Our planet earth has a unique but complicated climate that presently is changing due to the influence that mankind’s activities appear to have on the composition of its atmosphere. There is general and widely held scientific consensus that the observed trends in atmospheric
and ocean temperature as well as climate extremes during the last century cannot be
explained solely by natural climate processes. From worldwide observations WMO (World
Meteorological Organization) concluded a long time ago that our planet is warming up. This
has to be considered a fact. The International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), using
collected measurements of carbon dioxide, showed that it has increased from the start of the
industrial revolution, but that changes in land use have also played an important role. From
1960 till 2010 the average increase is estimated to have been less than a degree Celsius (0.7
ºC), while it was 0.85 ºC since 1880. The projection for the next 50 years is in the order of
one degree Celsius, with the emissions kept within the range of the IPCC scenarios.
It is generally accepted that, if for this century the temperature increase can be limited to 2
ºC, the damages will remain much more limited than when the scenarios give a 4 ºC increase
at the end of this century. Quantitative knowledge is helping us to find our way to policies
serving the purpose of adapting to the consequences of climate change. In the case of
temperature increases, for Arabica coffee in Tanzania and Apples in India, a solution could
be to go to higher, still colder grounds, although this disrupts living conditions and
biodiversity patterns. But if we think about the lowland tropics, there is no way out apart
from crop diversification and finding more heat tolerant varieties. This is abundantly
illustrated with rice in Indonesia and elsewhere, as well as maize in Africa and elsewhere. To
these effects of global warming, we have to add those from increasing climate variability and
more (and often more severe) extreme meteorological and climatological extreme events.
Examples from forestry and fisheries complement the picture of large scale upheavals of an
endangered production due to these consequences of climate change.
We must further note that since the very end of the previous century, the rate of global
warming has reduced by at least half of the rate in the last 50 years of that previous century.
This has been baptized “the hiatus”, a lack of continuity in the upgoing trend of global
temperature. So climate change rates reduce. Is this going to change our thinking? Many
explanations may actually be involved, including many oceanic and atmospheric processes.
But we have no clue about the ratios of their contributions, while the complexities are
enormous. However, we know so much less about how the sea surface temperatures are
determined by currents and deep waves than we understand on the atmospheric resultants.
Global warming refers to the rising average temperature of the Earth caused by greenhouse gas emissions from human activities like burning fossil fuels. The greenhouse effect occurs naturally but is enhanced by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases, trapping more heat in the lower atmosphere and leading to global warming. The major greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, which have all increased due to human activities and contribute to rising global temperatures and sea levels as well as changes to weather patterns and water supplies. Reducing energy usage and switching to renewable energy can help limit the effects of climate change.
The document discusses global warming and its causes. It states that global warming is an increase in the average temperature of the Earth's atmosphere and oceans, with surface temperatures rising 0.74°C over the past century. The primary cause of global warming is carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels. Increased greenhouse gases like CO2 trap more heat in the atmosphere, enhancing the natural greenhouse effect and amplifying global warming. Effects of global warming include rising sea levels and temperatures, melting polar ice caps, and more extreme weather events. Solutions proposed are reducing carbon emissions through energy efficiency and renewable energy.
The document discusses global warming, including its causes, consequences, and preventative measures. It states that global warming is caused by both natural factors like the greenhouse effect as well as man-made causes from pollution and burning fossil fuels. This results in rising sea levels, melting polar ice caps, changes in animal behavior, and odd climatic changes. The document also covers ozone layer depletion and how damage to the ozone layer from human activity could have catastrophic effects by allowing more ultraviolet rays from the sun to reach the planet.
Global warming is the observed increase in average global temperatures over the past century caused by trash, contamination, climatic changes, the greenhouse effect, and burning forests. This is leading to effects like further climatic changes, increased dryness, less available water, extreme heat, and melting of the Arctic. Scientists are working to lower global warming levels by reducing these causes and mitigating the effects.
This document discusses global climate change and its various aspects. It provides an overview of the history and science of global warming, summarizing that increasing greenhouse gas emissions are causing the planet to warm due to human activities. Main greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide are explained in terms of their sources and impacts. The effects of global warming are expected to include continued temperature rise, more extreme weather, sea level rise, and effects on ecosystems. International agreements to address climate change like the UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol are also summarized.
Global warming is caused by greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide trapping heat in the atmosphere and warming the planet. It threatens life on Earth by raising sea levels, melting ice caps, and causing climatic changes. A survey found that more people turning off lights could help reduce global warming by decreasing emissions from energy production. The greenhouse effect currently warms the Earth, but unchecked warming will drastically change conditions worldwide if emissions are not reduced.
This document discusses global warming and its effects, suggesting that human activity is causing the planet to heat up rapidly and that rescue efforts are needed to address the impacts of global warming.
This document provides an introduction to global warming, including:
- A definition of global warming as the average rise in Earth's temperature caused by the greenhouse effect, which keeps heat from escaping the atmosphere.
- A description of the characteristics of three major greenhouse gases.
- Evidence of an abnormal temperature rise since 1980.
- Links to websites about minimizing carbon footprints and becoming part of the solution to global warming.
Global warming refers to the rising average temperature of the Earth caused by greenhouse gas emissions from human activities like burning fossil fuels. The greenhouse effect occurs naturally but is enhanced by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases, trapping more heat in the lower atmosphere and leading to global warming. The major greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, which have all increased due to human activities and contribute to rising global temperatures and sea levels as well as changes to weather patterns and water supplies. Reducing energy usage and switching to renewable energy can help limit the effects of climate change.
The document discusses global warming and its causes. It states that global warming is an increase in the average temperature of the Earth's atmosphere and oceans, with surface temperatures rising 0.74°C over the past century. The primary cause of global warming is carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels. Increased greenhouse gases like CO2 trap more heat in the atmosphere, enhancing the natural greenhouse effect and amplifying global warming. Effects of global warming include rising sea levels and temperatures, melting polar ice caps, and more extreme weather events. Solutions proposed are reducing carbon emissions through energy efficiency and renewable energy.
The document discusses global warming, including its causes, consequences, and preventative measures. It states that global warming is caused by both natural factors like the greenhouse effect as well as man-made causes from pollution and burning fossil fuels. This results in rising sea levels, melting polar ice caps, changes in animal behavior, and odd climatic changes. The document also covers ozone layer depletion and how damage to the ozone layer from human activity could have catastrophic effects by allowing more ultraviolet rays from the sun to reach the planet.
Global warming is the observed increase in average global temperatures over the past century caused by trash, contamination, climatic changes, the greenhouse effect, and burning forests. This is leading to effects like further climatic changes, increased dryness, less available water, extreme heat, and melting of the Arctic. Scientists are working to lower global warming levels by reducing these causes and mitigating the effects.
This document discusses global climate change and its various aspects. It provides an overview of the history and science of global warming, summarizing that increasing greenhouse gas emissions are causing the planet to warm due to human activities. Main greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide are explained in terms of their sources and impacts. The effects of global warming are expected to include continued temperature rise, more extreme weather, sea level rise, and effects on ecosystems. International agreements to address climate change like the UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol are also summarized.
Global warming is caused by greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide trapping heat in the atmosphere and warming the planet. It threatens life on Earth by raising sea levels, melting ice caps, and causing climatic changes. A survey found that more people turning off lights could help reduce global warming by decreasing emissions from energy production. The greenhouse effect currently warms the Earth, but unchecked warming will drastically change conditions worldwide if emissions are not reduced.
This document discusses global warming and its effects, suggesting that human activity is causing the planet to heat up rapidly and that rescue efforts are needed to address the impacts of global warming.
This document provides an introduction to global warming, including:
- A definition of global warming as the average rise in Earth's temperature caused by the greenhouse effect, which keeps heat from escaping the atmosphere.
- A description of the characteristics of three major greenhouse gases.
- Evidence of an abnormal temperature rise since 1980.
- Links to websites about minimizing carbon footprints and becoming part of the solution to global warming.
A greenhouse helps plants grow by trapping sunlight and heat inside through glass or plastic walls. Greenhouses are useful because they allow plants to be protected from cold weather and grown anywhere. They centralize sunlight to provide heat and humidity for optimal plant growth. While greenhouses benefit plants, increased greenhouse gas emissions are amplifying the greenhouse effect and causing problematic global warming by trapping too much heat in the atmosphere.
This document discusses the risks of climate change, including how it is accelerating due to increasing greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. It notes that while some climate change is natural, the recent warming is caused by human activity like burning fossil fuels. If emissions are not mitigated, global temperatures could increase by 3-4°C by 2100. The impacts of climate change are already being seen worldwide and pose severe risks to safety, food supplies, and the economy through increased extreme weather and rising insurance costs.
Global warming is real and caused by greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and methane that trap heat in the atmosphere. We know the planet is warming from temperature records and satellite images that show rising temperatures over the past century. While global warming cannot be stopped immediately due to natural delays, actions like using less energy, driving less, and developing renewable energy can help slow the rate of warming and reduce its impacts.
This document discusses global warming and its causes, evidence, and effects. It explains that global warming is caused by greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide trapping heat in the atmosphere and warming the planet. It provides examples of evidence like disappearing glaciers. Effects include rising sea levels, stronger storms, and species extinction. The document suggests ways individuals can help like using more efficient lighting and transportation.
Global warming and climate change are terms for the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth's climate system and its related effects. Presentation by Rahul Singh, Ashish Sharma. Project Guide: Dr. Tanuja NAutiyal
Climate change is a significant change in weather patterns over a long period of time, such as 100 years. It has occurred many times before due to both external causes like changes in the sun's activity and earth's orbit, as well as internal causes such as volcanic eruptions and natural feedback loops. Anthropogenic activities like emitting greenhouse gases and land use changes are also contributing to current climate change. While carbon dioxide is used to track human impacts, climate change affects more than just temperature and includes changes to precipitation, humidity, and winds. If left unaddressed, climate change could have major consequences for weather patterns, sea level rise, extreme weather, and force plants and animals to adapt or go extinct, with impacts on
Global warming refers to the increase in average temperatures around the world due to rising levels of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases occur naturally but human activities like burning fossil fuels have increased their levels, trapping more heat from the sun and changing the climate. Effects of global warming include melting ice caps, rising sea levels, more extreme weather, and threats to human health and agriculture. Individual actions like using less energy, driving less, recycling, and planting trees can help address the problem.
Global warming is an increase in the earth's atmospheric temperature due to greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide trapping heat from the sun. This temperature rise harms many living things and can cause death. Global warming is caused by factors like the use of electricity, burning fossil fuels for transportation and power, deforestation, and chemical fertilizers which all release greenhouse gases. The effects of global warming include changes to climate and sea levels, harm to agriculture and wildlife, and impacts on water resources. Reducing greenhouse gas emissions can help stop global warming from further impacts.
The greenhouse effect refers to how certain gases like carbon dioxide, methane, and chlorofluorocarbons trap heat in the atmosphere similar to how glass traps heat in a greenhouse. Greenhouse gases absorb and emit radiation in all directions, warming the planet's surface beyond what it would be without an atmosphere. Human activities like burning fossil fuels and deforestation have increased greenhouse gas levels, strengthening the greenhouse effect and causing global warming and climate change impacts like rising sea levels, more extreme weather, and expansion of deserts. Reducing emissions from fossil fuels as well as deforestation can help limit the greenhouse effect.
Global warming is caused by increased levels of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and methane trapping heat in the atmosphere. This enhanced greenhouse effect has led to rising global temperatures. Some key impacts are rising sea levels as ice caps melt and more extreme weather events. To address this, India has undertaken initiatives like investing in renewable energy and energy efficiency programs, as well as creating public awareness campaigns about sustainable practices. Overall global warming poses a major threat to the environment and climate if greenhouse gas emissions continue unchecked.
Global Environmental Problem Regarding AtmospherePatricia Samonte
The document discusses the greenhouse effect and global warming. It explains that the greenhouse effect refers to how gases in the atmosphere like carbon dioxide trap heat from the sun and warm the Earth's surface, making it suitable for life. However, human activities are increasing the amounts of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, enhancing the greenhouse effect and causing the planet to warm up in a phenomenon known as global warming. Global warming means the entire climate is changing as more heat gets trapped by the thicker blanket of greenhouse gases.
Global warming is the increase in the average temperature of the Earth’s near-surface air and oceans since the mid-twentieth century, and its projected continuation. Factors that contribute to global warming, nevertheless caused mostly by humans, include deforestation, logging, the use of CFCs and HCFCs, and the release of methane gases from cow’s gaseous emissions from their anuses, which is a natural factor that contributes to global warming.
Global warming is the increase of Earth's average surface temperature due to greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide trapping heat from the sun. It occurs as we burn fossil fuels and cut down forests. Effects include rising sea levels that could reach 25 meters by 2100 and increasing temperatures between 3 to 5 degrees Celsius. Evidence includes shrinking glaciers in Alaska and lower water levels in rivers. Individual actions like using less energy and driving less can help reduce global warming.
The EXPLODING POPULATION OF 7 B IS INFLUENCING OUR CLIMATE BY BURNING FOSSIL FUELS THAT EMIT CARBON DIOXIDE, CO2.
1. THE HUMAN INFLUENCE ON WARMING
Emissions of the greenhouse gas CO2 are increasing at a rate of 2.5 ppm per year.
2. CONTRAST THIS WITH SLOWER NATURAL PROCESSES
18K – 10K years ago, C02 increased at a rate 1/300th slower.
3. THE IMPACT OF CONTINUING CLIMATE CHANGE
Melting of the Arctic is increasing our winter climate extremes.
The document discusses global warming and its causes and consequences. It explains that global warming is the increase in air temperature around the world caused by greenhouse gases trapping heat from the sun. The main greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, CFCs, and methane, which come from sources like burning fossil fuels, agriculture, and landfills. Consequences of global warming include changes in weather patterns, rising sea levels, impacts on plants and animals, and increased disease in humans.
Global warming is defined as an increase in the Earth's temperatures due to increased greenhouse gases from human activities like pollution, deforestation and fossil fuel use. Historical records show the Earth has warmed in recent decades. Effects of warming include rising sea levels and impacts on agriculture, tourism and human health. Economic impacts are also predicted, such as losses to GDP and declines in agricultural output. Solutions involve reducing carbon emissions through renewable energy and more sustainable practices in areas like transportation and consumer goods. Predictions for 2100 include a warmer world supporting a larger population with moderate fossil fuel dependence.
The greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide, act like a blanket trapping heat and warming the planet. Without this natural greenhouse effect, Earth would be too cold to support life. However, human activities like burning fossil fuels are increasing the amounts of greenhouse gases and thickening the blanket's effect, causing the planet to retain more heat and global temperatures to rise. The last twelve years have been the hottest on record, demonstrating the impacts of climate change.
This power point file prepared by Dr. Greg Acciaioli, an anthropologist from the University of Western Australia in "Regionalism in State and non-State Perspective" seminar on Seminar Week Anthropology, Faculty of Social and Political Sciences, Universitas Indonesia, September 10th 2014. He shared his findings from ethnography research in Sulu Zone, the area termed by James Francis Warren. In this presentation, Acciaioli was showing to the audience how social exclusion happen in stateless local community in the area Borneo, Sulawesi, and the Southern Philippines. This presentation are showing to the audience about autocritic while the countries in Southeast Asia have campaign to build ASEAN Community 2015.
A greenhouse helps plants grow by trapping sunlight and heat inside through glass or plastic walls. Greenhouses are useful because they allow plants to be protected from cold weather and grown anywhere. They centralize sunlight to provide heat and humidity for optimal plant growth. While greenhouses benefit plants, increased greenhouse gas emissions are amplifying the greenhouse effect and causing problematic global warming by trapping too much heat in the atmosphere.
This document discusses the risks of climate change, including how it is accelerating due to increasing greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. It notes that while some climate change is natural, the recent warming is caused by human activity like burning fossil fuels. If emissions are not mitigated, global temperatures could increase by 3-4°C by 2100. The impacts of climate change are already being seen worldwide and pose severe risks to safety, food supplies, and the economy through increased extreme weather and rising insurance costs.
Global warming is real and caused by greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and methane that trap heat in the atmosphere. We know the planet is warming from temperature records and satellite images that show rising temperatures over the past century. While global warming cannot be stopped immediately due to natural delays, actions like using less energy, driving less, and developing renewable energy can help slow the rate of warming and reduce its impacts.
This document discusses global warming and its causes, evidence, and effects. It explains that global warming is caused by greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide trapping heat in the atmosphere and warming the planet. It provides examples of evidence like disappearing glaciers. Effects include rising sea levels, stronger storms, and species extinction. The document suggests ways individuals can help like using more efficient lighting and transportation.
Global warming and climate change are terms for the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth's climate system and its related effects. Presentation by Rahul Singh, Ashish Sharma. Project Guide: Dr. Tanuja NAutiyal
Climate change is a significant change in weather patterns over a long period of time, such as 100 years. It has occurred many times before due to both external causes like changes in the sun's activity and earth's orbit, as well as internal causes such as volcanic eruptions and natural feedback loops. Anthropogenic activities like emitting greenhouse gases and land use changes are also contributing to current climate change. While carbon dioxide is used to track human impacts, climate change affects more than just temperature and includes changes to precipitation, humidity, and winds. If left unaddressed, climate change could have major consequences for weather patterns, sea level rise, extreme weather, and force plants and animals to adapt or go extinct, with impacts on
Global warming refers to the increase in average temperatures around the world due to rising levels of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases occur naturally but human activities like burning fossil fuels have increased their levels, trapping more heat from the sun and changing the climate. Effects of global warming include melting ice caps, rising sea levels, more extreme weather, and threats to human health and agriculture. Individual actions like using less energy, driving less, recycling, and planting trees can help address the problem.
Global warming is an increase in the earth's atmospheric temperature due to greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide trapping heat from the sun. This temperature rise harms many living things and can cause death. Global warming is caused by factors like the use of electricity, burning fossil fuels for transportation and power, deforestation, and chemical fertilizers which all release greenhouse gases. The effects of global warming include changes to climate and sea levels, harm to agriculture and wildlife, and impacts on water resources. Reducing greenhouse gas emissions can help stop global warming from further impacts.
The greenhouse effect refers to how certain gases like carbon dioxide, methane, and chlorofluorocarbons trap heat in the atmosphere similar to how glass traps heat in a greenhouse. Greenhouse gases absorb and emit radiation in all directions, warming the planet's surface beyond what it would be without an atmosphere. Human activities like burning fossil fuels and deforestation have increased greenhouse gas levels, strengthening the greenhouse effect and causing global warming and climate change impacts like rising sea levels, more extreme weather, and expansion of deserts. Reducing emissions from fossil fuels as well as deforestation can help limit the greenhouse effect.
Global warming is caused by increased levels of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and methane trapping heat in the atmosphere. This enhanced greenhouse effect has led to rising global temperatures. Some key impacts are rising sea levels as ice caps melt and more extreme weather events. To address this, India has undertaken initiatives like investing in renewable energy and energy efficiency programs, as well as creating public awareness campaigns about sustainable practices. Overall global warming poses a major threat to the environment and climate if greenhouse gas emissions continue unchecked.
Global Environmental Problem Regarding AtmospherePatricia Samonte
The document discusses the greenhouse effect and global warming. It explains that the greenhouse effect refers to how gases in the atmosphere like carbon dioxide trap heat from the sun and warm the Earth's surface, making it suitable for life. However, human activities are increasing the amounts of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, enhancing the greenhouse effect and causing the planet to warm up in a phenomenon known as global warming. Global warming means the entire climate is changing as more heat gets trapped by the thicker blanket of greenhouse gases.
Global warming is the increase in the average temperature of the Earth’s near-surface air and oceans since the mid-twentieth century, and its projected continuation. Factors that contribute to global warming, nevertheless caused mostly by humans, include deforestation, logging, the use of CFCs and HCFCs, and the release of methane gases from cow’s gaseous emissions from their anuses, which is a natural factor that contributes to global warming.
Global warming is the increase of Earth's average surface temperature due to greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide trapping heat from the sun. It occurs as we burn fossil fuels and cut down forests. Effects include rising sea levels that could reach 25 meters by 2100 and increasing temperatures between 3 to 5 degrees Celsius. Evidence includes shrinking glaciers in Alaska and lower water levels in rivers. Individual actions like using less energy and driving less can help reduce global warming.
The EXPLODING POPULATION OF 7 B IS INFLUENCING OUR CLIMATE BY BURNING FOSSIL FUELS THAT EMIT CARBON DIOXIDE, CO2.
1. THE HUMAN INFLUENCE ON WARMING
Emissions of the greenhouse gas CO2 are increasing at a rate of 2.5 ppm per year.
2. CONTRAST THIS WITH SLOWER NATURAL PROCESSES
18K – 10K years ago, C02 increased at a rate 1/300th slower.
3. THE IMPACT OF CONTINUING CLIMATE CHANGE
Melting of the Arctic is increasing our winter climate extremes.
The document discusses global warming and its causes and consequences. It explains that global warming is the increase in air temperature around the world caused by greenhouse gases trapping heat from the sun. The main greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, CFCs, and methane, which come from sources like burning fossil fuels, agriculture, and landfills. Consequences of global warming include changes in weather patterns, rising sea levels, impacts on plants and animals, and increased disease in humans.
Global warming is defined as an increase in the Earth's temperatures due to increased greenhouse gases from human activities like pollution, deforestation and fossil fuel use. Historical records show the Earth has warmed in recent decades. Effects of warming include rising sea levels and impacts on agriculture, tourism and human health. Economic impacts are also predicted, such as losses to GDP and declines in agricultural output. Solutions involve reducing carbon emissions through renewable energy and more sustainable practices in areas like transportation and consumer goods. Predictions for 2100 include a warmer world supporting a larger population with moderate fossil fuel dependence.
The greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide, act like a blanket trapping heat and warming the planet. Without this natural greenhouse effect, Earth would be too cold to support life. However, human activities like burning fossil fuels are increasing the amounts of greenhouse gases and thickening the blanket's effect, causing the planet to retain more heat and global temperatures to rise. The last twelve years have been the hottest on record, demonstrating the impacts of climate change.
This power point file prepared by Dr. Greg Acciaioli, an anthropologist from the University of Western Australia in "Regionalism in State and non-State Perspective" seminar on Seminar Week Anthropology, Faculty of Social and Political Sciences, Universitas Indonesia, September 10th 2014. He shared his findings from ethnography research in Sulu Zone, the area termed by James Francis Warren. In this presentation, Acciaioli was showing to the audience how social exclusion happen in stateless local community in the area Borneo, Sulawesi, and the Southern Philippines. This presentation are showing to the audience about autocritic while the countries in Southeast Asia have campaign to build ASEAN Community 2015.
Seminar Week_Center for Anthropological Studies_Book Launch_Negara vs Santet_...Muki Trenggono Wicaksono
This power point file presented by Dr. Greg Acciaioli, an anthropologist from the University of Western Australia in Seminar Week Anthropology, Faculty of Social and Political Sciences. He gave his perspective as Dr. Nicholas' supervisor and as an anthropologist after read "The Entangled State" (English version from "Negara vs Santet" - translated version).
Dokumen tersebut merupakan ringkasan dari penelitian mengenai hutan adat di Kabupaten Kerinci, Sumatra Barat. Dokumen tersebut menjelaskan tentang luas hutan adat di Kabupaten Kerinci, asal usul, lembaga pengelola, dan peraturan adat beberapa hutan adat di sana. Dokumen tersebut juga memberikan rekomendasi untuk riset dan kegiatan lebih lanjut mengenai pengelolaan hutan-hutan adat di daerah terse
Dokumen tersebut merangkum hasil penelitian mengenai hutan adat di Kabupaten Kerinci, Jawa Tengah. Terdapat delapan kasus hutan adat yang telah diidentifikasi dengan luasan total 2.398,14 hektar. Dokumen ini membahas proses pengukuhan hutan adat, peraturan adat yang mendukung pengelolaannya, serta berbagai aktor dan dinamika sosial yang terkait.
Dokumen tersebut membahas tentang pemetaan sosial sebagai pendekatan untuk mempelajari kehidupan masyarakat setempat secara partisipatif. Metode ini digunakan untuk mengidentifikasi struktur sosial, sistem tenurial tanah, dan hubungan masyarakat dengan hutan melalui wawancara, observasi, dan diskusi kelompok. Hasil pemetaan sosial bermanfaat untuk pengakuan masyarakat hukum adat dan penataan bat
This document discusses the effects of global warming on agriculture production and adaptation strategies. It begins with an introduction to global warming, greenhouse gases, and the causes of global warming from both natural and human factors. It then examines the impacts of rising temperatures on crop yields for various crops in India. The document outlines some adaptation and mitigation strategies farmers can adopt, such as using drought-resistant crop varieties, conservation tillage practices, and crop diversification. It concludes that global warming poses risks to Indian agriculture but that proactive adaptation can help minimize negative impacts.
This document contains a lesson plan for teaching 4th grade students about climate change. The plan is divided into 7 sections that will take 1-2 hours total to cover. Section 1 introduces climate change and recent climate history. Section 2 explains the greenhouse effect. Section 3 discusses human activities that cause climate change like burning fossil fuels. Section 4 covers why climate change matters and what can be done. Sections 5-6 discuss solutions at the government and individual level. Section 7 is a summary. Accompanying the lesson plan are downloadable images and teacher notes to explain key concepts.
Climatology seeks to explain the causes of different climates, their variations, effects on vegetation, and interactions with human societies. It analyzes weather and climate elements. Climate is defined as the weather conditions prevailing in an area over a long period. Weather describes atmospheric conditions at a given time. Climatology examines climate data from ice cores and ocean sediments dating back millions of years. It also studies how climate has changed in recent centuries and decades due to human activities like fossil fuel use and deforestation. Applied climatology explores relationships between climate and other phenomena like agriculture, human health, and industries.
This document discusses global warming and its causes and effects. It defines global warming as a long-term rise in Earth's temperatures due to increased greenhouse gases from human activity since the Industrial Revolution. Greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide trap heat in the lower atmosphere, causing temperatures to be about 33°C warmer than they would be otherwise. Aerosols from volcanoes and pollution can have a cooling effect by reflecting sunlight, but models show they cannot account for current warming. Effects of global warming include sea level rise, extreme weather, ecosystem changes, and ocean acidification. While impacts are already occurring, the document argues renewable energy can provide most energy needs and avoid the worst effects of climate change if adopted more widely.
This lesson plan aims to teach 4th grade students about climate change, the greenhouse effect, their carbon footprint, and actions they can take to reduce it. The plan is structured in 7 sections over 1-2 hours covering topics such as the causes and impacts of climate change, the greenhouse effect, human contributions including burning fossil fuels, and individual actions. It includes a PowerPoint presentation and downloadable images to illustrate concepts like rising global temperatures and melting glaciers based on scientific reports.
This document summarizes the key findings about climate change from scientific research. It finds that climate change poses a serious threat to humanity if left unaddressed. Global temperatures are projected to rise 4°C by 2100 under business-as-usual emissions, causing devastating impacts including more extreme weather, sea level rise, and parts of the world becoming uninhabitable by 2300. While climate change mitigation efforts are underway, more urgent action is needed to transition away from fossil fuels and reduce emissions 70% by 2050 to limit warming to 2°C. Failure to act risks potentially catastrophic consequences, but with cooperation and innovation in technology, the climate challenge can be addressed.
This document summarizes several common myths and misconceptions about global warming and refutes them with scientific facts. It explains that while water vapor is a stronger greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide, CO2 levels are determined by human activities like burning fossil fuels. While some effects of warming may seem beneficial, the overall impacts of climate change will be severely damaging. Past climate changes were natural, but current warming is human-caused. And unlike weather, climate projections decades in the future can be reliable because models have been validated against past climate data. The document concludes that urgent action is needed to avoid catastrophic effects of global warming.
This document discusses global warming and the greenhouse effect. It begins by explaining the natural greenhouse effect and how greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide trap heat in the atmosphere, maintaining the planet's temperature. It then discusses how human activities like burning fossil fuels have enhanced the greenhouse effect, causing global warming. The document outlines the major causes of global warming like fossil fuel use, deforestation, farming, and industrialization. It also describes the effects of global warming on the environment, animals, humans, and climate patterns. Finally, it discusses approaches to mitigating global warming through measures like the Kyoto Protocol and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
Global warming refers to the average increase in Earth's temperature due to greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide trapping heat in the atmosphere. Burning fossil fuels releases these gases. Effects include more extreme weather, melting Arctic ice and permafrost, rising sea levels that threaten coastal areas and islands, and disruption of ecosystems. International agreements like the Kyoto Protocol aim to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to mitigate global warming impacts. Individual actions are also important to address this issue.
Global warming refers to the long-term rise in Earth's average temperature due to human activities like burning fossil fuels. Since pre-industrial times, human activities have increased Earth's average temperature by about 1 degree Celsius. It is unequivocal that human influence has warmed the atmosphere, ocean and land. The greenhouse effect occurs naturally and makes Earth habitable, but human emissions of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide are enhancing the effect and causing global warming. Continued emissions will lead to more extreme weather, higher sea levels, and other damaging impacts. Addressing global warming will require international cooperation on clean energy and adaptation efforts.
Global warming refers to the long-term rise in Earth's average temperature due to human activities like burning fossil fuels. Since pre-industrial times, human activities have increased Earth's average temperature by about 1 degree Celsius. It is unequivocal that human influence has warmed the atmosphere, ocean, and land. The greenhouse effect occurs naturally and makes Earth habitable, but human emissions of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide are enhancing the effect and causing global warming. Continued emissions will lead to more extreme weather, higher sea levels, and other damaging impacts. Addressing global warming will require international cooperation on clean energy and adaptation efforts.
Global warming refers to the long-term rise in Earth's average temperature due to human activities like burning fossil fuels. Since pre-industrial times, human activities have increased Earth's average temperature by about 1 degree Celsius. It is unequivocal that human influence has warmed the atmosphere, ocean and land. The greenhouse effect occurs naturally and makes Earth habitable, but human emissions of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide are enhancing the effect and causing global warming. Continued emissions will lead to more extreme weather, higher sea levels, and other damaging impacts. Addressing global warming will require international cooperation on clean energy and adaptation efforts.
This document discusses the exergy-entropy process of the global environmental system and how it maintains an average ground surface temperature of 15°C. It explains that the system functions in a cycle of exergy supply, consumption, entropy generation, and disposal. Calculations are presented to demonstrate the importance of water and air circulation in regulating the temperature. The average 15°C results from simultaneous heating by the sun and cooling to the universe.
STRATEGIES TO DEAL WITH GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE.pdfFaga1939
This article aims to present the necessary strategies to avoid catastrophic climate change on planet Earth, which requires the replacement of the current energy model for another one based on renewable energy sources and the replacement of the current economic model for another based on the sustainable development model, among other measures.
Environmental Studies. Environmental Issues.Jobin Abraham
This document discusses several environmental issues including climate change, global warming, the greenhouse effect, acid rain, and depletion of the ozone layer. It provides definitions and explanations of these topics, noting that they are interdependent and can have similar causes from both human activities and natural events. Specific impacts of climate change and global warming are outlined, such as rising temperatures, sea levels, and extreme weather events. The greenhouse effect is explained as a process that occurs naturally but has been intensified by human activities like burning fossil fuels.
Global warming is caused by the greenhouse effect from increased CO2 and other gases trapping heat in the atmosphere. The majority of scientists agree that human activity, such as burning fossil fuels, is the main driver of increased greenhouse gas levels and global temperature rises in recent decades. If emissions continue at their current rate, average global temperatures could increase 4-5°C by 2100, causing sea level rises and more extreme weather. Major changes are needed to transition to renewable energy and reduce CO2 emissions to prevent catastrophic climate change impacts.
This document discusses global warming and the greenhouse effect from Ms. Kopchick's Earth Science class. It defines the greenhouse effect and how an increase in greenhouse gases leads to global warming. It outlines the major greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide and their sources. The effects of global warming include rising sea levels, more extreme weather, habitat damage, and species extinction. The document discusses potential solutions to slow global warming like transitioning to renewable energy, reducing deforestation, and individual actions like using energy efficient appliances and compact fluorescent light bulbs.
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Climate Change: Its danger for our production and why it escapes our prediction
1. Prof. Kees Stigter, Agromet Vision
[Netherlands, Indonesia, Africa]
FISIP/RCCC (UI) Depok, 21 May 2015
Climate Change:
Its danger
for our production
and why it escapes
our prediction
1
2. I am making use of experience
collected together with
Prof. Yunita T. Winarto,
FISIP, UI, Depok,
her students and our groups
of farmers in Indramayu.
From that perspective this is
a joint presentation.
2
3. I am a visiting professor
in the Universitas Indonesia (UI)
Research Team on
Response Farming
to Climate Change,
Cluster for
Environmental Anthropology
Center for
Anthropological Studies
FISIP, UI 3
4. I am also
an affiliated professor
at the Agrometeorology Group,
Department of Soil, Crop and
Climate Sciences,
University of the Free State,
Bloemfontein, South Africa.
Under this nomination
I give Roving Seminars
in other African countries. 4
6. Our planet earth has a unique
but complicated climate
that presently is changing due to
the influence that our (mankind’s)
activities appear to have
on the composition
of its atmosphere.
It is called anthropogenic
(man made) climate change. 6
7. The world’s agricultural systems
face an uphill struggle
in feeding a projected
nine to ten billion people by 2050.
Climate change introduces a
significant hurdle in this struggle
7
8. There is general and widely held
scientific consensus
that the observed trends in
atmospheric & ocean temperature,
sea ice, glaciers as well as
climate extremes,
during the last hundred years,
cannot be explained solely
by natural climate processes
and so reflect human influences.8
9. The argument that
what we experience could be
natural climate change
can also be refuted by the fact
that present understanding
of cyclic climatology of the past
points to
a cooling planet
without the presence
of mankind. 9
10. On the simplest level,
the weather is
what is happening
in the atmosphere
at any given time.
The climate, in a narrow sense,
can be considered
as the “average weather”.
10
11. In a more scientifically accurate
way, it can be defined as:
“the statistical description
in terms of
the mean and variability
of relevant quantities
over a period of time”.
11
12. One may argue that
“global warming” is like “ageing”:
You can reduce the consequences
but it will continue to happen.
Stopping it is impossible,
so adaptation is necessary.
12
13. The issues are:
(i) global warming,
(ii) increasing climate variability,
(iii) more (and possibly more
severe)
meteorological and climatological
extreme events. 13
15. Is global warming real?
From worldwide observations
WMO (Geneva) concluded
a long time ago
that our planet is warming up.
This has to be considered a fact.
15
16. The warming up is not the same
everywhere because
(i) incoming solar radiation is
highest in the tropics
(ii) oceans (and to some extent
other large water bodies)
do influence what happens
in the lower atmosphere 16
17. Warming means
that the atmosphere
is gaining energy
in the form of heat.
From where?
The main source of energy
is the solar radiation.
17
18. IPCC (the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change)
has been stressing,
with increasing confidence
over the years,
that the cause of this heat gain
is an increase
of greenhouse gases
in our atmosphere. 18
20. Our atmosphere gets
its energy from two sources:
(i) It is warmed from below
by solar energy absorbed
by the earth surface
during the day.
This heat gets distributed
throughout
the boundary layer. 20
21. We should here already indicate
the difference between
land and water surfaces.
On land, in daytime, a tiny surface
layer becomes much warmer,
with the very surface becoming
hottest, depending mainly
on water content. 21
22. In water the absorption
is over a certain depth,
decreasing with depth.
The water surface therefore does
not become very warm from
direct absorption, ocean currents
play
a more important role here. 22
23. We were talking of how the
atmosphere gains heat.
(ii) Its gases absorb
the longwave radiation
sent from the earth surface
throughout day and night.
This prevents the land surface
from overheating. 23
24. But indeed
most additional heat created is
absorbed by the oceans.
The large heat capacity
of water
prevents the oceans from
overheating.
24
25. We know this radiation loss
from a cooling surface
(and the cooling air due to this)
in nights without a cloud cover.
When there are clouds, they send
roughly as much longwave radiation
back to the
earth surface as they receive from
that surface, and no or appreciably
less cooling occurs. 25
26. So we must conclude that
our planet is actually
heating up mainly
because of this absorption
of radiative heat
by the greenhouse gases
in the atmosphere.
Increasing greenhouse gases
mean additional heating. 26
28. Somewhere near 1800
the carbon dioxide concentration
was something as 280 ppm,
while we have recently
reached 400 ppm.
It is presently increasing
exponentially.
28
29. From 1960 till 2010 the
temperature increase
is estimated to have been
less than a degree Celsius
(0.7 ºC, 0.85 ºC since 1880).
29
30. But the projection
for the next 50 years is in the
order of one degree Celsius,
with the emissions and
atmospheric contents kept
within the range
of the IPCC scenarios.30
31. Even if the concentrations
of all greenhouse gases
and aerosols
were kept constant
at year 2000 levels, a further
warming of about 0.1°C per decade
[so 0.5º C in fifty years]
would be expected.
31
32. It is generally accepted that,
if for this century
the temperature increase
can be limited to 2 ºC,
the damages will remain
much more limited than
when the scenarios give
a 4 ºC increase.32
34. What do such figures
mean in practice today?
Here is an example of Arabica coffee
grown on the slopes
of the Kilimanjaro, Tanzania.
Coffee is the world's most valuable
tropical export crop. 34
35. Recent studies predict
severe climate change impacts
on Coffea arabica (C. arabica)
production.
However, quantitative
production figures are necessary
to provide coffee stakeholders
and policy makers
with evidence to justify
immediate action. 35
36. Using data from the
northern Tanzanian highlands,
it was demonstrated that increasing
night time (Tmin) temperature was
the most significant climatic variable
responsible for diminishing
C. arabica yields
between 1961-2012.
36
37. The minimum temperature rose in that
half century
by between 1 and 1.5 °C.
The projection for the next 35 years for
that region is 1.5 °C.
With the minimum temperature
at 14 °C,
the yields were
about 500 kg beans per hectare. 37
38. A non-linear (sigmoid) model
constructed from data
from local areas with different
minimum temperatures
gave the following results:
38
39. With the night minimum rising
to 15 °C, the yields would become
about 450 kg ha-1.
With a night minimum temperature
at 16°C this decreases
to about 300 kgha-1.
39
40. While for 17°C
this becomes about 100 kgha-1.
This means a prediction
of average coffee production
diminishing to 145 kgha-1 by 2060
in those areas of Tanzania.
.
40
41. In the case of Arabica coffee,
a solution could be
to go to higher,
still colder grounds,
although this disrupts
living conditions
and biodiversity patterns.
41
42. The same has been observed
with apples in India.
The classical varieties must go
higher up,
while new more heat tolerant
varieties are sought
to replace them
at the lower heights.
42
43. But if we think
about the lowland tropics,
there is no way out
apart from crop diversification
and also here finding
more heat tolerant varieties.
But that is a lot more difficult.
The following data show
how bad the situation is. 43
45. Temperatures beyond critical
thresholds not only reduce
the growth duration
of the rice crop,
they also increase spikelet sterility,
reduce grain-filling duration,
and enhance respiratory losses,
resulting in lower yield
and lower-quality rice grain.
45
46. Rice is relatively more tolerant
to high temperatures
during the vegetative phase,
but highly susceptible
during the reproductive phase,
particularly at the flowering stage.
46
47. Unlike other abiotic stresses,
heat stresses occurring
either during the day or the night
have differential impacts
on rice growth and production.
47
48. High night-time temperatures
have been shown to have
a greater negative effect on rice yields,
with a 1 °C increase
above critical temperature (>24 °C)
leading to 10% reduction
in both grain yield and biomass.
48
49. High day-time temperatures
in some tropical and subtropical
rice growing regions
are already close to the optimum levels.
An increase in intensity and frequency
of heat waves coinciding
with sensitive reproductive stages
can result in serious damage
to rice production. 49
50. Here is one more example
Maize
The results are from something as
20.000 trials at 123 stations all over
the world
of CIMMYT (Columbia).
50
52. § Significant yield losses at sites
where temperatures commonly
exceed 30°C
(corresponding to areas
where the growing season average
temperatures are >23°C or
average maximum temperatures
are >28°C).
52
53. § Daytime warming
is more harmful to yield
than night-time warming.
§ Drought increases
yield susceptibility to warming
even at cooler sites.
53
54. § Under ‘optimal’ conditions
yield losses occur over ca. 65%
of the harvested area of maize.
§ Under ‘drought stress’
yield losses occur at all sites,
with a 1°C warming resulting in
at least a 20% loss of yield
over more than 75%
of the harvested area. 54
55. The climate predictions discussed
are long term ones,
of which knowing the trends
is an important issue for
adaptation to the consequences
of climate change,
food policies, crop planning,
variety breeding and screening,
as well as farming system
adaptations and modifications..55
56. This knowledge is of course also
important for extension policies
and all other planning related to
agriculture that has to be made
to face climate change.
For farmers these are important
issues that can be discussed
at “Science Field Shops” for
their long term decision making.56
57. For forestry,
the climate change-induced
modifications of frequency and
intensity of forest wildfires,
of outbreaks of insects and pathogens,
and of extreme events
such as high winds and dry spells,
may be more important than the
direct impact of higher temperatures
and elevated CO2. 57
58. Global warming is likely
to encourage northern expansion
of southern insects,
while longer growing seasons
are likely to allow more
insect generations in a given season.
Forests that are
moisture stressed are often more
susceptible to attacks by insects.58
59. Of equal importance are
the considerations of taking away
or adding “trees outside forests”.
Integrating all existing and new
landscape ecosystems into a complex
climate adaptation-oriented resilience
approach appears highly promising,
but also extremely demanding.
59
60. The ocean affects the rate
of climate change and is in turn
affected by it as well.
Global warming could alter inputs
of salt water, fresh water, oxygen,
nutrients and pollutants
with potentially large consequences
for marine ecosystems and species.
60
61. Changes in currents
would also influence
the recruitment of organisms
in coastal waters
and offshore waters.
61
62. It has for example been reported
that most of the decline
in the world’s
marine fishery landings in 1998
could be attributed to changes
in the Southeast Pacific,
which was severely affected
by El Niño.
62
64. The main source
of this increase
of carbon dioxide, methane
and nitrous oxide
appears to be
our activities on this planet:
e.g. electricity generation
from coal, cement production
and driving cars are presently
the main culprits.
64
65. As to carbon dioxide,
measurements show
that it has increased
from the start
of the industrial revolution,
but that changes in land use
have also played
an important role by
large scale cutting of
vegetation, including trees.
65
66. This is also why Indonesia
has become a large
contributor, by felling trees
(sinks of carbon dioxide)
in large scale
(mostly illegal) logging,
often planting palm oil trees
instead, with appreciably less
carbon dioxide absorption
per hectare.
66
67. It is interesting to note
that since the very end
of the previous century,
the rate of global warming
has reduced
by at least half
till something as one third
of the rate
in the last 50 years
of that previous century.
67
68. This has been baptized
“the hiatus”, a lack of
continuity in the up going
trend of global temperature.
So climate change rates
reduce.
Is this going to change our
thinking?
68
69. Our lack of knowledge and
understanding is best
illustrated with the
discussion on this present
global warming “hiatus”.
69
70. Some deny its very
existence
but accurate world wide
measurements and
comparisons
show that this “hiatus”,
is there,
since the late 90s.70
71. There have already been four
quantitative(!) reasonings of
full fledged explanations:
(i) more volcanic particles
in the atmosphere;
(ii) extremely strong
large scale western winds
in the Pacific;
71
72. (iii) much warmer water
being transported to deeper
layers of the ocean;
(iv) indeed being in a down
going phase of the Pacific
Decadal Oscillation and/or
another of such oscillations as
surface induced atmospheric
variations/imbalances.
72
73. It is likely that any of these
four explanations
may actually be involved,
if not more processes.
But we have no clue
about the ratios of their
contributions.
73
74. It is presently most likely that
the cause of this hiatus is indeed
more warmer water going
to deeper layers, resulting in a
(temporarily?) relatively cooler
ocean surface.
This also shows how important
oceanic surface temperatures
are for determination
of our climate.
74
75. Here we also have one of the
weakest rings in the chain of
climate predictions.
We know so much less
about how the sea surface
temperatures are determined
by currents and deep waves
than we understand on the
atmospheric resultants.75
76. Indeed, we have for decades
sent radiosondes with balloons
into the atmosphere, but
only very recently have buoys
been placed in the Pacific Ocean,
particularly in those parts used
for climate prediction purposes.
76
77. But if we look at the
predictions of the 2014/2015
weak El-Niño (I will explain),
it appears that the atmosphere
sometimes does not want
to behave the way we know it.
That makes the little
that is predictable suddenly
also unpredictable.77
79. The El-Niño is a disturbance
of “normal” climatological
conditions for many
thousands of years.
It has nothing to do
(or had nothing to do)
with climate change.
79
80. Now scientists have learned that certain
Sea Surface Temperature (SST)
distributions in the Pacific Ocean
correspond with El-Niño phenomena,
which gives higher SSTs in these areas.
But El-Niño (meaning the “Christmas
child”) was known to the fishermen
of Peru for the cold water upwelling
occurring before their cost and giving
above normal catches of fish
around Christmas in some years.80
81. So it are unpredictable
ocean currents and deep waves,
that are not understood in
sufficient detail, that create the
surface signals
for El-Niño’s to occur.
They are very important in
short term climate predictions
(one to three months).81
82. The combined forces
of ENSO and global warming
are likely to have dramatic,
and currently largely unforeseen,
effects on agricultural production
and food security.
82
83. Agricultural production
in for example quite some
Sub-Saharan countries
is strongly influenced by
the annual cycle of precipitation
and year-to-year variations
in that annual cycle
caused by the
El Niño-Southern Oscillation
(ENSO) dynamics. 83
84. The ENSO actually can swing
beyond the “normal” state to
a state opposite that of El Niño,
with the trade winds amplified
and the eastern Pacific
colder than normal.
84
85. This phenomenon is often
referred to as La Niña.
In a La Niña year,
or when a La Niña period occurs,
many Asian regions,
such as Indonesia,
that are inclined toward drought
during an El Niño,
are instead prone to more rain.
85
86. Both El Niños and La Niñas vary
in intensity from weak to strong.
The intervals at which El Niños
return are not exactly regular,
but have historically varied
from two to seven/eight years.
Now, an El Niño can subside
into a “normal” pattern.
86
87. At other times
it gives way to a La Niña.
In many ways, the ENSO
cold phase
is simply the opposite
of the warm phase,
but without any symmetry
in durations or
severity/impacts. 87
88. This often holds true also
for the climate impacts of the two.
El Niño, or warm phase, tends
to bring drought to countries
like Indonesia and Australia,
at the west end of the Pacific.
88
89. The latter influences
in Africa
are so called tele-connections,
meaning that we don’t know
how or why!
89
90. But the strong influence
of La Niña
at the west end of the Pacific,
with abundant rainfall
and frequent floods,
among others in Indonesia,
does not have its parallel
in West Africa.
90
91. Now, it appears that the frequency
of these phenomena, and how they follow
each other, has changed in recent times!
However, we are not able
to simulate these actual changes
with the models that summarize
our understanding,
which at this moment
is still very insufficient.
91
92. As a consequence of the above,
simple growing season
rainfall scenarios
are very difficult
to derive from existing
raw or simplified (outlook fora!)
climate predictions.
92
93. 93
Vulnerable communities,
across the world,
are already feeling the effects
of a changing climate.
These communities are urgently
in need of assistance
aimed at building resilience
to their new situations.
94. 94
They are also in need of
undertaking climate change
adaptation efforts
as a matter of survival and
in order to maintain livelihoods.
In short: they are in need of
what we want to call an urgent
“agrarian/rural response
to climate change”.
95. One of the major problems
in guiding rural change,
in a rural response
to climate change,
is the low
formal level of education that
most farmers have
and for which governments
have done very little
to upgrade it. 95
96. But we need
improved climate literacy
among farmers
and a better trained extension
that can guide farmers
in further rainfall monitoring
and rainfall interpretation.
96
97. But we also need
further agro-ecosystem
observations, that,
with the rainfall distribution,
seasonal scenarios and results
from on-farm experiments
explain yields and
yield differences. 97
98. Since 2010, local farmers in
Indramayu, West Java, Indonesia,
were stimulated to measure
rainfall in their own plots,
on a daily routine basis,
using homemade
cylindrical rain gauges,
following routines
that were proposed earlier. 98
99. This has never been
a goal in itself.
It should now serve
other purposes
in a rural response
to climate change.
99
100. Climate change makes it
even more necessary to do
such measurements properly and with
high spatial measuring densities.
Doing this with an organized group
of well instructed farmers in a region
as part of an extension approach,
has the advantages that: 100
101. • each participating farmer
can create a record over the years
in a “climate logbook”;
101
102. • derivatives as monthly,
seasonal and annual totals,
maxima and minima,
can be easily obtained,
graphically compared
and understood as consequences of
climate realities.
102
103. • higher than usual measurement
densities can be obtained;
and
measurements can be compared
and discussed in (preferably)
monthly meetings;
103
104. • measurements can be part of a larger
extension routine in which other data
are collected as well;
and
measurements can serve as an input
to understanding yield differences
between areas, farmers,
seasons and years; 104
105. • measurements can form a basis for
attempts of adaptation to climate change,
particularly in relation to increasing
climate (including rainfall) variability
and the occurrence of more
(and sometimes more severe)
meteorological and climatological
extreme events
(including droughts, heavy rains
and floods). 105
106. This is the way a group of farmers,
organized in the
Indramayu Rainfall Observers Club
(IROC),
developed a new attitude
towards climate realities
in Indramayu region,
for the past five years.
106
107. This was already preceded
by more than two years
of comparable trials
in Gunung Kidul, Yogyakarta,
by a team of Prof. Yunita, myself
and groups of her students,
on which we published
a book in 2011. 107
108. This is all part
of a new extension approach
made necessary because
the Indonesian extension systems
have not or inadequately
been prepared
for the consequences
of a changing climate.
108
109. For the same reasons
we are now
extending this
to the island
of Lombok,
West Nusa Tenggara.
109
110. In addition to their daily rainfall
measurements, these rice farmers
do make and write down
agro-ecosystem observations
regarding sowing methods,
sowing/planting dates, crop varieties,
crop stages and development,
soil properties and soil moisture,
including irrigation situations
where applicable. 110
111. They also include pests and diseases
and their developments
(including measures they can take
in initial stages),
the results of fertilizer use
and pesticide use.
The observations made are noted down
on fact sheets that,
with the “climate logbook”,
form the historical farm plot records.111
112. After some time we started to use
these observations to predict yields
and after harvesting we discussed
whether yield and yield differences
could be understood
from these observations and the
monthly seasonal rainfall scenarios
that I deliver, as local climate
predictions, from raw NOAA and
IRA global/regional ENSO ones.112
113. Such “scenarios”
have this way been made
part of climate change
adaptation attempts
on the islands of Java and Lombok.
113
114. Two problems haunt
seasonal rainfall scenarios for
farmers to increase their resilience:
(i) skill of predictions
and
(ii) terminology chosen
for these monthly updated
seasonal rainfall predictions. 114
115. In February 2015, a questionnaire
was used to interview 42 farmers that
received the monthly seasonal scenario
regularly for six months or more,
and 42 farmers in the same villages that
did not receive these scenarios
as a control group.
Of those receiving these scenarios,
more than half received them
for more than two years and 85%
for more than a year. 115
116. Of the target group of farmers,
more than 93% received
the seasonal scenarios via SMS
on their mobile telephone,
while for more than 81% this was the only
way they received that information.
Of the number of farmers receiving
the seasonal scenarios,
55% understood them regularly or better
but 42% understood them
only sometimes. 116
117. This points to the necessity
to improve the scenario messages
as to the understanding required.
It could be observed
that those receiving the scenarios
for at least two years
had a much higher regular or better
understanding than the others. 117
118. Difficulties were mainly of two kinds:
(i) scientific terminology and
(ii) the use of “below normal, normal
and above normal” qualifications.
Our farmer facilitators had the role
of continuing to explain this,
but that has apparently been
insufficiently successful. 118
119. Of those farmers receiving the scenarios,
55% used them regularly or better
but 45% only sometimes or never
in their decision making.
The main reasons for not using
the scenarios are
that others make the farming decisions
(40% of those providing a reason)
or that rain is not their main
source of water
(26% of those providing a reason).119
120. For only 6% the scenarios were
not useful when followed.
Of those that used the scenarios,
84% was satisfied: regularly (16%),
often (28%) or always (41%).
Only 16% was satisfied only sometimes.
Of the many positive reasons
given for this satisfaction,
69% mentioned the high accuracy
of the scenarios and the positive role they
plaid in improving farmers’ anticipation.120
121. It appeared that
from the control group
not receiving our scenarios,
as well as from the main target group,
only less than 10% used (also)
other scenarios,
such as from MoA and BMKG,
in their decision making.
121
122. The above stories reveal
how we have started
to assist Indonesian farmers
to initiate a rural response
to recognized climate change.
Scaling this up into an as wide as
possible “farmer carried movement”
is the next stage we should aim at.122
123. The role of the government
through proper in-service refreshing
of extension and/or farmer trainers,
we have dealt with since 2008
in Roving Seminars at UGM & UI.
However, Indonesian Government
Departments/Institutes,
Farmers and Scientists live
in different worlds of their own.123