The document provides an overview of map projections, which are mathematical transformations that convert the spherical coordinates on the Earth's surface to planar coordinates that can be represented on a map. It discusses the different types of projections, including cylindrical, conical, and planar projections. It also covers important concepts like datums, ellipsoids, and how different projections preserve properties like shapes, distances, areas, or directions to varying degrees based on their mathematical properties and construction.
This Presentation is to made concepts about measuring the earth (to locate position of any person on the whole earth). For this purpose we re going step by step basis in this presentation.These steps are mentioned as contents. After that you may able to learn about measuring a person's position of earth. Thank you!
A graticule is a network of lines, sometimes described as a grid, that is used for geographic plotting, scale, and focusing depending on the application. A common example is a grid of lines on a map corresponding to longitude and latitude.
Combined gis 2(GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM)musadoto
Distortions
• The earth is spherical, and a simple way of mapping it without distortion is to map it on a globe. However, mapping on globes is not possible.
• The transformation from the three-dimensional ellipsoid/sphere to the two-dimensional plane (flat) surface is not possible without some form of distortion.
• The distortions increase as the distance from the central point of the projection increases
• Areas smaller than 25 x 25 km:
No distortions
• Areas larger than 25 x 25 km:
Always distortions
• Map projections are used to control/minimize the distortions
Classification and properties of map projections
Properties of map projections
• Areas are everywhere correctly represented
• All distances are correctly represented
• All directions on the map are the same as on Earth
• All angles are correctly represented
• The shape of any area is correctly represented (e.g. a circle projected would remain a circle)
This document discusses different types of map projections. It begins by defining map projection as a systematic drawing of parallels and meridians on a plane surface that corresponds to locations on Earth. It notes that all projections necessarily distort the surface in some way. Projections are classified based on their construction method, development surface, preserved properties, and position of the light source. Common projection types discussed include cylindrical, conic, azimuthal, Mercator, sinusoidal, and polyconic. The key properties and uses of each type are outlined. The document emphasizes that the purpose of the map determines the best projection to use.
This document discusses map projections and their properties. It begins by defining a map and map scale. It then explains that a map projection is a transformation from the spherical Earth onto a flat surface, which inevitably causes some distortion. Projections are classified based on the surface used, and the main types are cylindrical, conic, and planar/azimuthal. Several commonly used projections are described, including Mercator, UTM, Lambert Conformal Conic, and Albers Equal-Area Conic. The document concludes that map projections allow the representation of the spherical Earth on a flat plane and are essential for mapmaking.
Different types of Important projection systems & Coordinate systems.Every country would like to represent it's self in true shape, if shape changes then size , area also changes so that leads to distortions on the global properties of a map like Distance,direction,shape ,Area. so no country or continent will never like to represent themselves distorted , so hundreds of projections were developed by counties across the world.
This document provides information about basic concepts related to charts used for aviation purposes. It discusses key terms like maps, charts, projections and distortions that occur when representing the spherical Earth on a flat surface. It also describes different types of projections including plane, conical, cylindrical and their characteristics. Specific projections like Mercator and Lambert Conformal are explained in more detail.
This Presentation is to made concepts about measuring the earth (to locate position of any person on the whole earth). For this purpose we re going step by step basis in this presentation.These steps are mentioned as contents. After that you may able to learn about measuring a person's position of earth. Thank you!
A graticule is a network of lines, sometimes described as a grid, that is used for geographic plotting, scale, and focusing depending on the application. A common example is a grid of lines on a map corresponding to longitude and latitude.
Combined gis 2(GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM)musadoto
Distortions
• The earth is spherical, and a simple way of mapping it without distortion is to map it on a globe. However, mapping on globes is not possible.
• The transformation from the three-dimensional ellipsoid/sphere to the two-dimensional plane (flat) surface is not possible without some form of distortion.
• The distortions increase as the distance from the central point of the projection increases
• Areas smaller than 25 x 25 km:
No distortions
• Areas larger than 25 x 25 km:
Always distortions
• Map projections are used to control/minimize the distortions
Classification and properties of map projections
Properties of map projections
• Areas are everywhere correctly represented
• All distances are correctly represented
• All directions on the map are the same as on Earth
• All angles are correctly represented
• The shape of any area is correctly represented (e.g. a circle projected would remain a circle)
This document discusses different types of map projections. It begins by defining map projection as a systematic drawing of parallels and meridians on a plane surface that corresponds to locations on Earth. It notes that all projections necessarily distort the surface in some way. Projections are classified based on their construction method, development surface, preserved properties, and position of the light source. Common projection types discussed include cylindrical, conic, azimuthal, Mercator, sinusoidal, and polyconic. The key properties and uses of each type are outlined. The document emphasizes that the purpose of the map determines the best projection to use.
This document discusses map projections and their properties. It begins by defining a map and map scale. It then explains that a map projection is a transformation from the spherical Earth onto a flat surface, which inevitably causes some distortion. Projections are classified based on the surface used, and the main types are cylindrical, conic, and planar/azimuthal. Several commonly used projections are described, including Mercator, UTM, Lambert Conformal Conic, and Albers Equal-Area Conic. The document concludes that map projections allow the representation of the spherical Earth on a flat plane and are essential for mapmaking.
Different types of Important projection systems & Coordinate systems.Every country would like to represent it's self in true shape, if shape changes then size , area also changes so that leads to distortions on the global properties of a map like Distance,direction,shape ,Area. so no country or continent will never like to represent themselves distorted , so hundreds of projections were developed by counties across the world.
This document provides information about basic concepts related to charts used for aviation purposes. It discusses key terms like maps, charts, projections and distortions that occur when representing the spherical Earth on a flat surface. It also describes different types of projections including plane, conical, cylindrical and their characteristics. Specific projections like Mercator and Lambert Conformal are explained in more detail.
This document provides an overview of maps and map projections. It defines what a map is, discusses scale and map projections, and classifies the main types of projections as cylindrical, conic, and planar. It then describes some commonly used projections in more detail, like the Mercator, UTM grid, Lambert Conformal Conic, and Albers Equal-Area Conic projections. The document concludes that map projections transform the spherical Earth into a flat plane and are fundamental to mapmaking.
Map projections and its types explanation and examples.pptxChShakeelAhmedMayo
- Map projections transform the Earth's curved surface onto a flat plane, inherently distorting area, shape, direction, or distance.
- There are four main categories of projections: cylindrical, conic, azimuthal, and pseudocylindrical. Each projects the Earth onto a different geometric surface.
- Important properties of projections include whether they preserve area, shape, direction or distance. No single projection can preserve all properties simultaneously without some distortion.
This document discusses different types of map projections used to represent the spherical Earth on a flat surface. It describes cylindrical, conic, and azimuthal projections. Cylindrical projections have straight, perpendicular lines of longitude and latitude and include the Mercator projection. Conic projections are fan-shaped and have minimal distortion along a central line. Azimuthal projections radiate from a central point and preserve directions from that point. The document provides examples like the Robinson, Polyconic, and Lambert azimuthal equal area projections. It concludes that the selection of map projection depends on the map's intended purpose.
The document discusses different types of map projections used to represent the spherical Earth on a flat surface. It begins by explaining that map projections transform 3D global coordinates to 2D planar coordinates, which necessarily distorts properties like distances, angles, or areas. It then covers key projection categories (cylindrical, conic, azimuthal), their characteristic properties and examples. Specific projections discussed include Mercator, UTM, and polar stereographic. The document emphasizes that the appropriate projection depends on the map's intended use and which distortions are least important. It encourages map users to understand basic projection concepts.
Projections are an essentials part of every datasets. Basically, a projection is the mathematical operation needed to go from the planet actual shape to a flat map according to the Geographic Coordinate System.
This document discusses different types of map projections used to represent the spherical earth on a flat surface. It describes how all projections involve some distortion of properties like shapes, areas, distances or directions. The key types are conformal, equivalent, and equidistant projections. It explains the concepts of projection surfaces like cones, cylinders and planes, as well as variables like the light source and orientation. Specific common projections are also outlined, such as Mercator, Lambert conformal conic, and azimuthal equidistant, along with their characteristic distortions and uses.
Remote sensing and GIS techniques are useful tools for civil engineering projects. There are several models that can be used to represent the shape of the Earth, including flat, spherical, and ellipsoidal models. The ellipsoidal model is needed for accurate measurements over long distances. A geodetic datum defines the parameters of the reference ellipsoid and the orientation of the coordinate system grid. Common datums include NAD27 and NAD83, and transformations allow conversion between them. Map projections, such as Mercator and UTM, are used to represent the 3D Earth on a 2D surface, inevitably distorting some spatial properties like shape, area, or distance.
A map projection is a systematic transformation of the latitudes and longitudes of locations from the surface of a sphere or an ellipsoid into locations on a plane. Maps cannot be created without map projections.
coordinate systems map Projections and Atoms ppt - - Copy.pptxBakhtAli10
This document discusses coordinate systems, geodetic datums, and map projections. It defines coordinate systems as reference systems that locate geographic features within a common framework. The two main types are geographic coordinate systems (GCS) that use latitude and longitude, and projected coordinate systems (PCS) that convert GCS to planar coordinates for mapping. Geodetic datums define the position and orientation of reference spheroids used in GCS. Common datums include NAD27 and NAD83. Map projections convert the spherical Earth to flat maps, necessarily introducing distortions of shapes, distances, areas, or directions depending on the specific projection used.
Cartography is the science of map making related to geography, mathematics, geodesy, and human habitat, economy and society. Its a discipline developed during the early period of human civilization. With the development of science and technology, it has changed its paradigm twice. Its been digital, more integrated and very useful global media for communication.
Projecting maps involves converting the spherical earth into a flat plane, which inevitably causes some distortion of properties like angles, areas, directions, and shapes. There are three main types of map projections - cylindrical, conical, and planar - which involve wrapping a lighted globe onto different geometric surfaces like a cylinder, cone, or flat plane. The Mercator projection specifically was created to aid navigation by representing lines of constant bearing as straight lines, though it distorts the relative sizes of land areas farther from the equator. The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) system divides the earth into zones and uses the Mercator projection locally in each to assign Cartesian coordinates.
Map projections convert latitude and longitude coordinates on a spherical Earth into two-dimensional planar coordinates by applying a mathematical transformation. They define a coordinate system and allow measurement of horizontal and vertical distances to establish positions of geographic features. Creating a projection involves selecting an Earth model (sphere or ellipsoid) and transforming geographic to planar coordinates. Common projections preserve either shapes, areas, distances or directions depending on the mapping needs.
This document provides information on map projections. It defines map projection as a systematic transformation of locations on Earth onto a plane. It discusses the three main types of projections: planar, cylindrical, and conic. Planar projections center on a point and are accurate near the center, cylindrical projections are rolled onto a cylinder and accurate along the equator, and conic projections use a cone and are suited to limited east-west areas near the equator. It also discusses properties like shape, area, direction, and distance distortions that occur in projections and notes no projection is perfect. Common projections like Mercator, UTM, and Robinson are described.
This document discusses map projections and their properties. Map projections transform the three-dimensional globe onto a two-dimensional surface, necessarily introducing some distortions. The best projection depends on the map's purpose and region. Common projections include cylindrical (like Mercator), conic, and planar/polar types. Key properties that projections aim to preserve, like shape, area, distance and direction, often involve tradeoffs. Choosing a projection minimizes distortions for a map's intended use and geographic extent.
This document discusses geographic coordinate systems and datums. It defines key concepts like meridians, parallels, latitude and longitude. It explains that a geographic coordinate system uses these angular units to define positions on Earth's surface based on a spheroid model. A projected coordinate system is then needed to convert spherical coordinates to a flat plane for use in GIS since data often comes in geographic coordinates that can't be used for area calculations. It also discusses datums, which provide reference points for geographic information, and common datums used globally and in Bangladesh.
This document discusses map projections, which are methods for representing the curved surface of the Earth on a flat plane. It covers the differences between globes and maps, the developable versus undevelopable surfaces, and various ways of classifying map projections based on their construction method, developable surface, orientation, desired attributes preserved, and viewpoint or light source location. The key types of map projections mentioned are cylindrical, conical, zenithal, perspective, and non-perspective projections.
The document discusses key concepts related to maps including:
1. Maps provide spatial representations that show distance, direction, size and shape to depict what is located where. However, maps inherently distort representations of the curved Earth onto a flat surface.
2. Map scale expresses the relationship between distances on a map and the actual distances on the ground through graphic, fractional or verbal scales. Large and small scale maps portray different sized areas at different levels of detail.
3. Key components of maps include titles, dates, legends, scales, directions, locations, data sources and projection types. Globes can more accurately depict spatial relationships but maps are more practical.
Map projections allow geographic information on the spherical Earth to be represented on a flat surface like a map. There are many types of map projections that preserve different spatial properties through various techniques. The key types are cylindrical, conic, and planar/azimuthal projections which result from projecting graticules from a globe onto developable surfaces like cylinders, cones, or planes. Properties like area, shape, direction, and distance are differently preserved depending on the specific projection used.
Spheroid, datum, projection, and coordinate systems are used to locate positions on Earth. A spheroid is a mathematical model that approximates the Earth's shape as an oblate spheroid. A datum defines the reference frame for latitude and longitude coordinates and relates the spheroid to the Earth's center. Projections transform 3D spheroid coordinates onto a 2D surface like a map, introducing some distortion of shapes, areas, distances or directions. Common projections include transverse Mercator, UTM, and lambert conformal conic. Coordinate systems then allow measurement of positions on the projected 2D surface. Understanding these concepts is important for accurately locating geographic features.
The document discusses coordinate systems and geo-referencing. It describes geographic coordinate systems (GCS) which use latitude and longitude based on an ellipsoid and datum. It also describes projected coordinate systems (PCS) which use x,y coordinates on a flat plane for mapping purposes. The document outlines how different map projections transform the ellipsoid to the flat plane, introducing various types of distortion. It emphasizes the importance of coordinate systems and transformations for accurately locating points on maps and overlaying spatial data.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
This document provides an overview of maps and map projections. It defines what a map is, discusses scale and map projections, and classifies the main types of projections as cylindrical, conic, and planar. It then describes some commonly used projections in more detail, like the Mercator, UTM grid, Lambert Conformal Conic, and Albers Equal-Area Conic projections. The document concludes that map projections transform the spherical Earth into a flat plane and are fundamental to mapmaking.
Map projections and its types explanation and examples.pptxChShakeelAhmedMayo
- Map projections transform the Earth's curved surface onto a flat plane, inherently distorting area, shape, direction, or distance.
- There are four main categories of projections: cylindrical, conic, azimuthal, and pseudocylindrical. Each projects the Earth onto a different geometric surface.
- Important properties of projections include whether they preserve area, shape, direction or distance. No single projection can preserve all properties simultaneously without some distortion.
This document discusses different types of map projections used to represent the spherical Earth on a flat surface. It describes cylindrical, conic, and azimuthal projections. Cylindrical projections have straight, perpendicular lines of longitude and latitude and include the Mercator projection. Conic projections are fan-shaped and have minimal distortion along a central line. Azimuthal projections radiate from a central point and preserve directions from that point. The document provides examples like the Robinson, Polyconic, and Lambert azimuthal equal area projections. It concludes that the selection of map projection depends on the map's intended purpose.
The document discusses different types of map projections used to represent the spherical Earth on a flat surface. It begins by explaining that map projections transform 3D global coordinates to 2D planar coordinates, which necessarily distorts properties like distances, angles, or areas. It then covers key projection categories (cylindrical, conic, azimuthal), their characteristic properties and examples. Specific projections discussed include Mercator, UTM, and polar stereographic. The document emphasizes that the appropriate projection depends on the map's intended use and which distortions are least important. It encourages map users to understand basic projection concepts.
Projections are an essentials part of every datasets. Basically, a projection is the mathematical operation needed to go from the planet actual shape to a flat map according to the Geographic Coordinate System.
This document discusses different types of map projections used to represent the spherical earth on a flat surface. It describes how all projections involve some distortion of properties like shapes, areas, distances or directions. The key types are conformal, equivalent, and equidistant projections. It explains the concepts of projection surfaces like cones, cylinders and planes, as well as variables like the light source and orientation. Specific common projections are also outlined, such as Mercator, Lambert conformal conic, and azimuthal equidistant, along with their characteristic distortions and uses.
Remote sensing and GIS techniques are useful tools for civil engineering projects. There are several models that can be used to represent the shape of the Earth, including flat, spherical, and ellipsoidal models. The ellipsoidal model is needed for accurate measurements over long distances. A geodetic datum defines the parameters of the reference ellipsoid and the orientation of the coordinate system grid. Common datums include NAD27 and NAD83, and transformations allow conversion between them. Map projections, such as Mercator and UTM, are used to represent the 3D Earth on a 2D surface, inevitably distorting some spatial properties like shape, area, or distance.
A map projection is a systematic transformation of the latitudes and longitudes of locations from the surface of a sphere or an ellipsoid into locations on a plane. Maps cannot be created without map projections.
coordinate systems map Projections and Atoms ppt - - Copy.pptxBakhtAli10
This document discusses coordinate systems, geodetic datums, and map projections. It defines coordinate systems as reference systems that locate geographic features within a common framework. The two main types are geographic coordinate systems (GCS) that use latitude and longitude, and projected coordinate systems (PCS) that convert GCS to planar coordinates for mapping. Geodetic datums define the position and orientation of reference spheroids used in GCS. Common datums include NAD27 and NAD83. Map projections convert the spherical Earth to flat maps, necessarily introducing distortions of shapes, distances, areas, or directions depending on the specific projection used.
Cartography is the science of map making related to geography, mathematics, geodesy, and human habitat, economy and society. Its a discipline developed during the early period of human civilization. With the development of science and technology, it has changed its paradigm twice. Its been digital, more integrated and very useful global media for communication.
Projecting maps involves converting the spherical earth into a flat plane, which inevitably causes some distortion of properties like angles, areas, directions, and shapes. There are three main types of map projections - cylindrical, conical, and planar - which involve wrapping a lighted globe onto different geometric surfaces like a cylinder, cone, or flat plane. The Mercator projection specifically was created to aid navigation by representing lines of constant bearing as straight lines, though it distorts the relative sizes of land areas farther from the equator. The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) system divides the earth into zones and uses the Mercator projection locally in each to assign Cartesian coordinates.
Map projections convert latitude and longitude coordinates on a spherical Earth into two-dimensional planar coordinates by applying a mathematical transformation. They define a coordinate system and allow measurement of horizontal and vertical distances to establish positions of geographic features. Creating a projection involves selecting an Earth model (sphere or ellipsoid) and transforming geographic to planar coordinates. Common projections preserve either shapes, areas, distances or directions depending on the mapping needs.
This document provides information on map projections. It defines map projection as a systematic transformation of locations on Earth onto a plane. It discusses the three main types of projections: planar, cylindrical, and conic. Planar projections center on a point and are accurate near the center, cylindrical projections are rolled onto a cylinder and accurate along the equator, and conic projections use a cone and are suited to limited east-west areas near the equator. It also discusses properties like shape, area, direction, and distance distortions that occur in projections and notes no projection is perfect. Common projections like Mercator, UTM, and Robinson are described.
This document discusses map projections and their properties. Map projections transform the three-dimensional globe onto a two-dimensional surface, necessarily introducing some distortions. The best projection depends on the map's purpose and region. Common projections include cylindrical (like Mercator), conic, and planar/polar types. Key properties that projections aim to preserve, like shape, area, distance and direction, often involve tradeoffs. Choosing a projection minimizes distortions for a map's intended use and geographic extent.
This document discusses geographic coordinate systems and datums. It defines key concepts like meridians, parallels, latitude and longitude. It explains that a geographic coordinate system uses these angular units to define positions on Earth's surface based on a spheroid model. A projected coordinate system is then needed to convert spherical coordinates to a flat plane for use in GIS since data often comes in geographic coordinates that can't be used for area calculations. It also discusses datums, which provide reference points for geographic information, and common datums used globally and in Bangladesh.
This document discusses map projections, which are methods for representing the curved surface of the Earth on a flat plane. It covers the differences between globes and maps, the developable versus undevelopable surfaces, and various ways of classifying map projections based on their construction method, developable surface, orientation, desired attributes preserved, and viewpoint or light source location. The key types of map projections mentioned are cylindrical, conical, zenithal, perspective, and non-perspective projections.
The document discusses key concepts related to maps including:
1. Maps provide spatial representations that show distance, direction, size and shape to depict what is located where. However, maps inherently distort representations of the curved Earth onto a flat surface.
2. Map scale expresses the relationship between distances on a map and the actual distances on the ground through graphic, fractional or verbal scales. Large and small scale maps portray different sized areas at different levels of detail.
3. Key components of maps include titles, dates, legends, scales, directions, locations, data sources and projection types. Globes can more accurately depict spatial relationships but maps are more practical.
Map projections allow geographic information on the spherical Earth to be represented on a flat surface like a map. There are many types of map projections that preserve different spatial properties through various techniques. The key types are cylindrical, conic, and planar/azimuthal projections which result from projecting graticules from a globe onto developable surfaces like cylinders, cones, or planes. Properties like area, shape, direction, and distance are differently preserved depending on the specific projection used.
Spheroid, datum, projection, and coordinate systems are used to locate positions on Earth. A spheroid is a mathematical model that approximates the Earth's shape as an oblate spheroid. A datum defines the reference frame for latitude and longitude coordinates and relates the spheroid to the Earth's center. Projections transform 3D spheroid coordinates onto a 2D surface like a map, introducing some distortion of shapes, areas, distances or directions. Common projections include transverse Mercator, UTM, and lambert conformal conic. Coordinate systems then allow measurement of positions on the projected 2D surface. Understanding these concepts is important for accurately locating geographic features.
The document discusses coordinate systems and geo-referencing. It describes geographic coordinate systems (GCS) which use latitude and longitude based on an ellipsoid and datum. It also describes projected coordinate systems (PCS) which use x,y coordinates on a flat plane for mapping purposes. The document outlines how different map projections transform the ellipsoid to the flat plane, introducing various types of distortion. It emphasizes the importance of coordinate systems and transformations for accurately locating points on maps and overlaying spatial data.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
The binding of cosmological structures by massless topological defectsSérgio Sacani
Assuming spherical symmetry and weak field, it is shown that if one solves the Poisson equation or the Einstein field
equations sourced by a topological defect, i.e. a singularity of a very specific form, the result is a localized gravitational
field capable of driving flat rotation (i.e. Keplerian circular orbits at a constant speed for all radii) of test masses on a thin
spherical shell without any underlying mass. Moreover, a large-scale structure which exploits this solution by assembling
concentrically a number of such topological defects can establish a flat stellar or galactic rotation curve, and can also deflect
light in the same manner as an equipotential (isothermal) sphere. Thus, the need for dark matter or modified gravity theory is
mitigated, at least in part.
Phenomics assisted breeding in crop improvementIshaGoswami9
As the population is increasing and will reach about 9 billion upto 2050. Also due to climate change, it is difficult to meet the food requirement of such a large population. Facing the challenges presented by resource shortages, climate
change, and increasing global population, crop yield and quality need to be improved in a sustainable way over the coming decades. Genetic improvement by breeding is the best way to increase crop productivity. With the rapid progression of functional
genomics, an increasing number of crop genomes have been sequenced and dozens of genes influencing key agronomic traits have been identified. However, current genome sequence information has not been adequately exploited for understanding
the complex characteristics of multiple gene, owing to a lack of crop phenotypic data. Efficient, automatic, and accurate technologies and platforms that can capture phenotypic data that can
be linked to genomics information for crop improvement at all growth stages have become as important as genotyping. Thus,
high-throughput phenotyping has become the major bottleneck restricting crop breeding. Plant phenomics has been defined as the high-throughput, accurate acquisition and analysis of multi-dimensional phenotypes
during crop growing stages at the organism level, including the cell, tissue, organ, individual plant, plot, and field levels. With the rapid development of novel sensors, imaging technology,
and analysis methods, numerous infrastructure platforms have been developed for phenotyping.
ANAMOLOUS SECONDARY GROWTH IN DICOT ROOTS.pptxRASHMI M G
Abnormal or anomalous secondary growth in plants. It defines secondary growth as an increase in plant girth due to vascular cambium or cork cambium. Anomalous secondary growth does not follow the normal pattern of a single vascular cambium producing xylem internally and phloem externally.
hematic appreciation test is a psychological assessment tool used to measure an individual's appreciation and understanding of specific themes or topics. This test helps to evaluate an individual's ability to connect different ideas and concepts within a given theme, as well as their overall comprehension and interpretation skills. The results of the test can provide valuable insights into an individual's cognitive abilities, creativity, and critical thinking skills
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
ESR spectroscopy in liquid food and beverages.pptxPRIYANKA PATEL
With increasing population, people need to rely on packaged food stuffs. Packaging of food materials requires the preservation of food. There are various methods for the treatment of food to preserve them and irradiation treatment of food is one of them. It is the most common and the most harmless method for the food preservation as it does not alter the necessary micronutrients of food materials. Although irradiated food doesn’t cause any harm to the human health but still the quality assessment of food is required to provide consumers with necessary information about the food. ESR spectroscopy is the most sophisticated way to investigate the quality of the food and the free radicals induced during the processing of the food. ESR spin trapping technique is useful for the detection of highly unstable radicals in the food. The antioxidant capability of liquid food and beverages in mainly performed by spin trapping technique.
DERIVATION OF MODIFIED BERNOULLI EQUATION WITH VISCOUS EFFECTS AND TERMINAL V...Wasswaderrick3
In this book, we use conservation of energy techniques on a fluid element to derive the Modified Bernoulli equation of flow with viscous or friction effects. We derive the general equation of flow/ velocity and then from this we derive the Pouiselle flow equation, the transition flow equation and the turbulent flow equation. In the situations where there are no viscous effects , the equation reduces to the Bernoulli equation. From experimental results, we are able to include other terms in the Bernoulli equation. We also look at cases where pressure gradients exist. We use the Modified Bernoulli equation to derive equations of flow rate for pipes of different cross sectional areas connected together. We also extend our techniques of energy conservation to a sphere falling in a viscous medium under the effect of gravity. We demonstrate Stokes equation of terminal velocity and turbulent flow equation. We look at a way of calculating the time taken for a body to fall in a viscous medium. We also look at the general equation of terminal velocity.
1. PROJECTIONS AND ITS TYPES
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
METEOROLOGY
Asmita
2021A02PGDC
CCS-HAU 24 February, 2022
2. INTRODUCTION TO PROJECTIONS
• Projections are a systematic conversion of spherical coordinates (latitude
and longitude) and transform them to an XY (planar) coordinate system.
• These mathematical equations enables us to create a map that shows
distances, areas, or directions. Either one or more or all features are
compromised based on the type of projection used.
• These are not true portrayals of the globe because a two-dimensional
plane cannot accurately represent large portions of the rounded,
curvilinear surface of the Earth.
• The first step is to select a model that approximates the shape and size of
the earth.
2
3. SHAPE OF THE EARTH
• Earth is a complex three-dimensional object with physical dimensions.
• With a non-straight, curvilinear surface.
• To effectively represent the shape and size of the Earth for scientific and
real-life applications, a calculable, formula-driven model of the Earth is
required.
• The closer a model comes to the actual surface of the Earth, the better it
is for geographic positioning.
• Earth’s rugged, irregular surface and the positions of Earth features are
not significant compared to the diameter of earth.
3
4. GEOID
• Geoid is an approximated figure of the Earth.
• It is not a smooth surface, but rather rugged and undulating one.
• The gravitational pull is not uniform throughout the Earth surface. This is
mainly because of density variation inside the Earth.
• The geoid is considered as a reference from which elevations or heights
can be measured. It is the reference surface for ground survey. The
horizontal and vertical positions are mapped with reference to the geoid
surface.
• Horizontal positions are later adjusted to the ellipsoid surface, because
the irregularities on the geoid surface would make projection and other
mathematical computations extremely complex.
4
6. ELLIPSOID
• The Earth is an ellipsoid rotating upon its minor
axis, which is functionally called the axis of rotation
or axis of revolution.
• The ellipsoid’s flattening causes two axes:
i) a longer axis
ii) a shorter axis.
• The north-to-south axis through the Earth’s core is
the shorter axis and, as such, is called the minor
axis or polar axis. The east-to-west axis through the
Earth’s core is longer and is called the major axis or
equatorial axis.
6
7. ELLIPSOID
• The flattening of the ellipse is directly related to the differences in both the
semi-major axis(a) and semi-minor axis(b).
• It is represented by the formula
• Flattening (f) = (a – b) / a
• Newton in the seventeenth century had predicted the flattening to be about
1/300th of the equatorial axis. And present day measurements show, it as
1/298th of the equatorial axis.
7
Name Year Semi-major
axis
Semi-minor
axis
Polar
Flattening
WGS 84 1984 6,378,137.00 6,356,752.30 1/298.257
8. DATUM
• Datum is a reference on the Earth’s surface against which positions are
measured.
• Datum defines the origin of coordinate system from where the
measurements are made.
• There are hundreds of locally developed reference datums around the
world, usually referenced to some convenient local reference point.
• A specific point on the Earth can have substantially different coordinates
depending on the datum used to make the measurement.
• There are following two types of datums:
• Horizontal Datum and
• Vertical Datum. 8
9. CO-ORDINATE SYSTEMS
• We require a coordinate system in order to locate points precisely as well
as measure distance and direction correctly. A coordinate is a number set
that denotes a specific location within a reference system. In general,
there are following two types of coordinate systems:
• Geographic coordinate system, and
• Planar coordinate system
• Planar Coordinate System Planar coordinate system is used to locate
positions on a flat map representing Earth’s curved surface. It is the most
popularly used reference system in mathematics, science, and GIS.
9
10. CLASSIFICATION OF PROJECTIONS
• CLASS
Nature of the projection surface or otherwise developable surface.
• ANGLE
Coincidence or contact of the projection surface with the globe
• FIT
Position or alignment of the projection surface in relation to the globe.
• DISTORTION of properties of map projection.
10
12. CYLINDERICAL PROJECTION
• A cylinder is assumed to circumscribe a transparent globe so that the
cylinder touches the equator through its circumference.
• Assuming as if a light bulb is placed at the centre of the globe, the
graticule of globe is projected onto the cylinder.
• By cutting open the cylinder along a meridian and unfolding it, a rectangle-
shaped cylindrical projection can be visualised.
• The globe’s longitudes and latitudes are represented by equidistant,
parallel straight lines that intersect one another at right angles.
12
13. CYLINDERICAL PROJECTION
• The cylindrical projection is a clear grid representation of the curvilinear
surface that is true at the equator and more distorted towards the poles
13
14. CONICAL PROJECTION
• Assume that a cone is placed on the globe in such a way that the apex of
the cone is exactly over the polar axis.
• The cone must touch the globe along a parallel of the latitude, known as
the standard parallel, selected by the user. Along this standard parallel,
scale is correct and there is least distortion. When the cone is cut open
along a meridian and laid flat, it appears fan shaped.
• The meridians appear as straight lines radiating from the vertex at equal
angles, while the parallels appear as arcs of concentric circles.
14
16. PLANAR PROJECTION
• A plane surface is placed so that it touches the globe at the North or South
Pole. It is circular in shape with meridians projected as straight lines
radiating from center of the circle, the pole.
16
17. POSITION OF THE PROJECTION SURFACE
• The developable surface may be placed in three different ways relative to
the globe: normal, transverse or oblique
• Different aspects of map projections are selected to preserve certain
desired properties for particular applications.
17
18. COINCIDENCE OF PROJECTION SURFACE
• The coincidence can be of 2 types: tangent & secant.
• Mathematically, it is possible to make the developable surface cut through
the globe as a secant cylinder, cone, or plane. The secant case is
introduced to increase the contact between the globe and the
developable surface and thus increase the area of minimum distortion.
• Two standard parallels are produced, where the scale will be in better
control than in other parts of the map.
18
19. PROPERTIES OF PROJECTION
• Area, Distance, Shape, Direction.
• For spherical Earth, all these four properties are correct.
• However, while transforming the Earth features onto a plane, only some of
the properties can be retained.
• Different map projections are designed to achieve one or two of these
properties for specific applications.
• It is clear that scale requirements for both conformality (shape) and
equivalence(area) are contradictory and cannot be obtained.
• This leads to devising of 4 types of map projections.
19
20. PROPERTIES OF PROJECTION
• Conformal or Orthomorphic : Preserves shape by retaining correct angles
between points. In this condition, the parallels and meridians will intersect
at 90 ̊.
• Equal Area : Preserve areas
• Equidistant : Preserves distances between certain points by maintaining
the consistency of scale along the standard lines or meridians.
• Azimuthal : Preserves direction of all points on the map correctly with
respect to the center.
20
22. MERCATOR’S PROJECTION
• A normal cylindrical
projection.
• Conformal. Parallels and
meridians are straight
lines intersecting at right
angles.
• Meridians are equally
spaced. The parallel
spacing increases with
distance from the equator.
22
23. MERCATOR’S PROJECTION
• The projection was originally designed to display accurate compass
bearings for sea travel. Any straight line drawn on this projection
represents a true direction line
• Sailing the shortest distance course means that the direction changes
every moment.
• The Mercator projection is sometimes inappropriately used in atlases for
maps of the world, and for wall-maps as area distortions are significant
towards the polar regions. This exaggeration of area as latitude increases
makes Greenland appear to be as large as South America when, in fact, it
is only one eight of the size.
23
24. TRANVERSE MERCATOR PROJECTION
• A transverse cylindrical
projection.
• Angles and shapes are
shown correctly.
• The developable cylinder is
longitudinal along a
meridian instead of the
equator.
• The distortion increases
with the increase in
distance from the standard
parallels. 24
25. UNIVERSAL TRANSVERSE MERCATOR
(UTM) PROJECTION
• The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) projection uses a transverse
cylinder, secant to the reference surface.
• It is recommended for topographic mapping by the United Nations
Cartography Committee in 1952. The UTM divides the world into 60
narrow longitudinal zones of 6 degrees, numbered from 1 to 60. The
narrow zones of 6 degrees make the distortions so small that they can be
ignored when constructing a map for a scale of 1:10,000 or smaller.
• The UTM coordinates extend around the world from 84° N to 80° S.
25
26. PSEUDO-CYLINDRICAL PROJECTIONS
• Projections in which the parallels are represented by parallel straight lines,
and the meridians by curves. The central meridian is the only meridian
that is straight.
• Equal-area, certainly not conformal because the parallels and meridians
do not always cross at right angles.
• Examples are Mollweide, Sinusoidal, Robinson’s projection.
26
29. LAMBERT CONFORMAL CONIC PROJECTION
• A conformal conical
projection.
• The parallels and
meridians intersect at
right angles
• Areas are inaccurate
• Widely used for
topographic maps.
29
30. SIMPLE CONIC PROJECTION
• A normal conical projection
with one standard parallel. All
circular parallels are spaced
evenly along the meridians,
which creates a true scale
along all meridians. The map is
therefore equidistant along
the meridians.
• Both shape and area are well
preserved.
30
31. PSEUDO-CONICAL PROJECTIONS
• Not conformal
• The meridians are represented by
curves, and the parallels are equally
spaced concentric circular arcs. The
central meridian is the only meridian
that is straight. Examples are Bonne
and Werner projection.
• Bonne's projection is a pseudo-conical
equal-area projection, with every
parallel true to scale.
31
32. AZIMUTHAL PROJECTIONS
• Azimuthal projections are made upon a plane tangent (or secant) to the
reference surface. In the secant case the plane intersects the globe along a
small circle forming a standard parallel which has true scale.
• The normal polar aspect yields parallels as concentric circles, and meridians
projecting as straight lines from the center of the map. The distortion is
minimal around the point of tangency in the tangent case, and close to the
standard parallel in the secant case.
• All azimuthal projections possess the property of maintaining true directions
from the centre of the map. In the polar cases, the meridians all radiate out
from the pole at their correct angular distance apart.
32
34. AZIMUTHAL PROJECTIONS
• A subdivision may be made
based upon the imaginary source
of light rays.
• In gnomonic projection, the
perspective point, is the centre
of the Earth. For
the stereographic this point is
the opposite pole to the point of
tangency, and for
the orthographic the perspective
point is at infinite distance.
34
35. STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
• A conformal projection, parallels &
meridians meet at right angles.
• In the polar aspect the meridians are
equally spaced straight lines, the
parallels are unequally spaced circles
centered at the pole.
• The scale is constant along the
projection centre, but increases
moderately with distance from the
centre.
• Areas increase with distance from the
projection center.
35
36. ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
• Distortion in size and area near the
projection limit appears more
realistic than almost any other
projection.
• In the polar aspect, meridians are
straight lines radiating from the
center, and the lines of latitude are
projected as concentric circles that
become closer toward the edge of
the globe. Only one hemisphere can
be shown.
36
37. GNOMONIC PROJECTION
• Neither conformal nor equal-area.
• The scale increases rapidly with the distance from the center. Area, shape,
distance and direction distortions are extreme.
• It's wise to orient the centre of the map at the point of interest, since scale
distortions increase rapidly away from the center.
• The projection is useful for defining routes of navigation for sea and air
travel, because the shortest route between any two locations is a always a
straight line.
• It should however not be used for regular geographic maps or for distance
measurements
37
38. LAMBERT AZIMUTHAL
EQUAL-AREA PROJECTION
• Preserves areas while
simultaneously maintaining a true
direction from the center. The
general pattern of distortion is
radial. Scale distorts with distance
from the center.
• It is best suited for maps of
continents or regions that are
equally extended in all directions
from the centre, such as Asia and
the Pacific ocean.
38