can be define as an enclose space by walls with roof, food, cloth and
the basic needs of human beings. In the early ancient times humans lived in caves, over trees or
under trees, to protect themselves from wild animals, rain, sun, etc. as the times passed as humans
being started living in huts made of timber branches. The shelters of those old have been developed
nowadays into beautiful houses. Rich people live in sophisticated condition houses. Buildings are
the important indicator of social progress of the county. Every human has desire to own
comfortable homes on an average generally one spends his two-third life times in the houses. The
security civic sense of the responsibility. These are the few reasons which are responsible that the
person do utmost effort and spend hard earned saving in owning houses. Nowadays the house
building is major work of the social progress of the county. Daily new techniques are being
developed for the construction of houses economically, quickly and fulfilling the requirements of
the community engineers and architects do the design work, planning and layout, etc., of the
buildings. Draughtsman are responsible for doing the drawing works of building as for the
direction of engineers and architects. The draughtsman must know his job and should be able to
follow the instruction of the engineer and should be able to draw the required drawing of the
building, site plans and layout plans etc., as for the requirements.

11. 3
1.2 INTRODUCTION TO BUILDINGS
A building is a structure with a roof and walls standing more or less permanently in one place,
such as a house or factory. Buildings come in a variety of sizes, shapes and functions, and have
been adapted throughout history for a wide number of factors, from building materials available,
to weather conditions, to land prices, ground conditions, specific uses and aesthetic reasons.
Buildings serve several needs of society – primarily as shelter from weather, security, living
space, privacy, to store belongings, and to comfortably live and work. A building as a shelter
represents a physical division of the human habitat (a place of comfort and safety) and the outside
(a place that at times may be harsh and harmful).
1.3 Different types of buildings
Buildings are classified based upon its occupancy and structure
• Residential Building
• Educational Building
• Institutional Building
• Assembly building
• Business buildings
• Mercantile buildings
• Industrial Buildings
• Storage buildings
• Hazardous buildings
1.Residential Building: Buildings in which sleeping arrangements are provided with or
without cooking arrangement. It includes single or multifamily dwelling, apartments,
lodgings, restaurants, hostels, dormitories and hotels

12. 4
2.Educational building: These Include any building used for educational purposes.
3.Institutional Building: these buildings used for different purposes, such as medical or
other treatment. They include hospitals, sanatorium, jails, and asylum.
4.Assembly Buildings: These are the buildings where group of peoples meet or gather
for amusement, social, religious, political, civil, travel and similar purposes. E.g. theatres,
motion pictures, houses, assembly halls, restaurants assembly halls.
5.Business buildings: These buildings are used for transactions of business, for keeping
accounts and for similar other purposes.
6.Mercantile building: These building are used as shops, stores, market for display and
sale of merchandise either wholesale or retail, office, shops, and storage services.
7.Industrial Buildings: These are buildings where products or materials of all kinds and
properties are fabricated, assembled, manufactured or processed
8.Storage buildings: these buildings are used primarily for the storage or sheltering of
goods, wares or merchandise, vehicles and animals, grains
9.Hazardous buildings: These buildings are used for the storage, handling,
manufacturing or processing of highly combustible or explosive materials or products
1.4 Classification based on structure
1. Load bearing Structure
2. Framed structure
• Load Bearing Structures: In this type of structures loads from roof slab or trusses and
floors are transmitted through walls to the firm soil below the ground .This type of structures are
adopted where hard strata are available at shallow depth. The structural elements like beams, slabs
rests directly on the walls.

13. 5
• Framed Structures: Reinforced cement concrete structures are the most common type of
construction today. They consist of a skeleton of beams & columns. The load is transferred from
beams to the columns and column intern transfer the load directly to the sub soil through footing.
Framed structures are suitable for multi-story building subjected to variety of extreme loads like
compressive, tensile torsion, shear along with moment. • The open spaces in the skeleton are to be
filled with brick walls or glass panels.
CHAPTER 2
TYPES OF LOADS
Various loads are taken into account while designing the foundation of a structure.
1 Dead loads
2.Live loads
3.Wind loads
4. Earthquake loads
5.Erection loads
1 Dead Load: Dead load comprises of the weight of all walls, partitions, floors and roofs including
all other permanent construction in the building

14. 6
.2 Live Load: Live Loads consist of moving or variable loads due to people or occupants, their
furniture, temporary stores, machineries.
.3 Wind load: It is considered as basic wind pressure which is equivalent static pressure in the
direction of the wind • Wind pressure= k v2 • Where k= co-efficient, 0.006 • V= wind velocity •
Wind pressure always acts in the vertically exposed surface of the walls and columns.
4 Earthquake load: an earthquake load produced waves in every possible direction below ground.
As per intensity or scale of earthquake, jerks and shocks are acting on the earth. As per the location
of the building in the prescribed zone of earthquake coefficients of earthquake loads are decided.
5. Erection Load: All loads required to be carried by the structure or any part of it due to storage
or positioning of construction material and erection equipment including all loads due to operation
of such equipment, shall be considered as ‘erection loads
2.1 COMMON BUILDING COMPONENTS
1. Super Structure
• The superstructure is that part of the building which is above the ground and which serves the
purpose of building’s intended use.
• Plinth
• Wall and columns
• Beams
• Arches
• Roofs and slabs
• Lintel and arches

15. 7
• Chajjas
• Parapet
• Steps and stairs
2.2 Substructure
• The substructure is the lower portion of the building, which is located below ground level which
transmits the load of the superstructure to the sub soil.
• Foundations
Nominal Dimensions of building components
Building component Nominal Dimension
Plinth (Height) 30,45,60,75,90 cm
Wall thickness Partition wall Load bearing wall 10 cm 20, 30,40 cm
Lintel (thickness)
15 cm
Chajja Projections 30,45,60,75,90 cm
Slab thickness 0,1 to 0.15 m
Parapet wall thickness 10 cm
Parapet height 1 m

16. 8
Door width 0.8, 0.9, 1.0, 1.2 m
Door height 1.8, 2.0, 2.1 m
Sill height 0.07 to 0.1 m
Lintel height 2.0 m from floor level

17. 9
2.3 FOUNDATION
1 Types of foundation
Foundations may be broadly classified as
1 Shallow Foundation
.2 Deep foundation
2=Shallow Foundation
• Spread footing
• Combined footing
• Strap Footing
• Mat Foundation or Raft Foundation
• Spread Footing: - Spread footings are those which spread the super-imposed load of wall or
column over larger area. Spread footing support either column or wall
• It may of following kinds
• Single footing for column
• Stepped footing for a column
• Sloped footing for a column
• Wall footing without step
• Grillage foundation

18. 10
•
Fig.1.FOUNDATION
• Combined Footing: A spread footing which supports 2 or more columns is termed as combined
footing. The combined may be of following kinds
• Rectangular combined footing
• Trapezoidal combined footing
• Combined wall footing

19. 11
2.4 BUILDING COMPONENTS
1 Plinth: Plinth is that part of the building between surrounding ground surface and floor space
immediately above the ground. Plinth resists the entry of rain water entry inside the building, entry
of animals, insects & Rodents. General plinth height is 45, 60, 75, 90, 120 cm
2 Wall: The walls are building blocks of bricks or stones. They divide the building space into
various space into various rooms. They support slabs and beams. They safely transmits the loads
coming on them from beams and slabs to the foundation. They provide privacy and protection
against heat, cold, rain, noise, dust winds. They offer resistant to firewalls may be of
Brick masonry
Stone masonry
3 Columns: are vertical members along which beams and slab /roof is supported They are square,
rectangular and circular in shape in C/S
4 Floor: A floor is a plane area to support occupants, furniture's, and equipment’s.
5 Roof: The upper most part of the building constitutes the roof. The Slab and roof encloses the
space and offers protection from rain, heat, snow, wind, sound, fire. Slabs are 10, 12, 15 cm.
2.5 Doors and windows:-A door provides a connecting link between rooms, allowing easy
free movement in the building. Window are opening provided in walls. Doors and windows

20. 12
provide lighting and ventilation. The provide resistance to weather, sound and heat. They provide
security and privacy.
Sills:
Sills are lower portion of window and ventilator opening.
Steps and Stairs:
• Steps and stairs are meant to provide access between different levels. Stairs should be properly
located to provide easy access and fast services to the building.
In one flight maximum 8 steps should be provided for more than 8 steps it is recommended to
provide them with lending.
• Generally for residential building width of stair is 1.0 m and 1.2 m
• No of risers= Total height of floor/ Height of riser
• No of tread= Number of riser-1 Beams
• Beams are horizontal members above which the slabs are provided. The beams are instead
supported on walls and columns
• They are generally 20, 39, and 45, 60 cm thick and deep members as per structural design.
Lintels and arch
• Lintel is a horizontal member which is placed across the opening. • An arch is normally a curved
member comprising of wedge shaped building blocks holding each other with mutual pressure.
Chajjas
• Chajjas are provided on external wall opening to get protection from rain, snow and heat. They
are weather sheds. Their thickness tapers from 100 to 75 mm and projection is 30, 45, 60, 75, 90
cm

21. 13
Parapet
• Parapet: Parapet is generally 10 cm thick partition wall constructed above slab to enclose the
terrace open to sky. Thickness is 10 to 15 cm height is 1.0 m to 1.2 m
CHAPTER 3

22. 14
ELEMENTS OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION PLANNING
Elementary Principles and basics of a building planning, layout of residential and industrial
buildings
Principles and building planning
• The term planning of a building refers to mean the arrangement of all the units of a building on
all the floors and at all the levels.
• There are certain general principles which as a engineer should bear in mind while planning a
building.
The general principles are •
Aspect
• Prospect
• Privacy
• Grouping
• Roominess
• Flexibility
• Furniture requirements
• Circulation
• Elegance
• Economy
• Sanitation

23. 15
Fig 4.Stair
3.1 ASPECTS
Aspect: different rooms of the buildings are placed and located accordingly to the functional utility
in such a way that maximum advantage of natural elements like sun, wind, can be obtained. To
obtain sufficient sunlight inside the room windows are placed in external walls
.1 Kitchen aspect: Kitchen should have window in east, because morning sun kills the germs. So
kitchen should have eastern aspect.
.2 Bed room aspect: Bed room is a unit of residential building generally used in night time, for
sleeping so evening sun rays, which are cool in nature should enter the bed room to create cheerful
atmosphere. So bed room should have western aspect, south-western or north-western aspect.
.3 Drawing room aspect: It is a room which is used by the occupants for maximum hours of the
day. To achieve good sunlight it should be placed in south or southeast or north-east. Windows
should be provided in external walls
4 Study room aspect: Windows in this room should be in northern side to obtain sufficient light
throughout the day. So aspect of this room is north.
5 Verandah: there should be sufficient light in the above unit throughout the day so they should
be placed with opening in north-direction.

24. 16
6 Prospect It is related with the views as seen of the outside from doors and windows in the external
wall. For pleasant atmosphere view of a garden, hill and a river, etc. is a good prospect. Towards
these objective doors and windows should be provided in the external wall of the building.
Undesirable views like a small nallah, slum area, drainage disposal unit, garbage collection centers
should be concealed by not providing windows in that direction
7 Privacy This is very important factor to be considered while planning both residential as well as
public building Privacy of one room from another in a building as well as privacy of the whole
building with other building should be achieved.
8 Grouping: t is the arrangement of various rooms with respect to their functions, In case of
residential building to achieve maximum efficiency of the plan the grouping should be done as
follows
• Verandah should be the first unit after the entrance of the house
• Living room and dining room should be close next to verandah
• Kitchen and dining should be close to each other
• Sanitary arrangements should be close to bed rooms.
• Staircase should be approachable from each room
• Passages connecting various rooms should be well lighted and ventilated
Roominess This principle of planning is directly related to dimensions of the room. A
rectangular room is found more convenient as compared to a square room of the same size.
Hence length to width ratio should be 1.2 to 1 or 1.5 to 1 if the ratio is greater it will give
a tunnel effect to the room. Height of doors and windows, ceilings, floorings, color
treatment also affect the roominess of the building unit. Light color give effect of more
space whereas dark color makes the room look smaller. Height of ceiling should be low as
more height gives a feeling of a cave.
Flexibility means a room which was planned for one function can be used for other, if so
required. If rooms are big enough and are having a minimum width of 3m are more flexible
and even the activities of various rooms can be exchanged.

25. 17
10.Furniture requirement one of the most important requirement of a building planner,
is to know how much space is needed by each function in a particular building. The room
sizes for a particular function can be completed on the basis of permanent furniture's to be
used in the room. Hence while planning a building furniture arrangement must be shown.
11.Circulation: Circulation is the access into or out of a room. It is the internal movement
inside the building and the area earmarked for it.
• Circulation area should be straight, short, bright, lighted.
• Circulation should not affect the privacy of a room nor interfere with the utility space
12.Lighting It can be natural light as that obtained from the sun during the day or artificial
light. Adequate illumination is essential in day to day activities to execute the safety and
comfort and efficiency
Good visibility is a must for accident prevention, comfortable watching and reading to reduce fatigue, avert
confusion, and efficient security.
13.Elegance Elegance refers to the planning of elevation and layout of the plan to give an
impressive appearance to the building. The proper width, height, location of doors and
windows, materials employed in construction of exterior walls etc. create elegance. The
result of elegance is aesthetics of building.
14.Economy Building planning should be carried out in the financial limit of the client. An
engineer should know in advance, the client intends to spend for the building and
accordingly material of construction, finishing items, stage of construction should be
suggested. By estimation proposed amount should be derived and as per that progress
should be followed to avoid delay in work progress.
15.Sanitation: Provision for cleanliness, lighting and ventilation in sanitary units avoid
growing of bacteria's, and spread of diseases and give hygienic condition. In bath and w.c.
glazed tiles and dado should be provided on wall to maintain clean condition. The ventilator
in bath, w.c. permit sunlight and air collation to maintain hygienic condition. The flooring
material s should be easy to clean, skirting's should be provided in rooms. Bath tubs, w.c. ,
kitchen sink should be made of ceramic material to maintain clean easily.

26. 18
Fig 5. Building
3.2 BUILDING BYLAWS
• During planning and construction of any building, certain regulations are laid by Municipal
bodies, authorities, and other government departments as town planning so as to prevent haphazard
development of city such rules and regulations are called as building bylaws.
3.3 Objectives of Building bylaws
Building bylaws allow disciplined and systematic growth of buildings and towns and prevent
haphazard development

27. 19
• Building bye-laws protect safety of public against fire, noise, health and structural failure.
• They provide proper utilization of space, hence maximum efficiency in planning
• They provide health, safety, and comfort to peoples living in the building.
LIMITATION OF BUILT UP AREA
Area of plot up to 200sq.m (240sq.yd) ---- maximum permissible built up area
Ground and first ---- 70% of site area on floor only.
201 to 500sq.m (241to 600sq.yd) ---- 50% of the site area.
501 to 1000sq.m (601 to 1200sq.yd) ---- 40% of the site area
More than 1000sq.m ---- 33% of the site area.
MINIMUM FLOOR AREA & HEIGHT OF ROOMS
FLOOR AREA HIEGHT (m)
LIVING 10sqm (100sqft)
(Breadth min 2.7 m or 9’) 3.3 (11’)
KITCHEN 6sqm (60sqft) 3.0 (10’)
BATH 2sqm (20sqft) 2.7 (9’)
LATTRINE 1.6sqm (16sqft) 2.7 (9’)
BATH & WATER CLOSET 3.6sqm (36sqft) 2.7 (9’)
SERVANT ROOM 10sqm (100sqft) 3.0
(10’)

28. 20
GARAGE 2.5*4.8 m (8’*16’) 3.0
(10’)
FOR MAIN BUILDING ------- 0.6 (2’)
MIN. HIEGHT OF PLINTH FOR
SERVANT QUARTES ------- 0.3 (1’)
MIN. DEPTH OF FOUNDATION ------- 0.9 (3’)
THICKNESS OF WALL 20cms to 30cms ------
(9” to13.5”)
DAMP PROOF COURSE 2cms to 2.5cms thick full width of
(3/4” to1”) plinth wall
3.3 Sizes of rooms
Drawing room: Drawing room should be the very first room of a house as we enter
• The minimum area should be 15 to 20 sq. m
• General sizes: 3.5m x 5.5 m
• 5m x 6 m
• 7 m x 9 m
• Ventilation in Drawing rooms: Minimum window area should never be less than 10 % of floor
area but 20 % is preferred
• Dining room: It is a place where families take their breakfast, lunch, dinner
• Size: 4 m x 3 m
• 4m x 5 m
• 5 m x 6 m

29. 21
• Kitchen: A Kitchen is a place where food is prepared and stored for consumption
• Sizes: 1.5 m x 3m
• 3 m x 5 m
• 4 m x 6 m
• Ventilation in kitchen: window area should be at least 15 % of floor area
• Bed room: A man spends major part of the day in the bed room either sleeping or relaxing.
• A minimum floor area 0f 10 sq. m should be provided
• Sizes: 4 m x 3 m
• 5 m x 4 m
• 3 m x 3m
• 4 m x 4 m
• Ventilation: Minimum window area of 10 % of floor area.
• Bath and W.C.: Bathroom is a place where inmates take bath and the waste water is collected
and conveyed off
• Water Closet is the place of collection of human discharge
• A minimum floor area of 1.8 sq. m
• Floor are of Bath and w.c should not be less than 2.8 m2 with minimum width of 1.2 m
• W.C should have a minimum width of 0.9 m and minimum length of 1.2 m
• A minimum floor area of 1.1 sq. m is to be provided for w.c
• Ventilator of 500 mm x 300 mm is to be provided at a height of 1.8 from floor area. • Sizes: 1.5m
x 2 m • 2m x 3 m • 3m x 4m
• Store Room: It is to store Items like food grains cylinders, utensils etc. • Floor area 15 sq. m to

30. 22
20 sq. m
• Verandah: It is area open on 1 side, 2 sides or 3 sides.
• Minimum width 1.5 m not greater than 4m
• Minimum Height of verandah 2.1 m
• Puja Room: Many people perform puja in houses. It is quite calm space to perform puja.
• It should be located in N-E corner of the building
• Sizes: 2.1 m x 2.1 m
• Roughly 4 m2 in area
• Study room: It is place where study material are stocked and read
• Area of study room should be 10 m2 to 12 m.
CHAPTER 4
MATERIALS USED
1 Stone: - The stone is always obtained from rock. The rock quarried from quarries is called stone.
Quarried stone may be in the form of stone blocks, stone aggregate, stone slabs, and stone lintels.
Here to be used as impact test, water absorption test, hardness test and crushing strength.
It is preferred according to SP27-1987.
2 Brick: - Brick is made up of soil and it is used to make the masonry structure Absorption test,
Shape and size test, Crushing strength test, Soundness test, Hardness test. The bricks be
tablemolded, well burnt in kilns, copper- colored, free from cracks and with sharp and square
edges.
3 Aggregate:- Aggregates shall comply with the requirements of IS 383. As far as possible
reference shall be given to natural aggregate. Aggregates are the important constituents in concrete.
They give body to the concrete, reduce shrinkage and effect economy. One of the most important

31. 23
factors for producing workable concrete is good gradation of aggregates. For most work, 20 mm
aggregates are suitable.
Specific gravity of fine aggregate = 2.38
Specific gravity of coarse aggregate = 2.71
.4 Cement:- The most common cement used is Ordinary Portland Cement. The type I is preferred
according to IS: 269-1976, which is used for general concrete structures. 53 Grade ordinary
Portland cement is confirming to 12269. Out of the total production, Ordinary Portland Cement
accounts for about 80-90 percent.
Fineness of cement = 8%
Standard consistency of cement = 31%
Initial setting time of cement = 36 min
Specific gravity of cement = 3.46
.5 Water: - Water is an important ingredient of concrete as it actually participates in the chemical
reaction with cement. Since it helps to form the strength giving cement gel, the quantity and quality
of water is required to be looked into very carefully. Water used for mixing and curing shall be
clean and free from materials like oils, acids, alkalis, salts, sugar, organic materials or other
materials that may be harmful to concrete or steel. PH value of the water used in concreting shall
not be less than 6
6 Steel: - Steel is important ingredient of qualify structure and it is used to carry out the load easily
from the structure to column and it is having high tensile strength. It is preferred according IS 800-
2007
4.1 QUALITY CONTROL TESTS
1 Tests for bricks:
A brick is generally subjected to following tests to find out its suitability of the construction work.

32. 24
• Absorption
• Crushing strength or compression strength
• Hardness
• Presence soluble salts
• Shape and size
• Soundness
• Structure
2 Absorption: A good should not absorb not more than 20 percent of weight of dry brick
13.1.2 Compressive strength: crushing or compressive strength of brick is found out byplacing it
in compression testing machine. It is pressed till it breaks. Minimum crushing strength of
brick is 35kg/cm2 and for superior bricks, it may vary from 70 to 140 kg/cm2.
3 Hardness: No impression is left on the surface the brick is treated to be sufficiently hard
4 Presence of soluble salts: The bricks should not show any grey or white deposits after immersed
in water for 24 hours
5 Shape and size: It should be standard size and shape with sharp edges
6 Soundness: The brick should give clear ringing sound struck each other
7 Structure: The structure should be homogeneous, compact and free from any defects
Grading of Bricks
As per IS10719557 and 1970 code specifications,
2Bricks with compressive strength not less than 140kg/cm2 – Grade A-A class.
a. Bricks with compressive strength not less than 105kg/cm2 – First class bricks - Grade A.
b. Bricks with compressive strength not less than 70kg/cm2 – Second class bricks – Grade B.
c. Bricks with compressive strength not less than the average value 35kg/cm2 – class III bricks –
Grade C.
4.2 Tests on cement

33. 25
1 Colour Test:-The color of the cement should be uniform. It should be grey color with a light
greenish shade.
2 Strength test:-A block of cement 25 mm ×25 mm and 200 mm long is prepared and it is
immersed for 7 days in water. It is then placed on supports 15cm apart and it is loaded with a
weight of about 34 kg. The block should not show signs of failure. If cement is of sound quality
such block will not be broken easily.
3 Setting test:-A thick paste of cement with water is made on a piece of glass plate and it is kept
under water for 24 hours. It should set and not crack.
4.3 Tests on aggregates:-
1 Silt Content for Aggregate:-The permissible silt content in sand (fine aggregate) must not
exceed the values as specified in the standards. However, this method can only be used for natural
sand, it should not be used for crushed rock sand.
The apparatus required for this test is only 250 ml glass measuring cylinder.
The silt content determination by volume is done in the following manner:
• The glass cylinder is filled with salt-water solution (concentration of the solution will
teaspoon full of common salt for every 570 ml) up to 50 ml mark.
• Add sand until the level of the sand is up to 100 ml mark.
• Add further salt-water solution till 150 ml mark is reached.
• Place the palm on the mouth of the glass cylinder and shake it vigorously.
• Place the cylinder on hard levelled surface and tap it all round so that sand is leveled.
• Wait for three hours for silt to settle on top of sand.

34. 26
• Measure the thickness of the silt layer and the height of the sand. The silt content can be
calculated as follows:
Silt (%) by volume = [(Thickness of silt layer/ Height of sand + Silt) x 100 %]
4.4 Sieve Analysis:-Sieve analysis is done to check the gradation of aggregate.
• The test is done as follow.
• Take required amount of aggregate sample (for coarse aggregate take approx. 2.5 kg and
for fine aggregate take 0.5 kg)
• Arrange the required no of sieves as per the contract or job requirement in a descending
manner. (i.e. keep the sieve having largest size opening at the top and the smallest size
opening at the bottom)
• Shake vigorously the sieve set for at least 2 minute.
• Then measure the weight of aggregate on each sieve and express it as the percentage of
passing.
Now compare these values with the recommended values to know whether it falls within the range
or not. If not falling within the desired gradation then take necessary action.
4.5 Fineness Modulus:-Fineness modulus is generally used to get an idea of how coarse or fine
the aggregate is. More fineness modulus value indicates that the aggregate is coarser and small
value of fineness modulus indicates that the aggregate is finer.
• Sieve the aggregate using the appropriate sieves (80 mm, 40 mm, 20 mm, 10 mm,
4.75 mm, 2.36 mm, 1.18 mm, 600 micron, 300 micron & 150 micron).
Record the weight of aggregate retained on each sieve.
• Calculate the cumulative weight of aggregate retained on each sieve.
• Calculate the cumulative percentage of aggregate retained.

35. 27
• Add the cumulative weight of aggregate retained and divide the sum by 100. This value is
termed as fineness modulus.
Compare the test value with the values given in the following table and you can get an idea about
how coarse or fine the sand is.
Only sand between FM 2.6 to 2.9 is considered suitable for nominal mix proportion.
Type of Sand Fineness Modulus Value
Very fine sand Below 2.2
Fine sand 2.2 to 2.6
Medium sand 2.6 to 2.9
Coarse sand 2.9 to 3.2
Very coarse sand Above 3.2
1.Compressive strength of concrete:-The compression test shows the compressive strength of
hardened concrete. The compression test shows the best possible strength concrete can reach in
perfect conditions. The compression test measures concrete strength in the hardened state. Testing
should always be done carefully. Wrong test results can be costly.

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The testing is done in a laboratory off-site. The only work done on-site is to make a concrete cubes
for the compression test. The strength is measured in Mega pascals (MPa) and is commonly
specified as a characteristic strength of concrete measured at 28 days after mixing.
The compressive strength is a measure of the concrete’s ability to resist loads which tend to crush
it.
Procedure of slump test for concrete:
• Clean the cone. Dampen with water and place on the slump plate. The slump plate should
be clean, firm, level and non-absorbent. Collect a sample of concrete to perform the slum
test.
• Stand firmly on the foot pieces and fill 1/3 the volume of the cone with the sample. Compact
the concrete by 'rodding' 25 times. Rodding means to push a steel rod in and out of the
concrete to compact it into the cylinder, or slump cone. Always rod in a definite pattern,
working from outside into the middle.
• Now fill to 2/3 and again rod 25 times, just into the top of the first layer.
• Fill to overflowing, rodding again this time just into the top of the second layer. Top up the
cone till it overflows.
• Level off the surface with the steel rod using a rolling action. Clean any concrete from
around the base and top of the cone, push down on the handles and step off the footpaces.
• Carefully lift the cone straight up making sure not to move the sample.
• Turn the cone upside down and place the rod across the up-turned cone.
Fig.11.Compressive Testing Machine

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2 Workability Tests of concrete:-This test is performed to check the consistency of freshly made
concrete. The slump test is done to make sure a concrete mix is workable. The measured slump
must be within a set range, or tolerance, from the target slump.
Workability of concrete is mainly affected by consistency i.e. wetter mixes will be more workable
than drier mixes, but concrete of the same consistency may vary in workability. It can also be
defined as the relative plasticity of freshly mixed concrete as indicative of its workability.
Procedure of slump test for concrete:
• Clean the cone. Dampen with water and place on the slump plate. The slump plate should
be clean, firm, level and non-absorbent. Collect a sample of concrete to perform the slum
test.
• Stand firmly on the foot pieces and fill 1/3 the volume of the cone with the sample. Compact
the concrete by 'rodding' 25 times. Rodding means to push a steel rod in and out of the
concrete to compact it into the cylinder, or slump cone. Always rod in a definite pattern,
working from outside into the middle.
• Now fill to 2/3 and again rod 25 times, just into the top of the first layer.
• Fill to overflowing, rodding again this time just into the top of the second layer. Top up the
cone till it overflows.
• Level off the surface with the steel rod using a rolling action. Clean any concrete from
around the base and top of the cone, push down on the handles and step off the footpaces.
• Carefully lift the cone straight up making sure not to move the sample.
• Turn the cone upside down and place the rod across the up-turned cone.
Take several measurements and report the average distance to the top of the sample. If the sample
fails by being outside the tolerance (i.e. the slump is too high or too low), another must be taken.
If this also fails the remainder of the batch should be rejected

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CHATER 5
CONCLUSION
We can conclude that there is difference between the theoretical and practical work done. As the scope
of understanding will be much more when practical work is done. As we get more knowledge in such
a situation where we have great experience doing the practical work.
Knowing the loads we have designed the slabs depending upon the ratio of longer to shorter span of
panel. In this project we have designed slabs as two way slabs depending upon the end condition,
corresponding bending moment. The coefficients have been calculated as per I.S. code methods for
corresponding lx/ly ratio. The calculations have been done for loads on beams and columns and designed
frame analysis by moment distribution method. Here we have a very low bearing capacity, hard soil and
isolated footing done.
References :-
1. https://civiltoday.com/surveying/99-principles-of-surveying-civil-engineering
2. https://theconstructor37.org/geotechnical/foundation-types-and-uses/9237/