This document discusses a study examining the role of family and peer social support in reported adolescent stress. It provides background on stress and its health effects. The study hypothesizes that adolescents with more risk factors will report higher stress, but that social support can moderate this. It describes measuring adolescents' reported stress levels and their perceptions of family and peer social support. The study aims to determine if the number of risk factors impacts whether family or peer support is more strongly linked to lower reported stress.
Soraya Matthews, MSc, NUI Galway, Psychology Matters Day.
Exposure to traumatic experiences or material can often have a negative impact on a person's health. It can be common for us to only consider people who have experienced trauma first hand as experiencing negative health effects, both physically and mentally. However, this experience can also occur when a person experiences traumatic material secondarily.
Secondary traumatic stress can develop when a person is exposed to trauma through hearing about the first-hand trauma experiences of others. This has become common in jobs where employees are exposed to clients/patients who have suffered from trauma (e.g. domestic violence specialists, mental health professionals, or nurses).
Its symptoms can mimic those of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) if left unchecked. Furthermore, this can often be reflected in their health status (e.g. negatively impacted).
Research has suggested that individuals who have been exposed to trauma were 2.7 times more likely to have a longstanding negative health problem, such as fibromyalgia, chronic pain, and chronic fatigue syndrome. For this reason, it is important to examine the potential psychological and organisational factors that can influence, or protect against, the development of health problems and secondary traumatic stress in employees who experience high volumes of traumatic material.
The stress-buffering model of social support in glycaemic control in adolesce...Emily Mattacola
Poster presented at the British Psychological Society's Division of Health Psychology Conference 2015
The behaviour of peers can have a significant impact on self-care, particularly in adolescents. Adolescents with long-term conditions such as Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus (T1DM) must manage the challenges of this life stage alongside the additional burden of their long-term condition. It is unlikely to be a coincidence that as peer pressure peaks, adolescents with T1DM display decreasing self-care in exchange for peer acceptability. Previous research has shown that this combination of aspirations can influence daily choices in disease management.
Aim: To assess whether social bonding is associated with glycaemic control in T1DM via the stress-buffering model of social support.
Method: Biomarkers of social bonding (oxytocin) and HPA axis activity (cortisol) were analysed and compared to glycaemic control (HbA1c) and self-reported self-care behaviours. Participants were aged 15-18, recruited from two paediatric outpatient clinics in the East Midlands of England. Participants supplied salivary samples of biomarkers via Salivettes for analysis using immunoassay. Glycaemic control was provided by the clinic, with self-care assessed using the Self-Care Inventory
.
Findings: Despite significant correlations between oxytocin and cortisol, neither biomarker was found to be associated with glycaemic control or self-care. However, when looking at demographic characteristics, both males and those aged 17 or over indicated a relationship between cortisol and self-care behaviours. This relationship was maintained during regression analysis. with cortisol explaining a significant proportion of the variance in self-care.
Discussion: Despite social support being found as beneficial in previous research, these findings suggest that the mechanism through which social support is associated with glycaemic control is not via the HPA axis. Rather, a positive impact of cortisol on self-care behaviours was found. In males and those aged 17 and over, it is suggested that a sufficient amount of stress is required to increase self-care behaviours. It is proposed that optimal stress provides motivation to appropriately self-manage in these demographic groups. Further research is required to assess if this stress is disease-specific, or if daily hassles and other generic sources are also associated with this improved self-management.
Soraya Matthews, MSc, NUI Galway, Psychology Matters Day.
Exposure to traumatic experiences or material can often have a negative impact on a person's health. It can be common for us to only consider people who have experienced trauma first hand as experiencing negative health effects, both physically and mentally. However, this experience can also occur when a person experiences traumatic material secondarily.
Secondary traumatic stress can develop when a person is exposed to trauma through hearing about the first-hand trauma experiences of others. This has become common in jobs where employees are exposed to clients/patients who have suffered from trauma (e.g. domestic violence specialists, mental health professionals, or nurses).
Its symptoms can mimic those of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) if left unchecked. Furthermore, this can often be reflected in their health status (e.g. negatively impacted).
Research has suggested that individuals who have been exposed to trauma were 2.7 times more likely to have a longstanding negative health problem, such as fibromyalgia, chronic pain, and chronic fatigue syndrome. For this reason, it is important to examine the potential psychological and organisational factors that can influence, or protect against, the development of health problems and secondary traumatic stress in employees who experience high volumes of traumatic material.
The stress-buffering model of social support in glycaemic control in adolesce...Emily Mattacola
Poster presented at the British Psychological Society's Division of Health Psychology Conference 2015
The behaviour of peers can have a significant impact on self-care, particularly in adolescents. Adolescents with long-term conditions such as Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus (T1DM) must manage the challenges of this life stage alongside the additional burden of their long-term condition. It is unlikely to be a coincidence that as peer pressure peaks, adolescents with T1DM display decreasing self-care in exchange for peer acceptability. Previous research has shown that this combination of aspirations can influence daily choices in disease management.
Aim: To assess whether social bonding is associated with glycaemic control in T1DM via the stress-buffering model of social support.
Method: Biomarkers of social bonding (oxytocin) and HPA axis activity (cortisol) were analysed and compared to glycaemic control (HbA1c) and self-reported self-care behaviours. Participants were aged 15-18, recruited from two paediatric outpatient clinics in the East Midlands of England. Participants supplied salivary samples of biomarkers via Salivettes for analysis using immunoassay. Glycaemic control was provided by the clinic, with self-care assessed using the Self-Care Inventory
.
Findings: Despite significant correlations between oxytocin and cortisol, neither biomarker was found to be associated with glycaemic control or self-care. However, when looking at demographic characteristics, both males and those aged 17 or over indicated a relationship between cortisol and self-care behaviours. This relationship was maintained during regression analysis. with cortisol explaining a significant proportion of the variance in self-care.
Discussion: Despite social support being found as beneficial in previous research, these findings suggest that the mechanism through which social support is associated with glycaemic control is not via the HPA axis. Rather, a positive impact of cortisol on self-care behaviours was found. In males and those aged 17 and over, it is suggested that a sufficient amount of stress is required to increase self-care behaviours. It is proposed that optimal stress provides motivation to appropriately self-manage in these demographic groups. Further research is required to assess if this stress is disease-specific, or if daily hassles and other generic sources are also associated with this improved self-management.
We all feel stressed at times, but what one person finds stressful may be very different from what another finds stressful. An example of this would be public speaking. Some love the thrill of it and others become paralyzed at the very thought.
The Mental and Physical Health Outcomes of Green Exercise
`
For more information, Please see websites below:
`
Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children
http://scribd.com/doc/239851214
`
Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech
http://scribd.com/doc/239851079
`
Free School Gardening Art Posters
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159`
`
Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159
`
Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success
http://scribd.com/doc/239851348
`
City Chickens for your Organic School Garden
http://scribd.com/doc/239850440
`
Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools - Teacher Guide
http://scribd.com/doc/239851110
Concept of stress and Stress Adaptation Model and Crisis and Crisis Intervention. These topic should be clear for healt service providers like Psychiatric nurces, Psychiatric social workers. Withoung knowing and understanding about it we can't help our clients.
Online and In the Aisle in Australia, 3 Word of Mouth Strategies for Global R...Dalia Seidner
The plethora of communication platforms available today has transformed the way consumers interact with retailers. Do you know why consumers are choosing to shop with you over competitors, and do you know what they are looking for once they come into your store?
The word of mouth era that we live in today makes answering those questions possible.
In this deck, learn about the three word of mouth strategies that retailers are using to succeed in this constantly transforming retail environment:
1. Attracting the searching (and mobile) consumer through word of mouth content
2. Aligning with consumers’ expectations on the path to purchase
3. Creating shopper loyalty through sentiment analysis
We all feel stressed at times, but what one person finds stressful may be very different from what another finds stressful. An example of this would be public speaking. Some love the thrill of it and others become paralyzed at the very thought.
The Mental and Physical Health Outcomes of Green Exercise
`
For more information, Please see websites below:
`
Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children
http://scribd.com/doc/239851214
`
Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech
http://scribd.com/doc/239851079
`
Free School Gardening Art Posters
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159`
`
Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159
`
Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success
http://scribd.com/doc/239851348
`
City Chickens for your Organic School Garden
http://scribd.com/doc/239850440
`
Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools - Teacher Guide
http://scribd.com/doc/239851110
Concept of stress and Stress Adaptation Model and Crisis and Crisis Intervention. These topic should be clear for healt service providers like Psychiatric nurces, Psychiatric social workers. Withoung knowing and understanding about it we can't help our clients.
Online and In the Aisle in Australia, 3 Word of Mouth Strategies for Global R...Dalia Seidner
The plethora of communication platforms available today has transformed the way consumers interact with retailers. Do you know why consumers are choosing to shop with you over competitors, and do you know what they are looking for once they come into your store?
The word of mouth era that we live in today makes answering those questions possible.
In this deck, learn about the three word of mouth strategies that retailers are using to succeed in this constantly transforming retail environment:
1. Attracting the searching (and mobile) consumer through word of mouth content
2. Aligning with consumers’ expectations on the path to purchase
3. Creating shopper loyalty through sentiment analysis
We are a group interested in smart buildings. You can follow us on:
Pinterest: https://www.pinterest.com/smartbsac/
Youtube: https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLOBHxngZObwxuBGQqMic6vWVZooiTdowp
Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/profile.php?id=100010158125810
Twitter: https://twitter.com
Blog: http://smartbsac.blogspot.com.ar
Piktochart: https://magic.piktochart.com/output/7511257-untitled-infographic-conflict-copy
Chinese International Students Spend Over $40 Billion Overseas Every Year and 74% of Students Return to China After Graduation. To Learn More Check Out Daxue Infographic
China’s position in the worldwide market is shifting, from a manufacturing-based industry to a global innovation and high-technology leading superpower.
ALCohoL ReSeARCh C u r r e n t R e v i e w s506 Alcohol .docxADDY50
ALCohoL ReSeARCh: C u r r e n t R e v i e w s
506 Alcohol Research: C u r r e n t R e v i e w s
Resilience to Meet the
Challenge of Addiction
Psychobiology and Clinical Considerations
Tanja N. Alim, M.D.; William B. Lawson, M.D.; Adriana Feder, M.D.; Brian M.
Iacoviello, Ph.D.; Shireen Saxena, M.S.; Christopher R. Bailey; Allison M.
Greene, M.S.; and Alexander Neumeister, M.D.
Tanja N. Alim, M.D., is an assis-
tant professor and William B.
Lawson, M.D., is a professor
and chair of the Department
of Psychiatry, both at the
Department of Psychiatry and
Behavioral Sciences, Howard
University, Washington, DC.
Adriana Feder, M.D., is an assistant
professor; Brian M. Iacoviello,
Ph.D., is a postdoctoral fellow;
and Shireen Saxena, M.S.,
Christopher R. Bailey, and
Allison M. Greene, M.S., are
research associates; all at the
Mood and Anxiety Disorders
Program, Department of Psychiatry,
Mount Sinai School of Medicine,
New York, New York.
Alexander Neumeister, M.D., is
a professor in the Department of
Psychiatry and Radiology, New
York University Langone Medical
Center, New York, New York.
Acute and chronic stress–related mechanisms play an important role in the
development of addiction and its chronic, relapsing nature. Multisystem adaptations in
brain, body, behavioral, and social function may contribute to a dysregulated
physiological state that is maintained beyond the homeostatic range. In addition,
chronic abuse of substances leads to an altered set point across multiple systems.
Resilience can be defined as the absence of psychopathology despite exposure to
high stress and reflects a person’s ability to cope successfully in the face of adversity,
demonstrating adaptive psychological and physiological stress responses. The study of
resilience can be approached by examining interindividual stress responsibility at
multiple phenotypic levels, ranging from psychological differences in the way people
cope with stress to differences in neurochemical or neural circuitry function. The
ultimate goal of such research is the development of strategies and interventions to
enhance resilience and coping in the face of stress and prevent the onset of addiction
problems or relapse. Key WoRDS: Addiction; substance abuse; stress; acute stress
reaction; chronic stress reaction; biological adaptation to stress; psychological
response to stress; physiological response to stress; resilience; relapse; coping
skills; psychobiology
evidence from different disciplinessuggests that acute and chronicstress–related mechanisms play
an important role in both the develop-
ment and the chronic, relapsing nature
of addiction (Baumeister 2003; Baumeister
et al. 1994; Brady and Sinha 2005).
Stress is defined as the physiological
and psychological process resulting from
a challenge to homeostasis by any real
or perceived demand on the body
(Lazarus and Fokman 1984; McEwen
2000; Selye 1976). Stress often induces
multisystem adaptations that occur in
the brain and .
ALCohoL ReSeARCh C u r r e n t R e v i e w s506 Alcohol .docxSHIVA101531
ALCohoL ReSeARCh: C u r r e n t R e v i e w s
506 Alcohol Research: C u r r e n t R e v i e w s
Resilience to Meet the
Challenge of Addiction
Psychobiology and Clinical Considerations
Tanja N. Alim, M.D.; William B. Lawson, M.D.; Adriana Feder, M.D.; Brian M.
Iacoviello, Ph.D.; Shireen Saxena, M.S.; Christopher R. Bailey; Allison M.
Greene, M.S.; and Alexander Neumeister, M.D.
Tanja N. Alim, M.D., is an assis-
tant professor and William B.
Lawson, M.D., is a professor
and chair of the Department
of Psychiatry, both at the
Department of Psychiatry and
Behavioral Sciences, Howard
University, Washington, DC.
Adriana Feder, M.D., is an assistant
professor; Brian M. Iacoviello,
Ph.D., is a postdoctoral fellow;
and Shireen Saxena, M.S.,
Christopher R. Bailey, and
Allison M. Greene, M.S., are
research associates; all at the
Mood and Anxiety Disorders
Program, Department of Psychiatry,
Mount Sinai School of Medicine,
New York, New York.
Alexander Neumeister, M.D., is
a professor in the Department of
Psychiatry and Radiology, New
York University Langone Medical
Center, New York, New York.
Acute and chronic stress–related mechanisms play an important role in the
development of addiction and its chronic, relapsing nature. Multisystem adaptations in
brain, body, behavioral, and social function may contribute to a dysregulated
physiological state that is maintained beyond the homeostatic range. In addition,
chronic abuse of substances leads to an altered set point across multiple systems.
Resilience can be defined as the absence of psychopathology despite exposure to
high stress and reflects a person’s ability to cope successfully in the face of adversity,
demonstrating adaptive psychological and physiological stress responses. The study of
resilience can be approached by examining interindividual stress responsibility at
multiple phenotypic levels, ranging from psychological differences in the way people
cope with stress to differences in neurochemical or neural circuitry function. The
ultimate goal of such research is the development of strategies and interventions to
enhance resilience and coping in the face of stress and prevent the onset of addiction
problems or relapse. Key WoRDS: Addiction; substance abuse; stress; acute stress
reaction; chronic stress reaction; biological adaptation to stress; psychological
response to stress; physiological response to stress; resilience; relapse; coping
skills; psychobiology
evidence from different disciplinessuggests that acute and chronicstress–related mechanisms play
an important role in both the develop-
ment and the chronic, relapsing nature
of addiction (Baumeister 2003; Baumeister
et al. 1994; Brady and Sinha 2005).
Stress is defined as the physiological
and psychological process resulting from
a challenge to homeostasis by any real
or perceived demand on the body
(Lazarus and Fokman 1984; McEwen
2000; Selye 1976). Stress often induces
multisystem adaptations that occur in
the brain and .
GERO 508 Spring 2021
Week 2
The Mind & Body Connection
Timothy Lu Office Hours: By Appointment Email: [email protected]
Dr Paul Nash CPsychol, AFBPsS, FHEA
Office: GERO 231E
Office Hours: Thurs 09.00-12.00
(OR AGREED APPOINTMENT)
Email: [email protected]
Gillian Fennell
Email: [email protected]
Questions about assessments?
2
The session in brief
Biological – What is stress?
Biological consequences of stress
Biological models of stress
Measuring biological stress
What does stress look like?
The meaning of sex
Psychological approaches to stress
Environmental approaches to stress
Specific models of stress
Bio-Psycho-Social models of stress
Measuring psychological components of stress
3
What forms can stress take?
4
Stress – The overview
Actual Stress
- See a predator / See a car coming towards you
5
Perceived Stress
- In a situation where something may or may not happen
Which do you think happens with humans? Why?
Humans exhibit the anticipatory stress response, well done us!! Turn on stress response for psychological reasons
- memory, emotions, thoughts
NOT what stress was designed for which leads to potential for chronic stress
Essentially the aim of the stress response is to return us to the homeostatic equilibrium we are in.
Acute or Chronic?
6
The meaning of sex
7
Fight or Flight
Tend and Befriend
Evolutionary
Protection of self and offspring
Nurturing offspring under stressful situation
Protect from harm (tend)
Create / join social groups to maximize resource and protection (befriend)
Evolutionary
Protection of self
Fight a stressor
Escape a stressor
Short lived
Few mins – Alive or dead
Most research based on males until the tend / befriend hypothesis produced. Mainly due to different cyclical variation in hormones and endocrine responses making research with women less predictable.
Not the whole story and we have biological and psychological differences later in the course!
Stress – The psychological approach
8
Stress as a response
The ways in which we respond to a stressor
Storm and stress approach
Coping & resilience
Effects of prolonged stress
Stress as a stimulus
Views stress as a significant life event or change that demands response, adjustment, or adaptation
Sees change as inherently stressful
Stress is dealt with uniformly across populations
Illness outcome thresholds are uniform
Stress as a transaction
Stress is a product of the human – environment transaction
Hardiness, resilience, locus of control and self-efficacy are important constructs
Duration of transaction (Episodic, Acute, Chronic)
Environmental stressors
9
Suboptimal environmental conditions pose demands that may exceed an individuals ability to cope
The imbalance between environmental demands and response capabilities is called…..?
…Stress
Environmental stressors include:
Chronic
Noise when living by a freeway
Acute
Noise when in a tunnel
Which is more ...
Promoting occupational stress management for a small office (final)Katrina Brown
The prevalence of stress throughout human civilization is a developing concern. Many are admittedly over-stressed in the workplace and studies have shown that stressful work environments lead to employee health problems and negative attitudes.Through my examination, I learned how to design a customized stress management program for employees by using an assessment of environmental stressors, health behavior limitations, and business culture.
This study aimed to assess the nature of stress, and
coping styles among rural and urban adolescents. Methods: 200
students in 10+2 and graduation first year of both genders in the
age range of 16-19 years were assessed with the Adolescent Stress
Scale, and a self-report coping scale. Results: The Result of
present study reveals that in both environmental settings male
reported more stress than their counterparts girls, however, to
utilize coping strategies female adolescents are in higher in
number than male adolescents. Conclusions: It is important for
research to examine how adolescents suffering from typical
stressors such as school examination, family conflict and poor
peer relations. Social support is likely one of the most important
resources in their coping process.
This study aimed to assess the nature of stress, and
coping styles among rural and urban adolescents. Methods: 200
students in 10+2 and graduation first year of both genders in the
age range of 16-19 years were assessed with the Adolescent Stress
Scale, and a self-report coping scale. Results: The Result of
present study reveals that in both environmental settings male
reported more stress than their counterparts girls, however, to
utilize coping strategies female adolescents are in higher in
number than male adolescents. Conclusions: It is important for
research to examine how adolescents suffering from typical
stressors such as school examination, family conflict and poor
peer relations. Social support is likely one of the most important
resources in their coping process.
?A landmark study and the many since that have supported the initial results have led to a growing consensus on the need for policies and practices to prevent, intervene, and promote healing" #AdverseChildhoodExperiences
Health Psychology Psychological Adjustment to the Disease, Disability and Lossijtsrd
This article discusses the psychological adjustment of adults to severe or incurable diseases or other loss. The stress that results from a diagnosis of illness or loss depends on many factors, such as the beliefs of each individual and the social context. Considering the diversity of human perceptions, feelings and behaviors, it was considered important for the present study to include a theory of stress and treatment related to physical illness. At the center of attention are end stage individuals, not their organic problems but mainly their psychological state and that of their families. Reference is then made to the loss of loved one and the period of mourning. As regards the disease response, there is a difference between the immediate reaction to loss, what we call mourning, and the adaptation to a new way of life without the loved one. Finally, the role of therapeutic communication between patients and their families and mental health professionals, as well as the need to maintain psychological balance, is also described. Agathi Argyriadi | Alexandros Argyriadis ""Health Psychology: Psychological Adjustment to the Disease, Disability and Loss"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-3 , April 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd23200.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/psychology/23200/health-psychology-psychological-adjustment-to-the-disease-disability-and-loss/agathi-argyriadi
Stress is very important word of our daily life. In a simple word, it is our response to real or imagined challenges or threats. • Stress influences human biology, physiology, behavior, emotion and cognitive process.
1. Running head: SOCIAL SUPPORT AND ADOLESCENT STRESS !1
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The Role of Family and Peer Social Support in Reported Adolescent Stress
Tabitha Smith
Western Washington University
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2. SOCIAL SUPPORT AND ADOLESCENT STRESS !2
The Role of Family and Peer Social Support in Reported Adolescent Stress
Stress. We all have experience with it. This is not necessarily a bad thing. Stress can help
us to focus and complete projects on time, help us to make the game winning basket, or help us
to survive in a life threatening situation. Experiencing stress can also be a bad thing, like being
excluded by a peer group, panicking over a test, or fighting with those closest to us. Stress is
defined as an individual appraising an event as a threat to the psychological or physiological self
(McEwen, 2000). When we experience a stressor, our body copes by producing specific
biological markers such as cortisol. These biological markers are protective in the short term but
damaging to our biological processes in the long term (McEwen, 2000). If a stressor happens
repeatedly, such as daily exclusion from a peer group, it is called chronic stress. One does not
have to experience the same stressor on a regular basis to have chronic stress, just repeated
activation of the stress response.
Chronic stress can have serious health implications, such as greater risk of cardiovascular
disease and lower immune functioning (Black & Garbutt, 2002). The effects of stress can have
an additive effect on a person, a principal called allostatic load. Allostatic load is the
physiological burden imposed by repeated stress activation (Geronimus, Hicken, Keene, &
Bound, 2006). This physiological burden has been shown to accelerate the disease process and
increase disease risk (e.g. cardiovascular disease). Early childhood experiences with multiple risk
factors, such as abuse, neglect, low socioeconomic status, contributes to allostatic load
(McEwen, 2000). However, the level of social support a person receives moderates the effects of
stress activation on health outcomes. A high level of social support equates with better health
outcomes, while a low level of social support is linked to higher mortality and lower immune
3. SOCIAL SUPPORT AND ADOLESCENT STRESS !3
functioning (Uchino, 2006). We will first discuss how risk factors in adolescence lead to greater
stress, then briefly discuss stress activation pathways, followed by discussing the role social
support from families and friends can play in moderating the effect of stress for adolescents.
“Development is a person-context interaction (Jessor, 1993, p. 119),” suggesting that how an
adolescent develops depends not only on their genetics, but also on the interactions that person
has with her environment (e.g. family, school, peers). Social environment and family risk factors
are related with adolescent risk behaviors and health compromising outcomes. Family, school,
and neighborhood are the three most important life contexts that affect an adolescent. These
contexts have the most influence on an adolescent’s development. These three settings also affect
each other and are influenced by a larger social-structural and cultural environment (e.g.
economic, political). These contexts influence the adolescent over time, with time also
interacting with the above contexts. These contexts influence adolescent development both
directly (i.e. family, school, neighborhood) as well as indirectly (e.g. economic, political)
(Bronfenbrenner, 1986 ; Jessor, 1993).
An adolescent may experience risk associated within one or more of these contexts, for
example being of low socioeconomic status (SES). Low-SES influences all three of the
important life contexts (family, school, neighborhood) the adolescent is in, this influence has the
possibility of increasing the risk factors an adolescent experiences (Miller & Chen, 2013).
Looking at the family context, low-SES can include exposure to unstable family dynamics,
caregivers who are unresponsive to an adolescents needs, lack of parental monitoring, household
crowding, or inadequate nutrition (Fergus & Zimmerman, 2005; Evans, 2004; Repetti, Taylor, &
Seeman, 2002). Looking at the neighborhood context, low-SES can include exposure to
4. SOCIAL SUPPORT AND ADOLESCENT STRESS !4
infectious microorganisms, industrial pollutants, or limited community resources (Fergus &
Zimmerman, 2005; Evans, 2004). These risk factors lead to a number of negative outcomes, such
as poor academic achievement, violent behavior, and a number of adult health problems (e.g.
cardiovascular disease) (Arnold & Doctorff, 2003). Low parental SES is known to increase child
cortisol levels and chronic stress. Chronic stress experienced by children damage the biological
and psychological regulatory processes (Evans & Kim, 2013). Low-SES children are exposed to
many more multiple stressors than their more economically advantaged peers. There are few
low-SES children who are exposed to only one or fewer stressors (Evans & English, 2002).
For stress experiences to increase health and behavior problems in adolescence, exposure
to multiple risk factors is what matters most. The cumulative risk research shows that co-
occurring risk factors have a deleterious effect on health and behavior outcomes (Appleyard,
Egeland, van Dulmen, & Sroufe, 2005; Sameroff, Seifer, Zax, & Barocas, 1987). The cumulative
risk hypothesis asserts that with increased risk factors come increased clinical problems
(Sameroff, 2000). The number of risk factors experienced is associated with adolescent mental
health, problem behaviors, and academic problems (Yates, Dodds, Sroufe, & Egeland, 2003).
Additionally, it is now clear that life course experiences contribute to a number of common
medical problems (e.g. heart disease, stroke; Miller & Chen, 2013). Several other risk factors
associated with adolescent mental health, problem behavior, and academic problems are:
unskilled parental occupation status, low maternal education status, disadvantaged minority
status, single parenthood, and stressful life events (Sameroff, 2000). However, socially
supportive relationships have positive effects on the health outcomes and the mortality rates
(Fergus & Zimmerman, 2005; Heinrichs, Baumgartner, Kirschbaum, & Ehlert, 2003).
5. SOCIAL SUPPORT AND ADOLESCENT STRESS !5
I will briefly discuss what systems are activated from a stress response, for a detailed review of
this process see other reviews (Gunnar & Quevedo, 2007; Ulrich-Lai & Herman, 2009). When
we appraise a situation as threatening, a stress response is activated within our body. The two
interrelated but distinct systems activated by appraising a situation as threatening are the
sympathetic nervous symptom (SNS) and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenalcortical (HPA) axis
(Gunnar & Quevedo, 2007). The SNS is responsible for releasing catecholamines such as
epinephrine (adrenaline), from the adrenal gland into the body. Epinephrine is a hormone
responsible for the fight or flight response. It is responsible for increasing the heart rate and
blood pressure, thus ensuring the body has enough oxygenated blood to send to the muscles so
we can run away or stay and fight. The HPA axis is responsible for producing glucocorticoids,
such as cortisol. Cortisol helps to mobilize the energy resources needed within the body during
stressful situations (McEwen, 1998). Glucocorticoids take about 25 minutes to be proceed to
peak levels within the body. Thus, the effects are slower to develop and last longer than the
hormones released by the SNS (Gunnar & Quevedo, 2007).
The actions of the SNS results in the activation of the HPA axis. The eventual aim of the
HPA axis is the activation of the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which is responsible for
turning off the stress response cascade initiated by the SNS and HPA systems. Usually, the
activation of these stress systems help to keep the body in allostasis (McEwen & Seeman, 1999).
However, frequent activation dysregulates these systems which inhibits the ability to turn off the
stress cascade. As such, the physiological systems impacted stay elevated, with cortisol not being
able to decrease or having habitually raised blood pressure and heart rate (Gunnar & Quevedo,
2007). When cortisol levels are elevated the immune system is suppressed, leading to greater
6. SOCIAL SUPPORT AND ADOLESCENT STRESS !6
vulnerability to illness (Ader, 2001). This system dysregulation increases the risk of both
physical and mental health problems (McEwen & Seeman, 1999). However, social support
reduces the effect physiological stress reactivity has on the body (Uchino, Cacioppo, & Kiecolt-
Glaser, 1996).
Social support may moderate stress reactivity at two points during the appraisal of a
stressful event. Social support may alter the appraisal itself, preventing a threatening event from
being perceived as stressful, which prevents the stress response activation. Alternatively, social
support may alter the period after appraisal, but before a prolonged physiological stress response
is activated. Perceived social support may help people to have better regulation or coping skills
for a stressful experience which reduces the physiological stress response (Cohen & Wills,
1985).
Social support attenuates the relationship between risk factors and the physiological
stress response activated by appraising an event as threatening (Eisenberger, Taylor, Gable,
Hillmert, & Lieberman, 2007; Heinrichs, Baumgartner, Kirschbaum, Ehlert, 2003; Uchino,
2006). In a laboratory study, participants completed the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) to induce
the stress response. The TSST consists of verbal mental arithmetic and public speaking
performed in front of a crowd. To test if social support does lower the stress response, half of the
participants were told to bring a friend. This friend was with them during their preparation for the
TSST tasks. Participants with a friend present experienced lower levels of cortisol activation
during the TSST tasks (Heinrichs, Baumgartner, Kirschbaum, Ehlert, 2003).
However, less social support increases an individual’s negative health risks, such as
earlier mortality rates, increased cardiovascular disease (Brummet et al., 2001), and depression
7. SOCIAL SUPPORT AND ADOLESCENT STRESS !7
(Sipal & Sayin, 2013). Social support is defined as social relationship processes that have the
ability to promote health and well-being (Cohen, Gottlieb, & Underwood, 2000) and refers to the
psychological and material resources received from belonging to a social group that can help an
individual to cope with stress (Cohen, 2000). Social support can come from a variety of sources,
including a partner, friends, or family. Social support may include distinct transactions where a
person receives benefits from someone else, or a person may feel they have access to help or
support from someone (Taylor, 2007). Social support is thought to buffer the effects of stress by
reducing the effects from a stressful experience through promoting the appropriate coping
mechanisms and reappraising the event as less threatening (Cohen, 2004).
During adolescence social support groups change, giving adolescents the ability to
receive support from multiple groups. More time is spent with friends in addition to a
considerable drop in the amount of time spent with parents. However, family influence over an
adolescent is still high, but the amount of influence changes depending on the cohesiveness of
the family and the closeness of friends (Steinberg & Morris, 2001). In a less cohesive family, the
influence a family has on an adolescent is low. For an adolescent with no close friends, family
influence is high (Gauze, Bukowski, Aquan-Assee, & Sippola, 1996). These different influences
can effect perceived support. We will be looking at the effect both family and friend social
support has on perceived stress experiences for adolescents.
There seem to be gender differences in the effect social support plays in moderating the
relationship between risk factors and stress (Rueger, Malecki, & Demaray, 2010). While both
boys and girls report similar levels of family social support (Rueger, Malecki, & Demaray,
2010), girls report higher levels of peer social support than boys (Cheng & Chan, 2004; Furman
8. SOCIAL SUPPORT AND ADOLESCENT STRESS !8
& Buhrmester, 1992). Girls also report receiving more social support from peers than from their
parents, while boys report more social support from their parents (Frey & Röthlisberger, 1996).
High levels of family social support have been consistently associated with lower depression,
higher self-esteem, and better academic adjustment. In contrast, low levels of family social
support is associated with psychological distress and emotional problems (Rueger, Malecki, &
Demaray, 2010). There is evidence for both low levels of family social support not being
compensated by high levels of peer support (van Beest & Baerveldt, 1999), and evidence that
high peer social support can compensate for of family social support (Barrera & Garrison-Jones,
1992).
Family social support as perceived by an adolescent is expected to moderate the link
between risk factors and experienced stress (Barrera & Garrison-Jones, 1992). In a study using
an inpatient population of depressed adolescents, adolescents who perceived more social support
from families had fewer depressive symptoms than adolescents who perceived low levels of
social support from their families (Barrera & Garrison-Jones, 1992). Low friend social support
can increase an adolescent’s stress response when being excluded by their peers, while
perceiving high friend social support can decrease the stress response when excluded by peers
(Rigby, 2000; Peters, Riksen-Walraven, Cillessen, & de Weerth, 2011). In an inpatient population
of depressed adolescents, those who perceived high friend social support experienced fewer
depressive symptoms, but only when perceived family social support was low (Barrera &
Garrison-Jones, 1992).
We designed the following hypothesis to determine if the number of risk factors moderate
type of support (peer vs family) effect on stress. Overall, adolescents with more risk factors will
9. SOCIAL SUPPORT AND ADOLESCENT STRESS !9
report higher levels of stress. Adolescents with more social support will report lower levels of
stress. This relationship is expected to be present for both family and peer social support. The
effect of family vs friend support on stress is expected to vary depending on the amount of risk
the adolescent experiences. For adolescents with more risk factors, family social support will
result in lower levels of reported stress. Low levels of family social support will result in higher
levels of reported stress. Adolescents with more risk factors and high levels of peer social
support will report lower levels of stress, while low peer social support will result in higher
reported levels of stress.
Method
Participants
This sample consisted of 276 parents and adolescents. The number of participants varied
slightly, ranging from 244 to 276, depending on the analysis that was examined. We used all data
available for each analysis. The primary responder (parent) in each sample was predominately
white (85.5%), 7.2% black, 2.9% Hispanic, and the remaining identified as multi-racial or Asian
Pacific Islander, with 1.4% not specifying. Most target parents were in monogamous
relationships (80.5%), 15.8% were divorced or separated, 3.7% were never married. Adolescents
were 53.9% female and 45.4% male, with .7% not indicating sex. The average age of the
adolescents was 15.4 years (1.59). Most participants were middle-upper class in socioeconomic
status, with 20.4% indicating that they earned more than $100,000 per year. This sample was
taken from a larger sample of five hundred families, who were recruited from seven different
sites throughout the U.S., located in the Midwest, Southeast, Northeast, and West Coast.
Measures
10. SOCIAL SUPPORT AND ADOLESCENT STRESS !10
Stress. Adolescent’s reports of stress were obtained from the experience sampling portion of this
study. For each experience sampling reading, adolescents responded to the question: As you were
beeped were you feeling… “nervous”, “strained”, or “stressed”. Adolescents chose a response on
a scale of zero (not at all) to three (very much). Responses to these three items were positively
associated, Cronbach’s alpha = .793. A mean was taken for each of the three measures as they
were reported for each experience sampling moment. Next, all of the momentary stress scores for
a particular individual were combined to form an average level of stress for each person. This
score summarizes the adolescents’ average level of stress as it was reported over the course of
the experience sampling portion of the study. This stress measure ranged from zero to 2.06, M = .
50, SD = .39. The distribution was positively skewed suggesting that adolescents reported very
little stress overall.
Social Support. Peer support was measured through teen responses to 5-items. Teens responded
to questions such as “my friends care about how I am” and “I can count on my friends” using
response options from 1 (never true) to 5 (always true). The peer social support measure was
reliable with a cronbachs alpha = .82 (m = 4.00, sd = 0.74). Responses ranged from 1 through 5,
and the overall distribution was negatively skewed. Six items were used to capture social support
from mothers while six items captured social support from fathers. These 12 items were
combined to form a single measure of social support from parents. If measures of support were
only available from one parent, that parent’s supportive information was used. Questions
included “I can depend on my [mother/father] for help with problems” and “My mom/dad helps
me talk about feelings”. Response options ranged from 1 (never true) to 5 (always true), with
higher values indicating more family support. The measure of parent support was reliable
11. SOCIAL SUPPORT AND ADOLESCENT STRESS !11
(cronbachs alpha = .86, m = 3.11, sd = .69). Responses were normally distributed with a low
score of 1.25 and a high score of 5.
Cumulative Risk. The measure of cumulative risk used in this study was formed by combining 13
dichotomous indicators of risk. For each of the 13 factors, a score of one was used to indicate
high risk and a score of zero was used to indicate low risk. When two family members both
reported on risk items, the average of both reports was used to indicate the level of household
risk. Mothers and fathers level of education were used as separate indicators of risk. Those who
had high school education or less were coded as high risk for the purposes of this study. Total
household income in the last year was counted as a risk factor if a household earned less than
$20,000 in the previous year. A fourth risk factor indicated that someone in the family was
unemployed and in need of work. One risk factor was given to those who were employed in
temporary or seasonal work and single parent families were given a score of one. Parent age at
the time of the birth of the oldest child was used to calculate a dichotomous risk factor that was
given a score of one if a parent was under age 22 at the time of the birth of the first child. Young
mothers and fathers both counted as separate risk factors.
The 500 Families Study used standardized metrics of job prestige and of SES. Prestige
scores were coded according to Nakao and Treas (1994), while SES were coded according to
Duncan SEI scores. Level of risk for prestige and SEI score were determined, for this study, by
choosing the lowest quintile of the scores in this sample, consistent with previous research
(Sameroff, 2005). Mothers’ and fathers’ job prestige and SEI were considered separately,
yielding four additional employment risk factors. For father’s prestige score a score of one was
given to all men with a prestige score of lower than 34, while the cutoff from mother’s was 32.
12. SOCIAL SUPPORT AND ADOLESCENT STRESS !12
SEI scores were cut off at a score of 380 or lower indicating risk for men, and a score of 374 or
lower indicating risk for women. The final risk factor was formed from a measure of the number
of months the primary respondent had been employed in their current position. Those who had
been employed for less than one year were assigned one risk factor. The sum of all 13 risk factors
was taken to form a measure of cumulative risk. The cumulative risk variable was exceptionally
skewed, M = 1.24, SD = 1.24. The variable ranged from zero to a maximum of seven and well
over half of the sample had a score of one or less on cumulative risk.
Procedure
This data was collected between 1999-2000. Researchers met individually within each
family’s home. The adolescents in this study took part in an experience-sampling project (ESM)
for seven consecutive days. Thus, each participant was signaled a total of 56 times. Adolescents
wore wristwatches that signaled them randomly eight times per day between 7:30 AM and 10:30
PM. At the time they were signaled, adolescents reported their current activities and emotions,
including level of stress and perceptions of control. Participants, on average, provided 30.06 (SD
=15.05) ESM reports.
Results
There was a negative bivariate association between stress and risk, indicating that those
families with relatively more risk reported less stress overall (r = -.144, p = .017) however, there
were no associations between level of risk and adolescents report of either parental or peer
support, r = -.08, p = .201, r = -.00, p = .950, respectively. In addition, neither adolescent reports
of support received from parents nor support received from peers was associated with their
13. SOCIAL SUPPORT AND ADOLESCENT STRESS !13
reports of stress, r = -.01, p = .87, r = -.04, p = .51, respectively. Adolescents who reported more
support from their peers also tended to report more support from parents (r = .18, p = .006).
Two multiple regression analyses were conducted to examine the role of peer support and
parent support as they interact with multiple risk in predicting adolescent stress. The first
analysis examined adolescent reports of parent support and cumulative risk status as well as the
interaction between those two factors in predicting stress. No unique effect of risk was found on
stress, no unique effect of parent support was found on stress, and there was no evidence of an
interaction between cumulative risk and parent support in predicting teen stress. The second
analysis tested the role of peer support in cumulative risk in predicting stress. For this analysis,
there was a statistically significant effect of cumulative risk on stress, suggesting that those with
higher levels of risk reported less stress. However, there was no effect of peer support on stress,
nor any interaction between cumulative risk and peer support.
Discussion
Our results indicate that none of our hypotheses were supported by the data. Overall, teen
reports of both peer support and parent support did not predict stress. We also did not find an
interaction in either the peer or family support models, thus the association between risk and
stress did not differ for people high or low in either peer or parent support. However, we did find
that parent support was positively related to peer support, meaning that more parental support
was related to more peer support. We also had a main effect of multiple risk on stress in the peer
support model. This suggests that adolescents with higher levels of risk reported less stress.
Overall, our adolescent population reported very low levels of stress, lending credence to those
researchers who are going away from the storm-and-stress model of adolescence.
14. SOCIAL SUPPORT AND ADOLESCENT STRESS !14
The storm-and-stress model of adolescence is the idea that adolescence is the period of
life that is the most difficult to go through for both the adolescent and others around them
(Buchanen et al., 1990). However, current psychologists have rejected the notion that the storm-
and-stress model is actually universal and inevitable (Arnett, 1999). The storm-and-stress model
has less relevance with an upper middle class population as they are not subjected to the same
level of stressors as adolescents who belong to a lower socioeconomic status (Elkin & Westley,
1955). Additionally, adolescents who belong to a high SES group experience significantly lower
levels of negative life change overall than their low SES counterparts (Gad & Johnson, 1980).
Our results are in line with stress experiences in upper middle class adolescents. Since upper
middle class adolescents experience low levels of stress on average, our results make sense. We
wouldn’t expect to find an adolescent population like ours to experience high levels of stress or
even moderate levels of stress or risk factors (Evens & English, 2002). It also makes sense that
peer or family social support would not be found to influence stress levels in a population with
near non-existent stress levels.
Exposure to stress during adolescence is a large factor in determining vulnerability to
later psychopathologies (Grant et al., 2003). Due to the negative health risks associated with
stress, it is reassuring that there are populations of adolescents who are basically unstressed. As
our population was predominantly upper middle class, it would be beneficial to look into why
this population experiences low stress and low risk as compared to other socioeconomic groups.
While it is possible that the deciding factor for stress and risk levels is lower socioeconomic
status, it is also likely that other factors (e.g. low maternal nurturing, minimal access to
healthcare) are contributing to increased stress and risk experiences in other socioeconomic
15. SOCIAL SUPPORT AND ADOLESCENT STRESS !15
levels. If high maternal nurturing or increased access to healthcare is contributing to lower stress
and risk experiences for upper middle class adolescents, than increasing maternal nurturing and
healthcare access for other socioeconomic groups could potentially lower stress and risk
experiences for those adolescents.
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