Project Management Diploma

Project Management
An artist's impression of the Homebush Bay
master plan for the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games.
Project Management techniques allow vast
undertakings to be managed effectively.
When planning a project it is important to
consider the human and material resources that
are available.
Project Management gone wrong. It has been
reported that the construction of this building will cost
up to four times the original estimate for the project.
It is an example of a project executed in an
atmosphere of delay and controversy and featuring
not only an extraordinary budget blow-out but a court
battle and the resignation of the chief Project
Manager.
Project management overview and definition
Projects are singular, but non-routine, events with precise
objectives which must be achieved within a set timeframe.
Projects are broken into a set of activities designed to fulfill the
stated objectives. Examples of projects include the building of a
house, the holding of an event like a party or even something as
simple as completing a school assignment.
Project Management requires the organisation of people,
equipment and procedures in an appropriate way to get a project
completed within a set timeframe and budget. A Project Manager
is responsible for the coordination of all these resources in order
to achieve the project objectives.
The following need to be considered when planning a project
 Purpose and aim of the project
 Resources available both human and material
 Costing, human and time constraints
 The tasks, procedures or activities required to complete
the project
Project management techniques are used by organisations
because they ensure that organisational objectives and system
objectives are being met in a timely, accurate, relevant and
complete manner. They provide a way of controlling people,
resources and procedures, and clearly identify the tasks that must
be completed and the desired completion time.

Project Management History
Even before the time of the Pyramids humankind has had
to devise plans for completing set projects.
Project Management is not a new concept. Even in the time of
the Ancient Egyptians a form of project management was
needed to coordinate the construction of the great pyramids.
Modern project management tools were, however, not
developed until the early 1900s with the creation of the
GANTT chart method. Further refinement in project
management tools came about in the 1950s with the
development of the Critical Path Method (CPM) and Program
Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT). These three tools
form the basis for documenting and managing the progress of
projects. All of these tools produce graphical representations
of projects, and all current project management software
includes these components.
Interviews with Project Managers
Vanessa Duis, 29, works as a Project Manager coordinating CD-ROM and Internet content. She works to extremely tight
deadlines within a multimedia organization alongside a variety of developers, designers, film-makers, authors and editors.
Read her comments about how Project Management techniques are used within the multimedia industry.
Question: You currently work for a developer of CD-ROM and Internet content. Can you tell me how you got into
this line of work?
My initial background was working for a UK-based traveller’s magazine. I used this experience working with written
content to move into the multimedia and Internet industry.
Question: You are currently working to upgrade your Project Management skills. Why have you chosen Project
Management as your career path?
In the last few years’ businesses have really started to see the importance of Project Management. If you scan any national
newspaper you will find a number of jobs for people with Project Management skills. This was not the case a couple of
years ago. Within the workforce contract work is becoming more common. This means that employees are more likely to
work on short set projects that must be completed within a specific time frame. Project Management techniques are
extremely useful for organising work when strict budgets and timeframes are involved. I have decided to focus on
upgrading my Project Management skills because I find that these skills are highly regarded in all industries, but
especially in the field of any Internet-based or multimedia work.
Question: What type of person makes an exceptional Project Manager?
The best Project Managers I have come across like to take a complex problem and to break it down into smaller,
manageable components. They are highly organised and usually quite logical in their outlook to problems. You will find
that most Project Managers have a ‘can do’ approach; they understand that all problems have solutions.
Question: What are the challenges that a Project Manager faces on a daily basis?
Project Managers are often faced with very complex briefs. Sometimes projects can be broken down into hundreds or
even thousands of tasks. This means that any project plan is extremely involved. Working in the multimedia industry you
also find that the scope of projects can change on a daily basis. The other issue for Project Managers can be how to make
a compromise between what senior management require from their employees and what is actually able to be completed
in the time frames that they set. The whole process of Project Management is thus one of continual negotiation and re-
negotiation.

Question: What was the most challenging project you have managed to date?
Project Management sets boundaries and tasks that need to be followed to complete a project. However you cannot
assume that your workforce is static. Once I was nearing the completion of a project and working to a very tight deadline
when, unexpectedly, the whole company was restructured. As you can imagine this was extremely challenging, however
the project was still completed on time and within budget.
Question: What project management tools do you use to coordinate projects?
I find GANTT charts to be the most useful tool for coordinating projects. I also track information in Excel spreadsheets.
Question: Why is Project Management such a ‘buzz’ word in the IT industry at the moment?
The IT industry is constantly changing. It evolves from day to day. Project Management techniques allow a means of
keeping track of constantly changing information. With an industry that is in a constant state of flux I think it is quite
understandable that these techniques have surfaced as a key to the completion of any project.
Project Management Methodology
This Information Technology resource reviews the phases of Project Management. Begin by drawing some preliminary
conclusions about which phase is the most expensive. Why might this be the case? Which stage is least expensive? Use
the graph below.
There are several distinct phases or steps involved with managing a project. There are many versions of the phases
described. Regardless of which version you read they will all encapsulate the following concepts:

Phase 1: Investigation
Once a project is defined, further research is needed in order to determine whether or not it is
worthwhile pursuing.
This phase:
 Involves the initial commissioning of the project
 Involves the identification of the initial aim and goals
 Involves investigation into the possible ways the project could be completed
 Is undertaken by top level management or strategic planners
This phase would provide a project brief to the project team or project manager.
Phase 2: Planning and Design
This phase is important as it provides the foundation for the following phases. The
aim of this step is to ensure that the objectives can and will be met within the set time
and budgetary constraints.
This phase involves:
 Defining the exact purpose of the project and clearly defining the objectives
to be achieved
 Breaking the project into tasks or activities and defining the purpose of each
 Estimating the shortest and longest possible time required for each activity
 Identifying milestones and key time markers in the project that keep the
project on schedule
 Determining the sequence of activities and any constraints affecting the
sequence. For example, some tasks must be completed before other ones
can start, or particular resources might be required for the activity. This also
includes:
 Deciding which activities should be completed before others can commence
 Identifying activities that can be done simultaneously or must be done at the
same time
 Assigning resources, people, materials and equipment to activities
 Estimating the cost of resources
 Drawing up a calendar of events
The deliverables or final output of this phase could include:
 A project plan for management review

 A GANTT chart
 A PERT diagram, including a critical path, or a network diagram
Phase 3: Production
During this phase the plan is put into operation. It ought to provide a completed project,
ready to be 'handed over to' clients. Alternatively, it may end in a full implementation, i.e.
at the end of an internal organisational project.
This phase involves:
 Providing the resources
 Completing the activities
 Monitoring, controlling and recording the progress of the project on the GANTT
chart
 Comparing the current progress to the planned schedule
 Updating and refining the schedule as required
 Monitoring resource use to ensure no budgetary blowout
 Ensuring milestones and overall goals are met
Phase 4: Evaluation and Monitoring
As part of the evaluation and monitoring
phase of Project Management the project
team is decommissioned or reassigned new
tasks.
The initial part of this phase is the transferal or hand over of the project.
Of course this project may not always have a single product as the final
result. Either way, the objectives of the project at this point should be met.
Once the project is transferred to the client the project team is
'decommissioned', reassigned new tasks or placed into new project
teams. Some members of the group may be utilised in observing the full
implementation of the project or in supporting or monitoring its
implementation.
It is also at this point the management will assess the success of the
project. This assessment is based on the elements of efficiency and
effectiveness:
 Quality: How well it has met the objectives? What is the final
quality of the product?
 Cost: Did the project stay within the budget specified and
proposed use of resources?
 Time: Did the project finish on or before the specified date? Was
it the shortest possible time for the project?
 Timeliness: Was the project completed in time for the information

to be of use?
 Accuracy: Are there any errors in the product?
 Relevance: Does the project/product include only those elements
required by the client?
 Completeness: Does the client have everything they need in
order to do their work and make their decisions?
Revision
Try the following Project Management revision activity to review what you have learned so far.
Use the following question and answer activity for further revision.
Test your understanding. Print out the following summary sheet then fill in the blank spaces to
complete the document. Answers are provided on page two.
A. Introduction to Project Management
Project Management requires the organization of three things: people, equipment and procedures. Project managers are
concerned with how to get a particular job done. The jobs, or projects, coordinated by project managers have set activities
that are required to meet stated objectives. The first documented Project Management techniques were in the early 1900s
with the development of the GANTT chart method. The principles of Project Management were refined further in the
1950s with the development of the Critical Path Method (CPM) and the Program Evaluation and Review Technique
(PERT).
B. The Phases of Project Management
Project management is characterised by four specific stages. These distinct steps are: Investigation, Planning and Design,
Production and, lastly, Monitoring and Evaluation. During the Investigation phase the initial commissioning of the
project takes place and goals and aims are identified. At the end of this phase a project brief is given to the project team
or project manager. During the Planning and Design phase milestones and key time markers are identified to keep the
project on schedule. It is also important during this phase to break the project into tasks or activities and to define the
purpose of each. The Production phase should provide a completed project, ready to be 'handed over’ to clients. In the
final phase of Project Management, the Evaluation and Monitoring phase, the success of the project is assessed. The
project is assessed based on effectiveness and efficiency factors.
PROJECT MANAGEMENT
1. What is the role of a Project Manager?
Project Managers concern themselves with how to get a particular job done. They organise people, equipment and
procedures in an appropriate way to get a project completed in time and within budget.

2. Why are project management techniques used by organisations?
Project Management techniques ensure that organisational objectives and system objectives are met in a timely, accurate,
relevant and complete way. They provide the adequate control of people, resources and procedures and clearly identify
tasks that must be completed and the desired completion time.
3. When were the first project management techniques documented?
The first documented techniques were in the early 1900s with the development of the GANTT chart method.
4. Project management methodology has four distinct phases. What are they?
Phase 1: Investigation
Phase 2: Planning and Design
Phase 3: Production
Phases 4: Monitoring and Evaluation
5. What does Phase 1, the Investigation phase of project management, involve? Who undertakes this phase?
This phase involves the initial commissioning of the project, the identification of initial aims and goals and investigation
into the possible way the project can be completed. The Investigation phase is undertaken by top-level management or
strategic planners.
6. List four steps in Phase 2, the Planning and Design Phase of project management.
Choose from any of the following:
• Defining the exact purpose of the project and clearly defining goals
• Breaking the project into tasks or activities and defining the purpose of each
• Estimating the shortest and longest possible time required for each activity
• Identifying milestones and key time markers in the project that keep the project on schedule
• Determining the sequence of each activity and any constraints affecting the sequence
• Deciding which activities should be completed before others can commence
• Identifying activities that can be done simultaneously
• Assigning resources, people, materials and equipment to activities
• Costing of resources
• Drawing up a calendar of events
7. What does Phase 3, the Production Phase of project management involve?
This phases involves: providing resources, completing the set activities, monitoring, controlling and recording the
progress of the project on a GANTT chart, comparing current progress to the planned schedule, updating and refining the
schedule as required and monitoring resources to ensure there are no problems meeting the budget.
8. In the Evaluation and Monitoring phase of project management what questions might a Project Manager
address?
The Project Manager might address issues of quality asking questions such as: How well it has the project met the
objectives? Is the final quality of the product satisfactory? The Manager might also address issues of cost: Did the project
stay within the budget specified? Lastly issues of time would be considered: Did the project finish on or before the
specified date? Was it the shortest possible time for the project?

Project Management Tools
This resource covers the tools used by a Project Manager beginning with 'GANTT' charts.
GANTT charts
A project plan is often constructed within the planning phase. It contains all activities and milestones. These events are
placed in a particular time sequence, ultimately producing something similar to a horizontal bar chart.
A GANTT chart displays tasks and costs along a horizontal time scale, much like a calendar. The time for each task is
recorded, by indicating the start and finish dates. It should show the best possible way to complete the project in the
shortest time. Activities can be done in parallel or sequentially, and the GANTT chart shows this clearly. Even though it
lists tasks, it does not show the critical path as there is no indication of the relationship between tasks.
From this GANTT chart you can find out the following,
Activity 3.0.2 Production Build:
 Has a duration of 10 days
 Must be done after Order Production Materials and Final Code Release
 Must be done before Ship Product
 Is expected to start 6/8/99 (mm/dd/yy)
 Is expected to finish 6/21/99 (mm/dd/yy)
 Is on the critical path (indicated in red)

PERT Diagrams (network diagrams)
PERT diagrams or critical path networks use a graphical form to show relationships between activities and time frames.
Part of a PERT diagram. Notice that for each event start and finish dates are
included.
They differ from GANTT charts in that they are better at identifying the relationship between tasks rather than the progress
of tasks over time.
Key elements in developing a PERT diagram:
1. Activities - list of activities in the project and their dependencies
2. Nodes/Events - indicating the beginning or end of an activity
3. Network lines show the interdependence of events
4. Indication of the critical path - the sequence of dependent events that have the sum of longest duration
5. Indication of slack time - events not on the critical path usually have slack time, extra time for that event that
does not effect the timing of other events thus not effecting the project time. That means that can fall behind
schedule and there is no impact on the project completion date.
If you wish to have a play with creating your own GANTT charts and PERT diagrams, there a number of trial versions
available on the Internet. Try the following web sites:
http://www.projectkickstart.com/
http://www.minuteman-systems.com/

Estimating Activity Time
When estimating the duration of the project, consider each
task separately, the people doing the task, normal working
times and, above all, be realistic.
Project Managers may be able to use historical data or
experience to estimate duration.
Scheduling and Expediting
Projects rarely follow the plan laid out. During the project the Project Manager should assess each step. If there are
delays they should identify alternate actions to bring the project back within the time constraints. Often this is done by
putting more resources, time or money into a particular activity. This course of action should be thought through carefully.
Time and costs need to be traded off in order to get the project completed.
After the critical path and the slack time in other activities have been identified, it may be possible to expedite (hasten) or
crash the schedule. This involves identifying tasks that could possibly be reduced in time if enough money or resources
were available. Again it is a matter of assessing whether the extra cost or effort is worth the saving in time.
Critical Path Method
The critical path is a series of activities which are vital to the event being completed on time. For example,
a delay in one event will delay the completion of the project.
Revision
Try the Project Management tools revision activity to revise what you have learned so far.
Question:
You and a group of three friends are planning the end of year party for Year 12s. Construct a
GANTT chart for this. Be sure to consider events that could occur simultaneously as well as
dependent events, i.e. those that must be done before others start. Estimate the time for each
event.
complete the document.
A. Project Management Tools
A GANTT chart displays tasks along a horizontal time scale. GANTT charts should show the best possible way to
complete the task in the shortest time. Activities can be done in parallel or sequentially, and the GANTT chart shows this
clearly. PERT diagrams or critical path networks, on the other hand, use a graphical form to show relationships between
activities and time frame. On a PERT diagram network show the interdependence of events and the critical path is used
to show the sequence of events that have the sum of the longest duration. To allow for uncertainty when organizations are
estimating activity times, three estimates are provided, the pessimistic time, the most probable time and the optimistic
time.

Documentation
Problems arose for network administrator Phil Wales when setting up a new networked
information system for 3RRR. Part of the problem for Wales arose because he didn't
have any previous documentation to show him how the studio network had been set up.
Letch explains the importance of documentation in this video.
Documentation is essential for the success of any information system. Documentation
provides anyone who interacts with a particular system an overview of the system
capabilities and its software. It may also include specific procedures which must be
followed or be used to provide training or reference material. Application and information
systems can fail to meet their full potential if there is inadequate documentation to
support them. Without good documentation users may flounder and the efficiency gains
expected from a new system will never be realised.
Read an interview with Sunita Marar, Procedures Manager at CitySearch
(www.citysearch.com.au). Marar explains the necessity of documentation within the fast-
paced and ever changing environment of an Internet company.
Sunita Marar, Business Communications Manager at CitySearch, explores the
importance of documentation within a fast-paced Internet company.
Who do you work for and what is your role within that company?
CitySearch.com.au is a network of online city guides and directories providing listings of events and businesses
throughout Australia. I work as the Business Communications Manager and my role is to manage the documentation of
company policy, product guidelines and standard operating procedures within the company at a national level. For
example, if senior management wish to change to the way that employees record customer information I assist in that
process. It is my job to liaise with people from all areas of the business affected by this change, research their individual
requirements, establish the most efficient method to complete the task and to document the new process.
When new information systems are implemented (and is this a common occurrence within an Internet company) why
do you think it is important to document the processes of that system?
Without adequate documentation the users of newly implemented systems cannot work efficiently. With clear
documented instructions detailing each task within a process, everyone is aware of the responsibilities of each area of
the business and the tasks they must complete with the process.
You handle a range of communication needs within CitySearch. What types of documentation do you use and who are
you documenting information for?
The Business Communications team writes for a wide audience including CitySearch employees, CitySearch clients and
users of the CitySearch website. Some examples include: product information and frequently asked questions for the
CitySearch site; corporate brochures; systems manuals; and policy, guidelines and standards for the company Intranet.
Are you also responsible for documenting programming code and technical information on the network used by
CitySearch?
No. This information is written by programmers within the Information Technology department of CitySearch. I work in
conjunction with this department when documenting user guides, to gain information from the developers of the
system.

How do you document system changes within CitySearch? What types of documentation do you use?
Paper-based documentation is kept to a minimum due to constant changes to procedures. Standard operating
procedures for each area are documented and uploaded onto the Intranet for all staff to access.
What would happen without the comprehensive documentation process that you have developed within CitySearch?
Change is simply a part of being an Internet company. With procedures and technology changing constantly it is vital
that all employees within the company are kept up to date with the latest developments. If our employees did not have
quick access to policies and procedures then we would be working at cross-purposes. Adequate documentation allows
us to work efficiently and effectively.
Types of Documentation
Documentation comes in a variety of styles to meet the needs of different types of users. For example, documentation
produced for a technician may be different to that of a data entry operator because their roles require different levels
and types of knowledge specific to their jobs. Documentation is produced throughout the development of any solution. It
records all details to help current developers and users as well as any future ones.
Program Documentation
When developing a software solution the developer or programmer will document all steps of the process. The software
product should be fully supported with technical documentation so that any programmer in the future can understand the
process and the code that was developed.
System and Technical Documentation
System documentation involves developing and
documenting all the processes of system development.
This includes such items as data dictionaries, data flow
diagrams, network diagrams and all other design
documentation that occurred throughout development. All
equipment will be logged and all the technical parts of the
system must be documented for future reference.

User Documentation
Rob Appel, the CEO of
ChaosMusic, at the launch of his music retailer's online store in Sydney.
Visit ChaosMusic at http://www.chaosmusic.com.au and consider the
types of documentation provided for users of the site. Does the
information provided enable users to interact with the site easily and
effectively? Consider the brochure Appel is holding? How do you think
this was incorporated into the plans for user documentation?
User documentation is a set of documents that
assist the user use the system, software or
hardware being implemented. It normally
consists of a set of paper based and online
facilities to train or help the user. It can include
training manuals, procedure guides, quick help
cards, and frequently asked questions.
Paper Based Documentation
Paper based documentation is the traditional form of user documentation. It consists of manuals and reference guides
that would be available in the computer section of your local bookstore or library. It also includes documents produced in-
house that are specifically designed for the system. User manuals are the most common form of paper-based
documentation. They cover, in a tutorial format, the steps required to complete the sort of tasks that an end user would
perform on a routine basis.
Electronic Documentation
Over the last few years electronic documentation has become a popular way to give employees and/or end users the
assistance they require to complete tasks. Most software packages now come with the help manual in printed as well as
electronic form. Electronic documentation takes advantage of hypertext and other multimedia elements. Some packages
also come with a CD-ROM to take the user through a series of tasks to familiarise them with the software or hardware
operations. Because these forms of documentation are available at any time from the computer they are often referred to
as being 'online'.
Other Media for Documentation
There are other forms of documentation. All are useful depending on the user and their needs. For example, there are
many training videos and external web sites that provide the end user with help.

Documentation for different users
Specialist users, such as data entry operators
or web developers depend upon the use of
information systems in order to do their work.
It is important to identify the user and their documentation requirements.
Users are normally categorised by their level of knowledge of the operation of the system:
Novice
Need quick start guides, troubleshooting tips and user
manuals that explain basic processes in detail
Intermediate Need more detailed user manuals which assume some
prior knowledge, troubleshooting guides and simple
technical guides
Expert Need manuals with explanation of complex or
advanced features
Or by their level of involvement with the system:
Expert
Support specialists, usually software or hardware
technicians whose role is to maintain the system?
Specialists These users depend on the use of information systems
to do their work. They may include data entry
operators, web developers and graphic designers.
Adjunct People for whom information technology assists them
in their work but is not essential. This group includes
medical staff, teachers, accountants, lawyers and store
managers.
Incidentals Occasional users of an information system. Examples
include a customer using a company's web-based
product catalogue to order goods, accessing point-of-
sale systems, or even interacting with an electronic
switchboard with voicemail.
When developing user documentation the level of knowledge and involvement should be considered. Documentation
must be geared directly towards the needs of a particular user or group of users.
Print out the following revision activity and use it to test your understanding of the types of documentation required by
different groups of users.

Print this page and complete the charts below:
User Documentation required by the user
Novice
Intermediate
Expert
User Define this user group and give an example of an employee with
this level of involvement with the system
Experts
Specialists
Adjunct
Incidentals
Revision
Try the documentation revision activity to revise what you have learned so far.
Use this question and answer activity for further revision
complete the document. Answers are provided on page two.
Documentation is essential for the success of any information system. It helps those that interact with the system by
providing training or acting as a reference. Documentation records all the details that will help current developers and
users plus any futures ones. The software product should be fully supported with technical documentation so that any
programmer in the future can understand the process and the code that was developed.
System documentation involves developing and documenting all the process of system development and includes such
things as data dictionaries, data flow diagrams and all other design documentation that occur throughout development. All

equipment will be logged and all the technical parts of the system must be documented for future reference, this would
include things like a network map.
User documentation involves developing a set of documents that assist the user to use the system, software or hardware
being implemented. It would usually include items such as training manuals, procedure guides, quick help cards,
frequently asked questions, etc.
Paper based documentation is the traditional form of user documentation.
User manuals are the most common form of paper based documentation as they go through, in simple steps, the tasks that
the end user would perform on a daily basis. However, over the last few years, online documentation has become a
popular way to give employees and/or end users the help and assistance they require.
When documenting processes it is important to identify the each user’s documentation requirements. Users are normally
categorised by their level of knowledge into one of three groups: novice intermediate and expert Users can also be
categorized by their level of involvement with the system into the following four groups: expert, specialists, adjunct and
incidentals.
DOCUMENTATION
1. Why is documentation essential to the success of any information system?
Documentation informs and explains the system. It helps those that interact with the system by providing training or
acting as a reference guide.
2. Explain at least three types of documentation.
System and Technical Documentation: involves developing and documenting all the processes of system development
and includes such things as data dictionaries, data flow diagrams and all other design documentation that produced
throughout development.
User documentation: involves developing a set of documents that assist the user use the system, software or hardware
being implemented. It normally consists of a set of paper-based and online facilities to train or help the user.
Paper-based documentation: is the traditional form of user documentation. It consists of manuals and reference guides that
are usually available in the computer section of local bookstores or libraries. It includes in-house documents. User
manuals are the most common form of paper-based documentation.
Online documentation: is usually a help manual in electronic form that takes advantage of hypertext and other multimedia
elements.
Other forms of documentation include: videos, web sites and multimedia packages that provide the end users with the help
they need.
The System Development Life Cycle Overview
Information systems and products do not just
'happen' - they are usually the result of a process that
identifies problems and creates solutions to them.
The most successful information technology systems
are those that are able to properly solve problems
within an organisation. The development of
information products and systems will usually follow a
process that involves a number of distinct phases.
There are a number of names that this process is
given, including: system life cycle, system
development life cycle and system development
methodology. We will use the term system
development life cycle (SDLC) however, any of the
other terms could be used interchangeably. In
this job advertisement you will see that 'SDLC' has
been used as a standard industry term.

Each of the phases has a series of events or steps
that are completed in order to arrive at the final
product.
The Planning Phase
When radio station 3RRR made a major transition from an outdated network to the installation and configuration of a new
networked information system, Kath Letch, RRR Station Manager, oversaw the implementation. View a video that
explores what the planning stage of this project involved.
There are many factors which may prompt change within organisations. Some examples include:
 a change in government policy
 the introduction of new, or amendment to existing, legislation
 market trends
 community attitudes and values
 availability and cost of equipment
 desire for increased competitiveness
 employment agreements
 health and safety.
Regardless of the reason, the development of any computer based information system should receive careful planning.
Proper planning is important as it allows:
 the scope of the project to be defined
 potential problem areas to be identified
 the sequence of the tasks to be identified
 for the provision of a basis for control.
The planning phase will normally follow a sequence of steps including:
 recognising the problem
 defining the problem

 setting project objectives
 identifying constraints
 conducting feasibility studies
 creating project proposals
 establishing control mechanisms.
A GANTT chart may be used to assist in the planning of a new system.
Note - the planning that takes places in this process is not the planning of the program or system, rather, it is the initial
steps that take place to define the project and set the objectives that will be used to evaluate the overall success of the
final solution.
The Analysis Phase
The analysis phase of the SDLC is where existing system(s) are studied with the aims of
designing a new or improved system. In this phase, a number of important decisions are
made - including who will work on the system, and the setting of specific performance
goals for the system to achieve.
Data must be gathered on the strengths and weaknesses of the existing system by using
methods such as:
 observation
 research
 interviewing
 sampling to trace procedural paths and information flows
The analysis phase has the following steps:
 announcing the project
 creating the project team
 defining information needs
 defining system performance criteria
 creating a design proposal
At the conclusion of the analysis phase a decision on whether or not to proceed with the
project must be made. This decision will be made based upon the information that is
contained within the design proposal - hence it is important that the design proposal
clearly identifies what resources will be required to complete the project and sets the
major goals and the time frame for the completion of the project.

The Design Phase
The design phase, as the name suggests, is where the new system will be designed. In this
phase the processes and data required by the new system are defined. In most projects,
there will be a number of different ways in which the problem can be solved - and
consequently, in this phase, it is important that a number of different alternatives are
investigated to ensure that the most efficient and effective solution is adopted.
In this phase, the steps that are followed include:
 preparing a detailed system design
 identifying and evaluating alternative system configurations
 selecting the best configuration
 preparing an implementation proposal.
The Implementation Phase
The implementation phase is where physical and conceptual
resources that are required for the project are obtained and
integrated into the existing system to produce the final
working system.
There are a number of steps that are followed in this phase,
including:
 planning and announcing the implementation
 acquiring the hardware resources
 acquiring the software resources
 preparing the physical facilities
 educating the participants and users
 preparing an implementation schedule (or
changeover)
 changing over to the new system.

The Use/Evaluation Phase
Once the system has been implemented, the final phase in the project will be the use and evaluation phase. In this phase,
the system should be in full use to meet the objectives that were initially identified in the planning phase.
The use/evaluation phase has a number of steps:
 using the system
 auditing the system (including a post implementation review)
 maintaining the system
 re-engineering proposals.
Some methods by which data can be gathered for this phase include:
 recording equipment breakdowns
 monitoring staff absentee rates
 logging help desk enquiries
 surveying customers
For each of these methods, some or all of the following criteria may be applied:
 efficiency (time, cost, effort)
 effectiveness (timeliness, accuracy, relevance, completeness)
 maintainability
Revision
Before the phases of the SDLC are explored in detail use this revision activity to revise what you have
learned so far.

Test your understanding. Print out the following summary sheet then fill in the blank spaces to complete the
document. Answers are provided on page two.
A. The Planning Phase
In order to define the scope of a project and to identify potential problem areas the development of any computer based
information system must be carefully planned. The planning phase normally follows a sequence of steps including
recognising the problem, setting project objectives, conducting feasibility studies and establishing control mechanisms.
B. The Analysis Phase
During the Analysis Phase of the SDLC existing systems are studied with the aim of designing a new or improved system.
Steps involved in this phase include announcing the project, creating a project team, defining information needs,
defining system performance criteria and creating a design proposal. At the conclusion of this phase a decision must be
made as to whether or not the project will proceed.
C. The Design Phase
During the design phase the processes and data required by the new system are defined. During this phase it is important
that a number of different alternatives are investigated to ensure that the most efficient and effective solution is adopted.
Part of the design phase involves preparing an implementation proposal.
D. The Implementation Phase
In the implementation phase physical and conceptual resources required for the project are obtained. Some of the steps in
this phase include preparing the physical facilities, educating the users/participants changing over to the new system.
E. The Use/Evaluation Phase
Once the system has been implemented the final phase in the project is the Use/Evaluation phase. During this phase the
system should be in full use and meeting the objectives that were set during the planning phase. This phase has a number
of steps including using the system, auditing the system, and re-engineering proposals.
The Planning Phase of the SDLC
Recognising the problem (factors prompting change within
organisations)
The first and most important part of the development of a computer based
information system is the identification of the problem. It could be something as
simple as a warehouse manager being unable to quickly locate stock when it
has to be transported elsewhere, the need to create a customer database or a
more complex problem involving changes in the buying trends of customers.
Computer based information systems are usually created in response to
existing problems and it is the nature of these problems, and consequently the
solutions that are needed, that will shape the final system.

The Planning Phase: defining the problem
The comment of a department store employee - My maths isn't too good, I
can never add up the figures correctly on the sales docket - may translate into
a problem of totals on sales dockets being incorrectly recorded, leading to a
loss of sales revenue and customer confidence.
Computer systems are developed to enable processes to occur in a more efficient manner, or to avoid problems which
currently exist. The ability to clearly define the problems or the inefficiencies is the first step in creating successful
computer systems. This is because, in order to build a successful computer based information system, it is necessary to
identify the deficiencies of the current system.
Problem identification does not have to require extensive exploration of the current system's deficiencies. The detailed
review of current practices and existing problems will be conducted in the analysis phase of the SDLC.
The Planning Phase: setting project objectives
In the planning phase broad goals for the entire project are set. In particular, it must be determined if the entire system or
only part of the system needs to be replaced. Whilst this does not seem to be a significant step, it is very important to the
overall project. It is through the setting of these broad system goals that the measurements of success can be
determined. That is, at the completion of the planning phase, a clear picture of what the problem is has been established
and equally important, a clear picture of what outcome will resolve the process has also been established.
It should be noted here that we have not identified what needs to built into the computer based information system. There
is a very good reason for this - at this stage it is not relevant. In the problem solving phase, the focus is on identifying the
problem and what would solve it - not how the problem has arisen and how it should be solved. By maintaining this focus,
the solution is linked to the problem and through this a process for solving it developed. A computer based information
system should never be created for the sake of creating it - it should be created to solve the problem that was identified.
Too often, a computer based information system will be created but will not solve the problem that it was intended to. This
can usually be traced back to the initial planning phase. When the outcomes to solve the problem were established, they
would focus on what the system could be made to do, rather than what it actually needed to do to solve the problem.
Consequently the system that was built, even though it achieved its goals, did not solve the initial problem.
The quality of the initial planning will have a significant influence on the ability of the final product to solve the problem.

The Planning Phase: identifying constraints
Because we do not live in a perfect world, there will be negative factors limiting the nature of the system to be
developed or modified. These constraints might include a fixed budget, necessity for quick implementation, integration
and compatibility with existing systems or even issues related to staffing and retraining. Any adverse factors must be
taken into account as part of the feasibility study.
Feasibility Study Question 1
Can the system be created?
The first question that needs to be asked - Can the system be created? - seems like a rather obvious question. It is not
as clear as it might seem. Often, when a system is being developed specifically for an organisation, there will be no
existing system on which to base comparisons on. It may be that what seems like a simple idea cannot be created for
whatever reason. While this step does not look in exacting detail, it will look at what the system is required to do, and if
this should be able to be achieved
Does the company have the ability to create the system?
Once it has been established that the system can be created, the next question is - Can the company actually produce
it? - in simple terms, does it have the expertise that will be required to create the system. This encompasses the project
managers, programmers, technical experts etc. that will be needed during the project. If the expertise is not currently
available, allowances need to be made in the project for this - either by outsourcing aspects of the project or employing
the appropriate personnel to ensure the company has the appropriate skills available to complete the project.
If the system was developed, does the company have the ability to keep it operating at an acceptable level?
Once it has been established that the organisation has the appropriate skills to develop the system, the feasibility study
must determine if the company will be able to keep the system operating at a level which will enable it to meet the original
goals. In order to do this, it must first be determined what the level of operation will need to be to meet the goals, and
once this is determined, it can be established what resources will be needed to allow the system to run at this level. It will
then be possible to evaluate if the organisation has the appropriate resources - including human, technical and physical. It
might be possible for the organisation to be able to implement the system without the need for additional resources,
however it is also quite likely that the organisation will need to provide additional resources for the system to be
implemented. If the organisation needs to alter the nature of the resources it has available, it should be identified in the
feasibility study.
Can the system development costs and ongoing costs be justified on the improvements it will deliver?
At this point in the feasibility study, the costs associated with the proposed system will be clearer. The costs will be
divided into two categories - establishment costs and ongoing costs. Establishment costs are those associated with the
actual creation of the system. This would include all development costs, hardware purchases and the like. The
establishment costs are one off costs and will not be repeated during the life of the system. Ongoing costs are the costs
that will be faced each year in running the system. It includes the human resource costs, system consumables costs and
the like. The ongoing costs must be low enough to justify the development of the system. That is, there is no point
developing a new system to perform a job if the current system does it cheaper - unless there is some overwhelming need
for change. The establishment costs will be incurred in the initial setting up of the system, however they will usually be
viewed over the anticipated life of that system.

Is there a better way of solving the problem?
Having established what the proposed system will deliver and at what cost, the next step in the feasibility study is to
review this material against other possible solutions. At this point, it may become clear there are better ways of
achieving the desired outcomes - this may be because the system cannot deliver all of the required objectives, or
enabling the system to do so would cost far more than can be justified. By revisiting other options, the company ensures
the system which is finally approved is one which provides the best system for the money which is spent on it.
Should the system development go ahead?
At the conclusion of the feasibility study, it must provide a recommendation for the course of action. This
recommendation will fall into one of three categories:
 to proceed with the system as initially planned
 to proceed with the system, but with alterations to the initial plan
 not to proceed with the system as planned and to conduct further investigations into the options available.
Feasibility Study
Once the problem identification process has been completed and an idea of a solution (or a number of possible solutions)
have been established, but before any large project is approved, a thorough investigation of the implications, costs and
benefits of the system should be undertaken. This investigation is referred to as the Feasibility Study.
The main reason for conducting a feasibility study, in broad terms, is to see if creating the system will be worthwhile. What
defines "worthwhile" will vary from company to company and system to system. Generally speaking, it is a balancing act -
can the cost of developing the system be justified by the benefits the system will deliver?
The issues that a feasibility study will look at include:
 can the system be created?
 does the company have the ability to create the system?
 if the system was developed, does the company have the ability to keep it operating at an acceptable level?
 can the system development costs and ongoing costs be justified on the improvements it will deliver?
 is there a better way of solving the problem?
 should the system development go ahead?
Creating Project Proposals
The feasibility study will be presented to the management of the organisation who will make the final
decision on whether to proceed with the proposed system development. If the proposal is given the
approval to begin, the first step will be the analysis phase of the system development life cycle.

Establishing Control Mechanisms
A clear set of procedures and techniques must be established to ensure that proper controls exist on any data gathered in
subsequent stages to ensure that it is valid. For example, it is often necessary to follow-up an interview or survey with
direct observation to confirm your findings.
Key Issues Weighting A B C D
Operational
- meet
requirement
s
- level of
security
provided
- education
and training
- business
competence
25%
9
7
4
6
6.5
8
9
9
7
8.25
10
6
7
8
7.75
6
7
10
8
7.75
Technical
- new
equipment
required
- utilization
of current
equipment
- technical
support
during and
after
installation
- expertise in
developing
systems for
similar
needs
30%
9
5
8
7
7.25
10
3
8
7
7
8
8
6
5
6.75
8
6
9
9
8
Scheduling
- timeframe
for
developme
nt and full
implementa
tion
15%
Less than 3
months
8
2 months
10
3-5 months
6
4
months
7
Economic
- costs to
develop
- payback
time
30%
$75,000
2 years
10
$100,000
3 years
7
$85,000
2.5 years
9
$90,000
2.75
years
8
Ranking 100%

The Analysis Phase of the SDLC
Announcing the Project
The Analysis Phase of the SDLC begins with members of the organisation being notified that system changes are under
investigation so that they can be prepared to participate in the decision making if required. It also keeps people informed
as to the progress of the changes at each stage.
The Analysis Phase: creating the project team
Whilst the Project Manager has overall responsibility for the proposed system changes, other personnel are needed to
provide specialist input. For example, the project team would include system analysts who provide links with the users
and technical analysts who determine the technical feasibility of the project.
The Analysis Phase: defining information needs
The process of analysing a computer system starts with a broad look at the system which is then broken down into
smaller parts. Each of the smaller parts can then be broken down into even smaller parts and so on. This approach
enables a complete analysis to occur, without the initial task appearing to be a task so large as to be unable to be
completed.
The purpose of the analysis phase of the system development life cycle is to document what the current system does, and
highlight the strengths and deficiencies in it.
In the analysis of the system, the following should occur:
 identification and evaluation of sources of information
 identification and description of the types of information needed to analyse the system
 identification and description of the types of information needed to design the system
 information flow and needs documented using system modeling tools
 identification and description of problem areas in the current system, which are grouped and become the basis
for the development of the new system.
The Analysis Phase: identification and evaluation of sources of
information
When deciding what type of network was required for a new information system 3RRR management consulted staff
extensively.
In order to perform an analysis of a system, the first step must be to identify the sources of information that will provide
views on the running of the current system. This will involve the users of the information the system produces, users of the
actual system and people who support the system.
Each of the groups will provide information that contributes to the construction of an overall picture of the running of the
system. In each of the broad groups identified above, there will be different categories or subgroups within it. It is
important that input is received from all of these parties so that a well-balanced overall view of the system can be
developed.

In order to perform an analysis of a system a number of people must be consulted: users of the information
the system produces, users of the actual system and people who support the system.
When performing an analysis of the current system, the views of the users of the system are paramount in successfully
recognising the strengths and identifying weaknesses present. The first task of the analyst will be to identify who they
need to consult to find out about the current system. In doing this, they will need to identify the following users of the
system: those who provide data, those who input data, those manipulate the data and those who receive data. As well as
these groups, they will need to identify the group above this - those who own or run the organisation - for they will also
have ideas as to what the system is doing, what it can be doing or what it should be doing. Although you would imagine
the discussion with the users of the system would uncover this information, it is surprising just how often management's
idea of what is happening is different to that of the users of the system.
The Analysis Phase: identification and description of the types of
information needed to analyses the system
Having identified the sources of information, the next step the analyst
must take is to establish what information can be gained from them.
The information which can be gained from the manager will be
different from the data entry clerk, which will be different from the
customers and so on. The analyst must decide what information
should be obtained from each source identified.
It is unusual for one user to be the exclusive source of information
about the system. Most aspects of the system will have some degree
of overlap - it may be that significant detail will come mainly from one
source, but there will usually be other users who are also impacted,
and information must be collected from them as well.
As well as identifying who will be capable of supplying what
information in this step, the analyst must also make decisions about
the reliability and suitability of the sources. Information collected must
be evaluated for bias and relevance and given the appropriate
weighting in the overall analysis of the system. For example, while a
manager and a data clerk would both have opinions on the usefulness
of the financial reports produced by a particular system, the
manager's opinion would have more weighting, but conversely, the
data clerk's opinion has more significance in areas relating to the
ease of data entry.
Sometimes, the analyst will identify the need for other information in
order to fully analyse the system. In this case, they would need to
document where this information can be obtained. An example of this
would be the need to conform to government privacy regulations with
regard to the release of confidential data on individuals.

The Analysis Phase: identification and description of the types of
information needed to design the system
The analyst must ensure the new system meets all relevant regulations and standards - and to do this, they must first
identify who the appropriate authorities are, and investigate and document the standards that are relevant to this
system.
Having established the type and sources of information needed to analyse the existing system, the next step is to identify
and describe the information that will be needed to design the new system. While this sounds very similar to the previous
step, there are some differences that must be noted.
Much of the information needed to design the new system will come from the same sources used previously. The
designer of the new system must take into account information from all relevant sources. Some of this information will
relate to mandatory standards (that is, minimum standards imposed by government or regulatory authorities - usually
relating to Occupational Health and Safety issues, or data security/privacy law). The analyst must ensure the new system
meets all relevant regulations and standards - and to do this, they must first identify who the appropriate authorities are,
and investigate and document the standards that are relevant to this system.
There will be other external sources of information that an analyst may need in the design of a new system. These
sources will usually provide the analyst with expert advice on various aspects of the proposed system - focusing on areas
where time and/or money can be saved through applying skills or designs from other projects to this system. In essence,
the system allows for the incorporation of developments in other projects into this one to ensure that the final product uses
the most appropriate technologies available.
The Analysis Phase: information flow and needs documented using
system modeling tools
Seavision Multimedia. Information flow within the company showing
how the various employees interact with each other in the system.
An important phase in the development of the new system is the documentation of the information flow within the existing
system. In this step, all the data in the system is recorded from when it is received, through manipulation in the system,
until the final information is produced. In each phase it is important to note who is providing the system with the data,

performing the manipulation and receiving the information that is produced.
There are a number of tools that are used to represent these features - Data flow Diagrams (DFDs), Context Diagram and
Entity Relationship diagrams. The reason why this stage is so important, is that it allows the analyst to develop a complete
understanding of the way in which the various parties interact with each other in the system, and thus design a system
that will be responsive to the needs of all of the parties involved. It also has the benefit of identifying the areas in which the
company has direct control, and those for which it must rely on outside sources. Obviously, when designing a new
system, there is no point in changing areas which the company has no control over, such as specifying data must be
received in a particular way, when the person who is supplying that data is under no pressure or obligation to change the
way in which they supply the data.
The Analysis Phase: identification and description of problem areas in
the current system
In the final stage of the Analysis Phase the analyst will
reconstruct the DFDs to outline where proposed changes to the
system will take place.
Identification and description of problem areas in the current system, which are grouped and become the basis for the
development of the new system is the final stage of the analysis phase. Here the analyst will look at all of the data that
they have collected and decide where the current system's performance can be improved. The analyst will then
reconstruct the DFDs to represent the proposed changes, as well as detailing the processing that will take place in each
part of the system. In this final stage, the analyst will describe what has to happen at each point in the proposed system.
These descriptions will form the basis for the development of the new system.
The Analysis Phase: defining system performance criteria
These outline the standards that the system must achieve. In other words, what is the minimum level of tasks that the
system can handle. This would include the objectives that the proposed changes are to achieve. These criteria must
exceed the levels of performance of the old system.
The Analysis Phase: creating a design proposal
The final part of this stage involves summarising all the data gathered and linking it to the problem. From this a broad
proposal for a system design is constructed. It recommends the main areas of change based on the analysis. This is the
deliverable part of the Analysis stage of the SDLC.
The Design Phase of the SDLC
Detailed system design
The design phase of the System Development Life Cycle follows the planning and analysis phases. Once a broad
proposal has been drawn up, the individual components must be broken down and specific designs created. This will
include designs for desired Input and Output.

The Design Phase: factors to be considered when designing the
output requirements
In the Design Phase it is usual
practice for programmers to
begin by identifying the output
requirements of the proposed
system.
There are a number of output
devices that can be incorporated
into any system.
Consider why the manner in
which output is to be created
and/or displayed is actually of
great significance to the design
of a computer system.
If output is primarily screen based then the
dimensions of the output screens is a
determining factor and must be considered
when designing output.
In a top down approach to system design, the programmer will
start by identifying the output that the system will need to
produce. There are a number of possible output formats that
must be considered, including such items as: printer, screen,
plotter, audio, email, links to web pages, automated fax facilities
and computer output microfilm. There are many more possible
output devices that could be incorporated into any system - it will
depend on the technology that is available to the developers.
There are sound reasons for starting the system development
with the design of the output. The system will be implemented to
help improve efficiencies or to solve a problem. In order to do
this, the first step will be to determine what can be done to help
the situation. Once this has been done, a clear picture of what
has to be produced can be identified. This will shape the output
requirements of the system. While the output may seem to be
the last part of the system that should be developed, it should
not be. In order to make the system a success it must be able to
produce the outcomes that can solve the problem, therefore the
output required needs to be identified early in the process.
Once the output has been identified, it will place constraints on
the system. These constraints will include requirements of data
to be collected to produce the output, and to the limitations
imposed by the technologies used to create the output. While it
may sound minor, the manner in which output is to be created
and/or displayed is actually of great significance to the design of
a computer system. This is because it can quickly change the
nature of the resources that are required by the system to
produce the output. For example, if the system is to collect
pictures that are displayed over the web, then the file size will
not have to be as large as those that will be printed.
Some of the major constraints on output include:
Printers - the print quality, e.g. Laser/inkjet/colour, and the
nature of the information to be produced. For example, if a
receipt is to be printed and needs to be made in duplicate, then
an impact printer will need to be used or the item printed twice.
Screen - If the output is primarily to be screen based, then the
screen will impose a number of limitations on the output. The
output will need to be designed to fit into the screen size. If the
screen is monochrome, then colour cannot be used, etc.

If the system is to collect pictures that are displayed
over the web, then the file size will not have to be as
large as those that will be printed.
The Design Phase: factors to be considered when
designing the input Requirements
GIGO - Garbage
In, Garbage Out!
Having established what the system needs to produce to meet its goals, the next area of interest is establishing what data
needs to be obtained to produce that output. The design of the input is vital to the successful creation of a computer
system. Put simply, the input must be collected from the various sources with a minimal amount of errors, and with the
greatest possible speed. A common term used to describe data entry is GIGO - garbage in, garbage out. This expression
highlights the importance of input design to the quality of the program produced. The final output will only be as accurate
as the data put into the system - and the quality of that data will be partly determined by the quality of the design of the
collection methods.
There are a number of techniques that a good programmer will use to ensure that the data they collect is of the best
quality possible. They will limit the opportunities for the user to enter the wrong data, and will ensure the user does not
have to enter data twice.
When designing input, the programmer should:
Identify duplicate data - Efficient program design requires that the program only collect and store each data element once.
Programmers should analyse the data requirements and identify where data is used more than once and ensure it is
collected just once. It is important to do this - while it may be easier to collect data more than once, rather than create
highly complex data structures, this approach compromises the integrity of the information produced, as it allows for more
input errors and the creation of conflicting outputs.
Identify methods of reducing input errors - When collecting data, the programmer should make use of as many of the
features available to ensure that the data being collected is as free from errors as possible. This can be achieved through

the use of features like drop down boxes, radio buttons, check boxes etc. that limit the user to selecting from pre-defined
"correct" options. By carefully constructing input screens, it is possible to limit the number of areas the users can enter
invalid data.
Identify data validation checks - While it is possible to limit the users choices to pre-defined choices, it may not always be
possible or practical to do so. An example would be postcodes. While all postcodes are pre-defined, there are so many of
them it would not be possible to list them all on a screen, so another method must be employed to make sure the data is
accurate. Writing code to check the data is accurate can do this. For example, the postcodes could be checked to see if
they fall within the expected range for the state given. While this relies on the user to input correct data, it does reduce the
amount of incorrect data the system collects.
Input screen/method design - Thought needs to be given to the actual design of the input collection screens or methods.
Care needs to be taken to ensure the screens that collect the data are arranged in an attractive and logical manner. If
data is to be entered from a form, then the data collection screens should follow the general format of those screens to
make data entry easier, and therefore less prone to errors.
The Design Phase: factors to be considered when designing the
processing requirements
The processing requirements of the system are simply the steps the program will need to perform to organise the data
collected into the form the final output requires. The programmer needs to identify what manipulation will need to take
place, and where in the program it will need to occur. Furthermore, the programmer will need to identify where the steps
need to be repeated to reduce the amount of code needed. For example, if the solution involves a database, the
programmer will have to know which fields are to be linked and in which tables data is to be stored.
The Design Phase: evaluating alternative system configurations
There may be different possible solutions available to the project team. The
designers must decide which is the most appropriate choice for the particular
system undergoing change. They may use a cost/benefit analysis to assist in
evaluating alternate system configurations. Key criteria include a comparison of:
 Cost (both at implementation and ongoing)
 Compatibility of components (how well the proposed system will fit in with
the existing system in terms of hardware and software)
 User-friendliness of procedures
 User-friendliness of equipment
The Design Phase: select best configuration
Based on the cost/benefit analysis, the project team identifies and justifies the most appropriate system configuration.
The Design Phase: prepare implementation proposal
The deliverable of the design phase is a detailed report identifying the preferred system and its specific hardware and
software requirements. In addition, general timelines for the introduction of the changes are provided.

The Implementation Phase of the SDLC
Having established the preferred design of a computer system, the next phase of the System Development Life Cycle, is
to commission the development of the preferred design. Depending upon the size of the organisation in question, the
actual writing of the software code may be done internally by the computer department, or out sourced from specialist
computer firms. As with any solution development, there will need to be the usual development and testing procedures in
place to ensure that the programs being written actually function properly. However, regardless of whether the program is
being written internally or externally, when discussing the SDLC, we regard this process as a single step of "software
development". The software development is only the first step of the implementation phase. There are a number of
actions that need to be completed to ensure the successful implementation of a system. Once the software has been
developed, the first step is to plan and announce the implementation.
The Implementation Phase: planning and announcing the
implementation
Planning the implementation involves identifying where the system changes will be made,
identifying the operators that will be effected by the changes, identifying equipment to be
modified, introduced or made redundant, identifying staff training requirements and
developing a timeline for the introduction of the new system. Once this has been done, an
announcement of the changeover will be made to all users of the system. The form that this
announcement will take will depend upon the particular system in question, but typically it will
involve all of the staff of the company, not just those directly affected. This is done because
the productivity of the staff in the divisions where the implementation is taking place may be
affected, and it is important that all staff within the company need to be aware of these unique
(and temporary) factors. Similarly, it is not uncommon for an organisation to notify customers
and clients of such changes as well. If we think about this, it is not surprising, as they may be
affected by the changes, and it important that they are aware of the temporary arrangements
that may be in place.
The Implementation Phase: acquisition of
new equipment (hardware and software)
For a large company hardware upgrades can involve replacing hundreds of PCs - thus the process can be
a lengthy and complex one.
When considering hardware upgrades, issues such as the storage of the new equipment must be taken
into consideration.

Hardware upgrades for
Government Departments
may need to follow certain
guidelines. For example,
there may be procedures
for a tendering process.
As part of the system design process, there may have been the requirement for new equipment (hardware and software)
or upgrading of the existing equipment. As part of the planning for the implementation process, this new equipment must
be obtained. While this sounds a simple task, it can often be a long and tiresome process. For a large company,
upgrading a system may involve replacing hundreds of PCs - and if the hardware is to be upgraded, there may be a
number of different parts required for the different models of computers - all of which have to be sourced. Software might
need to be purchased "off-the-shelf" then modified or custom-written to suit the specific needs of the system.
Depending upon the organisation, there might also be further company or statutory requirements to follow. For example, a
Victorian Government Department would not be able to just go out and buy the equipment they need - they would need to
conduct a tender. These sorts of requirements may slow the process down. It is very important that this phase of the
process is handled properly. This is for a number of reasons - obviously there is the expense of the equipment, but there
are also other issues - if there are going to be a hundred new PCs for example, they will need to be stored from the time
the company receives them to the time the system is actually implemented. In order to do this the company would have to
have available a reasonably large storage facility. If it were a chain of stores that was upgrading their computer system,
the new computers would need to be delivered to the appropriate stores as they were ready to be upgraded. In addition,
new software would have to be tested for compatibility and to ensure that it was capable of handling the tasks required by
the users of the system. This process requires careful planning to ensure the smooth introduction of the new system.
In addition to acquiring new equipment, the old equipment must be dealt with as well. It will be necessary to determine the
most appropriate course of action for this - disposal, sale or redeployment within the organisation. Either way, there will be
company or statutory requirements that will need to be followed that are similar to those that were followed when
purchasing equipment. It is important that the acquisition of equipment is timed to allow for the smooth introduction of the
new system. Exactly how this will require the delivery of the equipment will vary from system to system, however, careful
planning at this point will save significant time and effort later.
The Implementation Phase: preparing the physical facilities
The next part of the implementation process is preparing the physical facilities. How important or
large a step this is will depend upon the system in question. It may be as simple as clearing a
desktop to accommodate a PC to removing doors to allow the entry of large equipment. In some
specialist cases, it may even involve changes to such things as the air conditioning and/or filtering
equipment, security access etc. Each system will need to be analysed to identify where changes to
the physical environment will be required and how those changes will be implemented. It is also
important to identify the importance of the physical changes to the system, and thus the order in
which they need to be completed. For example, if computer hardware to be used in the system can
only operate at ten to twenty degrees, and there is no air conditioning, obviously the air
conditioning must be installed before the new hardware.

The Implementation Phase: educating users
The more effectively the users are trained in the system, the less
problems there will be with it.
Each type of training has benefits and disadvantages. What is important is that each company decides upon the most
appropriate training based on its individual needs and requirements.
Where customers need to be included in the education program, the complexity of the education program delivery
increases.
Having created the environment for the deployment of the new system, it is important that all of the users are educated in
the use of the new system. While this is an obvious step, it is a very important step in the success of the new system.
There are a number of training strategies a company might employ when implementing a new system - from onsite
training to specialist courses.
Some of the factors that will need to be taken into consideration when designing a training program include: the existing
skill sets within the company, the extent of the change, the funds available and the number of users to be trained. In
addition to this, decisions made in the implementation plan will have an impact on the training programs as well. This is
because there may be elements of a proposed training program that cannot be carried out until other parts of the
implementation program are complete. For example, the training program cannot commence until after the new software
has been written and tested, or if the training program is to involve "hands on" experience with the new hardware, this
cannot happen until after the new equipment has been installed.
It is important that all users of the system are trained in its operation. If the customers of the company are one of the direct

users groups of the system (such as bank customers and ATMs) then they will need to be included in the education
program.
Customer training increases the complexity of the program. This is because there is significantly less control over the
training that can be given to the customers. (By this, it is meant that, while it can be mandated for employees to undergo
an education program, you cannot make customers do this, even if it is in their best interests.)
The Implementation Phase: developing an implementation schedule
Once all of the elements of the new system are in place, the next step is to develop the implementation schedule (or
cutover), and finally to cut over to the new system. Most systems have a staggered introduction - that is, elements of the
system are introduced one at a time so that it is possible to ensure that they are working as intended before the next
element is introduced. This is a common approach as it allows the developers to quickly isolate problems in individual
sections of the system. If more than one element of the system is introduced at the same time and there is a problem, it
may take some time to isolate where the problem is occurring.
This staggered introduction is commonly referred to as a "cutover". This is because the two systems cut over one another
as each element is introduced. This is by far the most preferred method of introducing a new computer system however
there are times when it is not possible to do this. Where the ability to introduce the system in sections is not available, - for
example, the new system is not compatible with the existing equipment, which will be disposed of when the new system in
commissioned - a different implementation method must be used. Most commonly, it will be one that involves the use of
parallel systems.
As the name suggests, parallel system implementation is where two systems (the current and the new ones) are being
run at the same time to perform the same job. While this duplicates the work, there are some significant advantages to
this type of system. As the performance of the existing system is a known quantity, it gives us something to compare the
performance and accuracy of the new system to. Often parallel systems will operate for a month or two before the old
system is decommissioned. The biggest problem with parallel systems is that the duplication of the work can be costly
however this must be viewed against the security of the knowledge that if the new system under performs, the old system
can be kept operating until such time as all problems with the new system are sorted out.
Where the new system requires the old hardware and/or software to be removed, and it is not possible to have a cutover
program or parallel systems, the only option available is the use of a trial system. This is where a small version of the
system is set up and tried before the widespread introduction of the system. This trial emulates all aspects of the
computer system to ensure that it will work properly. It aims to reproduce as closely as possible the "real life" situation the
system will be used in. If the system is to be used in a number of locations, often this trial will occur in a single location
which crosses over to the new system and evaluates its performance until it is satisfactory, at which time it is then
introduced to the rest of the company.
The Implementation Phase: commissioning of the new system
(changeover)
The final phase of the implementation phase is the commissioning of the new system. This is the point where the
developers of the system hand control of the system to the company. At this point, it can be said that the new system is
able to perform the tasks originally set out for it. However, this is not the end of the process - it just means the system is
working the way it was intended to.

The Use/Evaluation Phase of the SDLC
Once the system has been commissioned, we enter the final phase of the System Development Life Cycle. This is the
use/evaluation phase. Computer based information systems should be built for a purpose, not just because we can.
Consequently in the analysis and design phases we set goals that the system was to achieve. In this phase we evaluate
how well those goals have been met and how the system can be further improved. There are a number of areas that are
evaluated in this phase.
The Use/Evaluation Phase: using the system
The Australian Tax Office uses an interactive form to
gather information about the effectiveness of its website.
This area, as the name implies, looks at how well the system
interacts with those who use it. Issues that may be
investigated could include: Is the system user friendly, is it
able to deliver the information required in a timely manner,
can the appropriate people (staff and/or customers) access
it? This data may be gathered through the use of surveying
customers, logging help desk enquiries or monitoring staff
absentee rates.
he Use/Evaluation Phase: auditing the system
In many systems monitoring methods are prescribed by external agencies - for example, an
accounts system would need to meet the Australian Taxation Offices standards in the
reports that it generates, and in order to validate the integrity of the information produced.
In this area a continual monitoring process should be in place to ensure that the system is producing accurate information.
In systems where there are no mandatory audits required, often the company will create checks of its own to ensure the
accuracy of information being produced. A common example of this would be a stock take where the stock levels on the
shelves are compared with the information contained within the system to ensure accuracy. These audits of the system
will be built into the standard operating procedures of the company.

The Use/Evaluation Phase: maintaining the system
The Australian Tax Office's website features a specific page for the reporting of technical
faults.
Computer based information systems need maintenance, just like any other piece of equipment. This could include
software functions like the cleaning up of redundant files, compacting data files, upgrading of operating systems etc. to
hardware maintenance, such as re-calibration of scanners and so on. Most companies will have a program of preventative
actions designed to ensure that the system will operate efficiently at all times.
It is important that an accurate log of equipment breakdowns and maintenance requirements is kept so that it can be
compared with the previous system.
The Use/Evaluation Phase: re-engineering proposals
In this step the system is evaluated for further productivity improvements and the cycle may begin again. The evaluation
of the system is not a finite event that concludes with the project meeting the design goals. It is a regular process that
continually reviews the system and searches for deficiencies and areas where improvements can be made. Once design
goals and performance targets have been met the cycle can be considered over, but as it is a cycle, it can begin again -
and in fact, normally does, as further enhancements of the system are identified and the process of developing them is
followed.
Revision
Use this question and answer activity to review the phases of the SDLC.
THE SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
1. List the five phases of the SDLC.
1. The Planning Phase
2. The Analysis Phase
3. The Design Phase
4. The Implementation Phase
5. The Use / Evaluation Phase

2. Make a flow chart showing the sequence of steps in the Planning Phase of the SDLC.
Define/detail the problem
Set project objectives/goals
Identify constraints
Conduct a feasibility study
Create project proposals
Establish control mechanisms
3. During the Analysis Phase of the SDLC what must be identified in order to document what the current system
does and to highlight the strengths and deficiencies in it?
• sources of information
• the types of information needed to analyse the system
• the types of information needed to design the system
• information flow (documented using system modelling tools)
• problem areas in the current system
4. You are a manager in a company and are implanting a new information system. Who might you consult in order
to perform an analysis of the current information system?
In order to perform an analysis of an information system a number of people are consulted. They include: users of the
information the system produces, users of the actual system, and people who support the system. This incorporates those
who provide data, those who input data, those manipulate the data and those who receive data. As well as these groups it
is important to consult those who own or run the organization.
5. In a top down approach to system design, the programmer will start by identifying the output that the system
will need to produce. Why is it important to start the system development with the design of the output?
In order to make the system a success it must be able to produce the outcomes that can solve the problem that has been
identified. Therefore the output required needs to be outlined early in the process. Once output has been identified it
places constraints on the system. While it may sound minor, the manner in which output is to be created and/or displayed
is actually of great significance to the design of a computer system and therefore it must be identified as early as possible.
6. During the Design Phase of the SDLC what factors should a programmer consider when designing the input for
the proposed information system?
When designing input the programmer should: identify duplicate data, identify methods of reducing input errors, identify
data validation checks and give thought to the design of the input collect screens or methods.
Identify the problem

7. Implementing an information system can significantly affect the productivity and morale of employees. What
steps might a company take to make this process as smooth and stress-free as possible?
It is crucial that the implementation of an information system is carefully planned and that employees are informed about
the nature of the changes that will be taking place. This process involves identifying where the system changes will be
made, identifying the operators that will be affected by the changes, identifying equipment that is to be modified,
introduced or made redundant, identifying staff training requirements and developing a timeline for the introduction of the
new system. Once this has been done, an announcement of the changeover should be made to all employees. It should be
announced to all staff and not just those directly affected.
8. There are a number of methods for ‘cutting’ over to a new information system. Describe the various options and
the benefits of each.
The ‘cutover’ method: involves a staggered introduction where elements of the system are introduced one at a time. This
method makes it easier to ensure that the elements of the system are working as intended before the next element is
introduced and allows the developers to quickly isolate problems in individual sections of the system.
Parallel systems: as the name suggests, this is where two systems (the current and the new ones) are run at the same time
to preform the same job. While this duplicates the work, there are some significant advantages to this type of system. As
the performance of the existing system is a known quantity, it gives the developers something to compare the performance
and accuracy of the new system to.
The trial system: this is where a small version of the system is set up and trialed before the widespread introduction of the
system. This trial emulates all aspects of the computer system to ensure that they work properly. It aims to reproduce as
closely as possible the "real life" situation the system will be used in. Where the new system requires the old hardware
and/or software to be removed, and it is not possible to have a cutover program or parallel systems, then the use of a trial
system has significant benefits.
9. Computer based information systems need maintenance. What might this involve?
Maintenance of an information system might involve software functions like the cleaning up of redundant files,
compacting data files and upgrading of operating systems to hardware maintenance, such as the re-calibration of scanners.

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